PTC B1.1 Notes - Sub Module 17.1 (Fundamentals)

PIA
Training Centre (PTC)
Module 17 PROPELLER
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MODULE 17 : PROPELLER
Sub Module 17.1 FUNDAMENTALS
Sub Module 17.2 PROPELLER CONSTRUCTION
Sub Module 17.3 PROPELLER PITCH CONTROL
Sub Module 17.4 PROPELLER SYNCHRONISING
Sub Module 17.5 PROPELLER ICE PROTECTION
Sub Module 17.6 PROPELLER MAINTENANCE
Sub Module 17.7 PROPELLER STORAGE AND PRESERVATION
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Sub Module 17.1 Fundamentals
MODULE 17
Sub Module 17.1
FUNDAMENTALS

17.1

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Contents
INTRODUCTION1
BASICPRINCIPLES3
BLADEELEMENTTHEORY9
HIGH/LOWBLADEANGLE17
REVERSEBLADEANGLE18
ANGLEOFATTACK19
ROTATIONALSPEED(RPM)21
PROPELLERSLIP23
PROPELLEREFFICIENCY26
POWERABSORPTION27
AERODYNAMIC,CENTRIFUGALANDTHRUSTFORCES29
TORQUE33
RELATIVEAIRFLOWONBLADEANGLEOFATTACK34
VIBRATIONANDRESONANCE35

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INTRODUCTION
In the beginning, use of a turbine engine in aircraft was for the
turbine to drive the propeller. Turbojet engines showed so much
promise that some believed they would make propellers
obsolete. Fortunately, this has proven to be untrue. Turboprop
power plants fill an important place between turbojet or turbofan
engines and reciprocating engines. They combine the high
propulsive efficiency with the low weight and high time between
overhauls of the turbine engine.
Power to rotate an aircrafts propeller blades is provided by the

engine. On low-horsepower piston-type engines, the propeller is
mounted on a shaft that is usually an extension of the
crankshaft. On high-horsepower engines, such as a turboprop
engines, the propeller is mounted on a propeller shaft driven by
a turbine through a reduction gearbox (Figure 17.1.01). In either
case, the engine rotates the aerofoils of the blades through the
air at high speeds, and the propeller transforms the rotary
power of the engine into thrust.
The gas-turbine engine with a reduction gear assembly and a

propeller has been in use for many years, and has proved to be
a most efficient power source for aircraft operating at speeds of
300 to 450 mph. These engines provide the best specific fuel
consumption (SFC) of any gas-turbine engine, and they perform
well from sea level to comparatively high altitudes (over 20,000
ft). At higher speeds and/or altitudes, the efficiency of the
propeller deteriorates rapidly because of the development of
shock waves on the blade tips.
Although various names have been applied to gas-turbine
engine/propeller combinations, the most widely used name is
Turboprop. Another popular name is Propjet.
The whole purpose of a propeller is to provide the thrust
required to move the aircraft forward. The aircraft propeller
consists of 2 or more blades and a central hub to which the
blades are attached. Each blade of an aircraft propeller is
essentially a rotating wing. As a result of their construction,
propeller blades produce forces that create thrust to pull or push
the aeroplane through the air.
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Figure 17.1.01
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BASIC PRINCIPLES
The Aerofoil
The aerofoil is a particular streamlined shape which, when
moving through the atmosphere, will produce a force
approximately at right angles to the direction of movement.
When the aerofoil is the wing of an aircraft, we call the force
produced lift, but when the aerofoil is the blade of a propeller
we call this force thrust. It is the thrust produced by the
propeller that moves the aircraft forward and the lift of the wings
that support the aircraft in the air. A typical aerofoil is shown in
Figure 17.1.02.
When an aerofoil moves through the air its special streamlined

shape causes a particular airflow pattern to develop. Air passing
over the curved aerofoil surface is caused to increase in velocity
relative to the velocity of the air flowing over the flat surface
and, as a consequence, the pressure of the air over the curved
surface is reduced relative to the pressure of the air flowing over
the flat surface. This relative change in pressure creates a
resultant net force as shown in Figure 17.1.03.
Since the propeller blade and the wing of an aero plane are
similar in shape, each propeller blade may be considered as a
rotating wing. It is true that it is a small wing that has been
reduced in length, width and thickness, but it is still a wing in
shape. At one end this small wing is shaped into a shank, thus
forming a propeller blade.
When the blade starts rotating, air flows around the blade just
as it flows around the wing of an aeroplane, except that the
wing, which is approximately horizontal, is lifted upward,
whereas the blade is lifted forward.
Figure 17.1.02
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Figure 17.1.03
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Producing Thrust
The propeller has a number of blades of an aerofoil shape that
will produce thrust when the propeller turns and the blades
move through the air.
The low pressure created in front of the blades attracts more air
towards the propeller and this in turn is thrown rearwards by the
movement of the blades until the propeller is moving a column
of air towards the rear, as shown in the figures 17.1.04(a) and
17.1.04(b).
The amount of useful thrust produced by a propeller depends
upon the amount of air that the propeller can move and the
increase in velocity that it can add to the moving air mass.
From the equation: Force = mass x acceleration, the thrust
produced by an aircraft propeller is:
Thrust = m ( v1 v 0 )
Where:
m = mass airflow
v1 = velocity of the propeller wake
v 0 = velocity of the aircraft
Compared with a pure turbojet engine, the mass airflow of the
propeller engine is large and the increase in velocity small.
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Figure 17.1.04(a)
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Figure 17.1.04(b)
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Propeller Blade Description

The identification of the various parts of the propeller blade is
shown in Figure 17.1.05(a) and 17.1.05(b).
Figure 17.1.05(a)
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Figure 17.1.05(b)
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BLADE ELEMENT THEORY

The thrust produced by a propeller blade is determined by five
things:
1.
2.
3.
4.
5.
The shape of the aerofoil section

The area of the aerofoil section
The angle of attack
The density of the air
The speed the aerofoil is moving through the air
The blade element theory considers a propeller blade to be

made of an infinite number of aerofoil sections, with each
section located a specific distance from the axis of rotation of
the propeller. Each blade can be marked off in one inch
segments known as blade stations.
Each blade element travels at a different speed because of its
distance from the centre of the hub and to prevent the thrust
from increasing along the length of the blade as its speed
increases, the cross-sectional shape of the blade and its blade,
or pitch, angle, vary from a thick, high pitch angle near the lowspeed shank to a thin, low pitch angle at the high-speed tip.
Pitch Distribution
The pitch distribution (blade twist), as shown in fig Figure
17.1.06, and the change in aerofoil shape along the length of
the blade is necessary, because each section moves through
the air at a different velocity, with the slowest speeds near the
hub and the highest speeds near the tip.
To illustrate the difference in the speed of aerofoil sections at a
fixed RPM, consider the 3 blade stations indicated on the
propeller shown in Figure 17.1.07. If the propeller is rotating at
1800 RPM, the 18-inch station will travel 9.42 feet per revolution
(193 mph), while the 36-inch station will travel 18.84 feet per
revolution or 385 mph. And the 48-inch station will move 25.13
feet per revolution, or 514 mph.
The aerofoil that gives the best lift at 193 mph is inefficient at
514 mph. Thus the aerofoil is changed gradually along the
length of the blade. This progressive change in blade angle
ensures that the angle of attack remains constant along the total
length of the blade.
By using the blade element theory, a propeller designer can

select the proper aerofoil section and pitch angle to provide the
optimum thrust distribution along the blade. This is named
propeller blade twist, as shown in the Figure 17.1.06.
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Figure 17.1.06
Figure 17.1.07
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Thrust and Torque
Relative Airflow (Figure 17.1.08)
The resultant force produced by the propeller as it moves

through the air can be resolved into thrust and torque.
The relative airflow is the resultant of two component airflows:
Thrust is the component of the resultant force acting at right

angles to the Plane of Rotation.
(i) The airflow due to rotation (the propeller speed)

(ii) The airflow due to the forward speed of the aircraft
Torque is the component of the resultant force acting in the

Plane of Rotation, opposing the engine torque.
The thrust and torque produced by a propeller depend on:
1. Air density
2. Angle of attack
3. Propeller speed
1. Air Density: Increase in density increases the thrust,
however, the denser air offers greater resistance to the
propeller, i.e., increased torque.
2. Angle of Attack: Any increase in the angle of attack to just
below the stalling speed will produce more thrust and torque.
The optimum angle of attack will give the best thrust/torque
ratio.
3. Propeller Speed: Thrust and torque alter in direct
proportion to the propeller speed.
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Figure 17.1.08
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Blade Angle
The angle, normally acute, between the pressure face (or chord
line) of an element of propeller blade and the plane of rotation.
(Note: An element is a particular section of the blade.)
Adjustment of the blade angle relative to the plane in which the
propeller is rotating is used to vary the thrust output of the
propeller.
Helix Angle (Angle of Advance)

The angle between the resultant direction of the airflow and the
plane of rotation is called the Angle of Advance or helix angle
(Figure 17.1.09).
It is a different angle at each section (element) of the blade. The
sections near the tip move on a helix of much greater diameter
and they also move at a much greater velocity than those near
the root.
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Figure 17.1.09
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Blade Twist (Wash Out)

The linear velocity due to rotational speed of any part of the
blade depends on the distance from the propeller axis of
rotation. The forward speed of the propeller is the same at all
parts of the blade. The relative airflow is dependent on those
two velocities (rotational speed and forward speed) and so it
can vary along the length of the blade producing varying angles
of attack on a blade of constant angle.
In order to maintain a constant angle of attack along the blade
the blade angle is reduced from root to tip. This reduction in
blade angle from root to tip is known as Wash out.
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Figure 17.1.10
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HIGH/LOW BLADE ANGLE
Ground Fine / Superfine / Very Low Blade Angle
The roots of propeller blade can be rotated about the pitch

change axis by a mechanism in the hub to vary the blade angle
by approximately 110.
During starting and taxiing in fixed shaft engines, when power

available from the turbines is insufficient to drive the propeller
efficiently, this position is used to off-load the engine. When the
propeller is in the ground fine pitch position just after touchdown, it also acts as an effective brake, being propeller discs
producing drag in the airflow. This mode of blade position is
only available when the aircraft is on ground.
Movement of the blade is controlled by a Propeller Control Unit

(PCU) that directs hydraulic pressure to turn the blade. During
flight, PCU controls the angle of blades for fine pitch and coarse
pitch.
Coarse/High Blade Angle
At coarse pitch, greater mass of air is accelerated for lower
engine RPM, resulting in saving fuel and engine wear during
cruising of flight.
Flight Fine / Low Blade Angle

At this position the angle of attack is small; so accelerates a
smaller mass of air per revolution. This position is the minimum
blade angle allowed in flight.
It allows the engine to turn at higher speed, like take off RPM.
Although the mass airflow is smaller for high RPM, the slip
stream velocity is high and with low forward aircraft speed the
thrust is also high.
Figure 17.1.11
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REVERSE BLADE ANGLE

Some variable pitch propellers have a range of blade angles
that allows the blade to pass through superfine into a negative
blade angle range. This allows engine power to be absorbed by
the propeller whilst it creates a reverse thrust. This is called a
Power on brake.
The facility is used to provide effective aircraft braking after
landing and is particularly useful if for example the runway is
wet as if relieves the aircraft wheel brakes of much of their load
and reduces the possibility of the aircraft wheels locking up and
skidding.
Because the propeller has to first pass back through the zero
pitch setting lo reach reverse pitch, precautions must be taken
to avoid an engine over-speed condition resulting from the
momentary low torque experienced at the zero blade angle
position.
The facility has a secondary advantage in that the aircraft can
be taxied in reverse if required. Maximum in reverse pitch is the
bottom end of the ground range. This blade angle range cannot
be selected when the aircraft is airborne.
Figure 17.1.12
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ANGLE OF ATTACK
One of the factors on which thrust produced by a propeller
depends is the blade's angle of attack.
Angle of attack is the acute angle between the chord line of a
propeller blade and the relative wind. Angle of attack relates to
the blade pitch angle, but it is not a fixed angle.
Effect of Engine Speed (RPM)

Changes in engine speed also vary the relative airflow and so
affect the angle of attack on a fixed pitch propeller.
It varies with (i) the forward speed of the airplane and (ii) the
RPM of the engine.
An increase in engine speed will increase the angle of attack.

Increased engine speed means more power available, the
aircraft would accelerate and the angle of attack would be
restored to its original value.
Effect of Forward Speed
Best Angle of Attack
An increase in airspeed will decrease the angle of attack. As the

angle of attack decreases, the load on the propeller (torque) is
reduced. Reduced propeller torque allows the engine rpm to
increase until the propeller and engine torque match each other.
Typically, the most effective angle of attack for a propeller blade

is between 2 and 4.
So, with a fixed pitch propeller, an increase in relative airspeed,

due to a dive or turn into wind, would result in a reduced angle
of attack, reduced drag torque, and an increased engine rpm
without any alteration to the throttle setting.
This has a limiting affect on the aircrafts performance, i.e. the
maximum speed of the aircraft is limited to prevent an engine
over-speed.
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Any angle of attack exceeding 15 is ineffective because of the

possibility of a propeller stall. Typically propellers with a fixed
blade angle are designed to produce an angle of attack
between 2 and 4 at either climb or cruise airspeed with a
specific RPM setting.
The optimum angle may vary from propeller to propeller
according to blade design; however, it is usually around 4.
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Figure 17.1.13
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Figure 17.1.14
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ROTATIONAL SPEED (RPM)

The rotational speed (RPM) of the propeller is another factor on
which propeller thrust and torque depend.
If the propeller speed increases, the thrust and torque produced
by that propeller also increases.
But, on the other hand, an increase in RPM also increases the
angle of attack and if the angle reaches or exceeds 15, blade
stall will occur and thrust will be lost. Also, the RPM of the
propeller is limited by the propeller tip speed reaching to Mach
1, which results in fluttering and loss of efficiency of the
propeller.
However, in a variable pitch constant speed propeller, if the
engine power is increased, the RPM would normally rise and
the blade angle of attack would increase and consequently the
torque will increase to balance the increase in power and the
engine RPM will not increase. The blade angle then adjusts to
maintain the correct angle of attack as the aircraft forward
speed increases. All the time, the blade angle adjusts to
maintain the correct angle of attack whilst the engine RPM
remains constant because its changing power output is being
balanced by the changes in torque.
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Equivalent Shaft Horsepower

One horsepower is equal to 33,000 foot pounds of work done
per minute, which is the same as 550 foot pounds per second or
375 mile pounds per hour. Shaft horsepower (shp), is the
horsepower delivered to the propeller shaft and can be
calculated using the formula:
In flight, the eshp considers the thrust produced by the

propeller, which is found by multiplying the net thrust in pounds
by the speed of the aircraft in mph. Divide this by 375 times the
propeller efficiency, which is considered to be 80%.
eshp (flight) = shp + Fn x v / 375 x
shp = actual propeller rpm x torque x K

Where:
where K is the torque-meter constant (K = 2 33,000)
With a turboprop engine, some jet velocity is left at the jet
nozzle (net thrust developed at the engine exhaust) after the
turbines have extracted the required energy for driving the
compressor, reduction gear and accessories etc. This velocity
can be calculated as net thrust (Fn), that also aids in propelling
the aircraft.
If shaft horsepower and net thrust are added together a new
term equivalent shaft horsepower (eshp) results. However the
net thrust must be converted to equivalent horsepower. Under
static conditions, one shp is approx. equal to 2.5 lbs of thrust.
v = aircraft speed (mph)

= propeller efficiency; an industry standard of 80%
375 = a constant; mile pounds per hour for one horsepower
Example: Find the equivalent shaft horsepower produced by a
turboprop aircraft that has the following specifications:
Airspeed = 260 mph
shp indicated on the cockpit gauge = 525 shp
Net thrust = 195 lbs
eshp (flight) = shp + (195) (260) / (375) (0.8)
The formula for calculating eshp is:

eshp (flight) = 525 + 169
eshp (static) = shp + Fn / 2 . 5
eshp (flight) = 694

Under these conditions, the engine is producing 694 eshp.
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PROPELLER SLIP
In order to obtain thrust, the propeller blade must be set at a
certain angle to its plane of rotation, in the same manner that
the wing of an aero plane is set at an angle to its forward path.
While the propeller is rotating in forward flight, each section of
the blade has a motion that combines the forward movement of
the aeroplane with the circular or rotary movement of the
propeller. Therefore, any section of the blade has a path
through the air that is shaped like a spiral or a corkscrew, as
shown in Figure 17.1.15.
The amount of bite (amount of air) taken by each blade is

determined by its blade angle, as shown in Figure 17.1.16.
An imaginary point on a section near the tip of the blade traces
the largest spiral, a point on a section midway along the blade
traces a smaller spiral and a point on the section near the shank
of the blade traces the smallest spiral of all. In one turn of the
blade, all sections move forward the same distance, but the
sections near the tip of the blade move a greater circular
distance than the sections near the hub.
Figure 17.1.15
Figure 17.1.16
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If the spiral paths made by various points on sections of the

blades are traced, with the sections at their most effective
angles, then each individual section must be designed and
constructed so that the angles gradually decrease towards the
tip of the blade and increase towards the shank. This gradual
change of blade section angles is called pitch distribution and
accounts for the pronounced twist of the propeller blade.
Geometric Pitch
Since the pitch angle of a propeller blade varies along its length,
a particular blade station must be chosen to specify the pitch of
a blade. This is normally done by specifying the angle and the
blade station, e.g. 14 at the 42-inch station.
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Effective Pitch
The effective pitch is the actual distance the aero plane moves
forward during one revolution (360) of the propeller in flight.
Figure 17.1.17 shows two different pitch positions. The black
aerofoil drawn across the hub of each represents the cross
section of the propeller to illustrate the blade setting. When
there is a small blade angle, there is a low pitch and the aero
plane does not move very far forward in one revolution of the
propeller. When there is a large blade angle, there is a high
pitch and the aero plane moves further forward during a single
revolution of the propeller.
Rather than using blade angles at a reference station, some

propeller manufacturers express pitch in inches at 75% of the
radius. This is the geometric pitch, or the distance this particular
element would move forward in one revolution along a helix, or
spiral, equal to its blade angle. The geometric pitch is found by
the formula:
Geometric Pitch = tan(pitch angle) x 2 r
where r = radius of the blade element (blade station)
Example: A propeller with a blade angle of 14 at the 42-inch
station has a geometric pitch of 65.9 inches.
Geometric Pitch =
tan pitch angle x 2 r
=
tan 14 x 6.28 x 42
=
65.9 inches
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Figure 17.1.17
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Slip
Slip is defined as the difference between the geometric pitch
and the effective pitch of a propeller (Figure 17.1.18).
It may be expressed as percentage of the mean geometric pitch
or as a linear dimension.
Slip
GP APR
100 %
GP
where GP = Geometric pitch

APR = Advance per revolution
Example: If a propeller has a pitch of 50 inches, in theory, it
should move forward 50 inches in one revolution. But, if the
aircraft actually moves forward only 35 inches in one revolution,
then the slip is 30% and the effective pitch is 70%.
Although the terms blade angle and pitch are often used to
express the same thing, pitch will vary relative to the forward
speed of the aircraft, whereas blade angle can be locked in any
position regardless of forward speed.
Figure 17.1.18
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PROPELLER EFFICIENCY
The thrust horsepower is the actual amount of horsepower that
an engine-propeller unit transforms into thrust. This is less than
the shaft horsepower developed by the engine, since the
propellers are never 100% efficient. Propeller efficiency varies
from approx. 50% to 90% depending on how much the propeller
slips.
Some of the work performed by the engine is lost in the
production of noise. Normally, about half of the noise made by
the propeller-driven engine is made by the propeller itself. When
the propeller blade tips approach the speed of sound, vibrations
are produced that cause the noise. When the blades operate in
the transonic range, they not only produce noise, but the drag
becomes excessive and the efficiency drops off dramatically.
For the propeller disc to be as large as possible while keeping
the tips below the speed of sound, most high-powered engines
are geared so the propeller turns slower than the engine
driveshaft.
The maximum propeller efficiency that has been obtained in
practice under the most ideal conditions, using conventional
engines and propellers, has been only about 92%. And, in order
to obtain this efficiency, it has been necessary to use thin
aerofoil sections near the tips of the blades and very sharp
leading and trailing edges.
Since the efficiency of any machine is the ratio of the useful

power output to the power input, propulsive efficiency is the
ratio of thrust horsepower [work done by propeller] to shaft
horsepower [work done by engine]. The usual symbol for
propulsive efficiency is the Greek letter (eta). The efficiency of
the propeller is the ratio of the thrust horsepower to the shaft
horsepower:
Thp
100 %
shp
where Thp = thrust horsepower

shp = shaft horsepower
Example: The drag on an aircraft traveling at 200 mph is 1125
lbs. The engine produces 750 shp. Calculate the propeller
efficiency (one hp = 375 mile pounds per hour).
In level flight, drag is equal to thrust
Thp = (Thrust) (Aircraft Speed) / 375
= 1125 X 200 / 375 = 600
shp = 750
Propeller Efficiency () = 600 x 100 = 80%
750
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POWER ABSORPTION
When engine power is changed into thrust by the propeller, the
drag or torque created by the propeller being forced through the
air limits the engine speed. For maximum efficiency, the
propeller must be able to absorb all the engine power available.
Power can be absorbed by propeller design but each method
used has its limitations and a compromise has to be made for
the final propeller design.
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Number of Blades
The number of blades has been an option for propeller
engineers. The logical choice for fixed pitch wood and forged
metal propellers is two blades that have the advantage of ease
of construction and balancing, low manufacturing cost and
efficient operation.
The greater the solidity, the greater will be the power which can
be absorbed by the propeller.
Figure 17.1.19 shows the disc area swept by the propeller.
When more thrust is needed the blade area can be increased

by lengthening the blades, but only to a point at which the tip
speeds approach the speed of sound, or if tip clearance from
the structure or ground is a factor. To keep the blades short,
more blades can be used. Three and four-bladed fixed pitch
propellers have been constructed, but usually, propellers with
more than 2 blades are made so their pitch can be adjusted.
Some modern propellers have 4, 5 or 6 blades; and Propfan
and Unducted Fan propellers have as many as 12.
Solidity
Solidity is calculated at the blade master station which is about
0.7 of the blade length from root to tip.
Figure 17.1.19
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AERODYNAMIC, CENTRIFUGAL AND THRUST FORCES

1. Centrifugal Force
2. Thrust Bending Force
Centrifugal force puts the greatest stress on a propeller as it

tries to pull the blades out of the hub (Figure 17.1.20).
Thrust bending force is caused by the aerodynamic lift produced

by the aerofoil shape of the blade as it moves through the air
(Figure 17.1.21).
It tries to bend the blade forward and the force is at its greatest
near the tip. Centrifugal force, trying to pull the blade out
straight, opposes some of the thrust bending force.
It is not uncommon for the centrifugal force to be several

thousand times the weight of the blade. For example, a 25
pound propeller blade turning at 2700 RPM may exert a force of
50 tons (100 000 pounds) on the blade root.
Figure 17.1.20
17.1 - 29
Figure 17.1.21
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Mar 2014
Category A/B1
Module 17 PROPELLER
3. Aerodynamic Turning Moment
4. Centrifugal Turning Moment
Centrifugal force, thrust bending force, and torque bending force

require a propeller to be strong and heavy, and they serve no
useful function. But 2 twisting forces are useful in the pitch
change mechanism of controllable pitch propellers.
Centrifugal Turning Moment (CTM) tries to decrease the blade

angle. As the propeller turns, centrifugal force acts on all the
blade components and tries to force them to rotate in the same
plane as the blades axis of rotation. This rotates the blade to a
lower-pitch angle. CTM opposes ATM, but its effect is greater,
and the net result of the twisting forces is a force that tries to
move the blades to a lower pitch (Figure 17.1.23).
Aerodynamic Turning Moment (ATM) tries to increase the blade

angle. The axis of rotation of a blade is near the centre of its
chord line, and the centre of pressure is between the axis and
the leading edge. Figure 17.1.22 shows how the aerodynamic
force acting through the centre of pressure ahead of the axis of
rotation tries to rotate the blade to a higher pitch angle.
Figure 17.1.22
17.1 - 30
Figure 17.1.23
Rev. 00
Mar 2014
Category A/B1
Many controllable-pitch propellers have counterweights that are

on arms clamped around the blade shank, and provide a
Counterweight Turning Moment that opposes the CTM. The
centrifugal effect is to try to move the counterweights into the
plane of rotation and, therefore, the blades towards coarse
pitch.
Unless a propeller is balanced so that each blade produces the
same centrifugal force, aerodynamic forces and CTM, then
severe vibration will occur. Therefore, each propeller is
subjected to a comprehensive balancing process before it can
be fitted to the engine of an aircraft.
Module 17 PROPELLER
5. Gyroscopic Effect
A rotating propeller has the properties of a gyro. If the plane of
rotation is changed, a moment will be produced at right angles
to the applied moment. For example, if an aircraft with a right
handed propeller (clockwise rotation viewed from rear) is yawed
to the right, it will experience a nose down pitching moment due
to the gyroscopic effect of the propeller. Similarly, if the aircraft
is pitched nose up it will experience a yaw to the right. On most
aircraft the gyroscope effects are small and easily controlled.
Figure 17.1.24
17.1 - 31
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Mar 2014
Category A/B1
Module 17 PROPELLER
6. Asymmetric Effect
With an aircraft in a nose up attitude (high angle of attack) and
in straight flight, the axis of the propeller will be inclined
upwards to the direction of flight. This causes the down moving
blade to have a greater effective angle of attack than the up
going blade and, therefore, develops a greater thrust.
Figure 17.1.25
17.1 - 32
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Mar 2014
Category A/B1
Module 17 PROPELLER
TORQUE
Torque bending force tries to bend a propeller blade in its plane
of rotation opposite to the direction of the rotation (Figure
17.1.26).
Newtons third law tells us that to every action there is an equal

and opposite reaction. The force rotating the propeller is torque
so it follows that there must be a reaction force in the opposite
direction of rotation.
In a single engine aircraft this torque reaction is attempting to
rotate the aircraft about the propeller shaft axis. This can create
a rolling (and secondary yawing) tendency, especially at takeoff.
Torque effect can be eliminated by mounting two propellers,
one behind the other, each driven by its own shaft but in
opposite directions. The shafts are concentric and as the
propellers rotate in opposite directions; their torque effects
cancel each other out. Such an arrangement is referred to as
counter-rotating propellers.
Contra-rotating propellers, on the other hand, are two propellers
mounted in tandem but driven by a single engine through a
gearbox to ensure the propellers rotate in opposite directions
and likewise their torque effects are cancelled out. Contrarotating propellers also increase thrust generating capability
when high power is required.
Figure 17.1.26
17.1 - 33
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Category A/B1
Module 17 PROPELLER
RELATIVE AIRFLOW ON BLADE ANGLE OF ATTACK

Torque is a force that a propeller experiences because of the air
resistance it encounters as it rotates. It is in fact the drag force
acting on the propeller blades. If the torque balances the engine
shaft power (shp) then the propeller will run at the speed where
this is achieved. Any increase in engine power will cause the
propeller rotational speed to increase until the torque balances
the power again. If the propeller blade angle is increased then
the torque will increase and this will require an increase in
engine power if RPM is to be maintained.
Recall that the relative airflow in both direction and velocity is
governed by the rotational speed of the propeller and the
forward speed of the aircraft. The angle of attack of a propeller
blade is the angle formed between the blade chord line and the
relative airflow.
Blade angle and angle of attack are different in different flight
conditions. These will be discussed in more details in submodule 17.3.
17.1 - 34
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Module 17 PROPELLER
VIBRATION AND RESONANCE

When a propeller is producing thrust, aerodynamic and
mechanical forces are present which cause the blades to
vibrate. Vibration caused by the propeller also produces
resonance, which is produced by the echoing beat of the out of
balance propeller. Vibration caused by mechanical inputs is
generally the cause of an out of balance blade on a propeller
assembly.
Propellers, spinners, and power train dynamic components are,
manufactured to strict tolerances; however, due to centrifugal
force, aerodynamic loading and individual component
tolerances, some residual out-of-balance moment may be
present in the whole assembly, which will lead to an increase in
vibration.
The process of tracking and balancing propellers may be
generally required on the following occasions:
After major component replacement
As a fault diagnosis/troubleshooting aid
Whenever required by the maintenance manual or
maintenance procedures
Vibration is a rapid oscillation that may be caused by rotating

assemblies, when they are out of balance or by external
influences such as aerodynamic forces. These oscillations will
be felt with a certain force, known as displacement or amplitude,
and at a certain rate, i.e. vibrations per minute, known as
frequency.
Vibration is generally expressed as frequency per second, and
is measured in Hertz (Hz). One hertz is therefore equal to one
cycle per second, that is a movement from the baseline in one
direction and continuing in the opposite direction until a return to
the baseline is achieved, as shown in figure 17.1.27.
If not compensated for in the design, vibration may cause
excessive flexing, work-hardening of the metal, and result in
sections of the propeller blade breaking off during operation.
When looking at how the process of tracking and balancing is

accomplished, it is first necessary to determine what vibration
is.
17.1 - 35
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Mar 2014
Category A/B1
Module 17 PROPELLER
Figure 17.1.27
17.1 - 36
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Mar 2014
Category A/B1
Aerodynamic forces have a great vibration effect at the tip of a

blade where the effects of transonic speeds cause buffeting and
vibration. The vibrations may be decreased by use of the proper
aerofoil shape and tip designs.
Mechanical vibrations are generated by power pulses in a
piston engine and are considered to be more destructive in their
effect than aerodynamic vibration. These engine power pulses
cause a propeller blade to vibrate and set up standing wave
patterns that cause metal fatigue and failure. The location and
number of stress points changes with different rpm settings, but
the most critical location for these stress concentrations is about
six inches in from the top of the blades.
Most airframe-engine-propeller combinations have no problem
in eliminating the detrimental effects of these vibrational
stresses; however, some combinations are sensitive to certain
rpm ranges and have this CRITICAL RANGE indicated on the
tachometer by a red arc. The engine should not be operated in
the critical range except as necessary to pass through it to set a
higher or lower rpm.
17.1 - 37
Module 17 PROPELLER
If the engine is operated in the critical range, there is a

possibility of structural failure in the aircraft due to the
vibrational stresses set up. Propellers driven by a gas turbine
turbo-prop are not affected by a critical range as there are not
power pulses in a gas turbine engine. As the operation cycle is
continuous, there is no reciprocating motion in the engine, thus
a smoother operating engine producing lower vibration
frequencies and hence lower resonance. This means that there
are much less fatigue and operational stresses transmitted to
the propeller. The above mentioned technical data means that a
turbo-prop propeller should remain in service longer, more time
between overhaul (TBO).
When a propeller produces thrust, aerodynamic and mechanical
forces are present which cause the blade to vibrate. If this is not
compensated for in the design, this vibration may cause
excessive flexing and work-hardening of the metal and may
even result in sections of the propeller blade breaking off in
flight.
Aerodynamic forces cause vibrations at the tip of a blade where
the effects of transonic speeds cause buffeting and vibration.
Rev. 00
Mar 2014

PTC B1.1 Notes - Sub Module 17.1 (Fundamentals)

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Power to rotate an aircrafts propeller blades is provided by the

The gas-turbine engine with a reduction gear assembly and a

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When an aerofoil moves through the air its special streamlined

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Propeller Blade Description

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BLADE ELEMENT THEORY

The shape of the aerofoil section

The blade element theory considers a propeller blade to be

By using the blade element theory, a propeller designer can

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Thrust and Torque

Relative Airflow (Figure 17.1.08)

The resultant force produced by the propeller as it moves

The relative airflow is the resultant of two component airflows:

Thrust is the component of the resultant force acting at right

(i) The airflow due to rotation (the propeller speed)

Torque is the component of the resultant force acting in the

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Helix Angle (Angle of Advance)

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Blade Twist (Wash Out)

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HIGH/LOW BLADE ANGLE

Ground Fine / Superfine / Very Low Blade Angle

The roots of propeller blade can be rotated about the pitch

During starting and taxiing in fixed shaft engines, when power