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Exponential growth: Population growth takes place exponentially and that explains the dramatic increase in global
population in past 150 years.
2)
Doubling time: The time needed for a population to double its size at a constant annual rate is known as doubling
time. It is calculated as follows:
Td = 70/ r
Where,
Td = Doubling time in years
r = annual growth rate of population
3) Total fertility rates (TFR); It is defined as the average number of children that would be born to a woman in
her lifetime if the age-specific birth
rate remain constant. The value of TFR varies from 1.9 in developed
nation
to 4.7 in developing nations.
4) Infant mortality rate: It is the percentage of infants dies out of those born in a
year. Although the rate has
declined in the past 50 years, but the pattern
differs widely in developed and developing countries.
5) Age structure: Based upon the people belonging to different age classes like pre-reproductive
(0-14
years),
reproductive (15-44 years) and post reproductive (45 years and above) population of any country can be
represented by age pyramids. It can be of three types:
Pyramid shape: It indicates the positive population growth and observed in nation like India, Bangladesh,
Ethiopia, Nigeria etc. This is characterize by more number of very young population
Bell shaped: This indicates the stabilize population growth nation. In theses countries like France, USA and
Canada the birth rate has decline in last two decades and there by not much growth is likely for the people
entering into reproductive age group.
Urn shaped: In these countries like Germany, Italy ,Hungary, Sweden and Japan, number of individuals in
very young age is smaller than the middle reproductive age class. So, indicating negative population growth in
future decades.
6) Zero population growth (ZPG): When birth plus immigration in a population are equal to deaths
emigration, it is said to be zero population growth. Nations such as Japan, Italy, Greece are showing Zero
population or negative population growth.
plus
7) Male-Female ratio: The ratio of boys and girls should be fairly balanced in a
society to flourish. In India
this ratio is 933/1000, in rural area this ratio is 946/1000 and urban areas it is 900/1000. Kerala is having the highest
ration between states 1,058 and Haryana has the lowest ratio of 861.
HUMAN RIGHTS
Environmental issues are closely linked to human rights. These include the equitable distribution of environmental
resources, the utilisation of resources and Intellectual Property Rights (IPRs), resettlement issues around
development projects such as dams and mines, and access to health to prevent environment related diseases.
The Universal declaration of Human Right (UNDHR) by the UN on December 10, 1948 provide comprehensive
protection to all individuals against all form of injustice and human right violation.
On May 16, 1994 at Geneva, the United Nation drafted the first ever Declaration of Human Rights and Environment,
which embodies the right of every human being to a healthy, secure and ecologically sound environment. The main
points of this drafts are:
1) Part 1: It deals with human rights for an ecologically sound environment, sustainable development and peace
for all.
1) Part 2 : It mainly deals with human right related to an environment free from pollution and degradation. It
defines right to own native land or home.
1) Part 3: It deals with right of every person to environment education, information, awareness and also public
participation in environmental decision making.
1) Part 4: It deals with the duties of states and citizens to protect and preserve the environment and prevent
environmental harm.
1) Part 5: This lay stress on social justice and equity with respect to use of natural resources and sustainable
development.
VALUE EDUCATION
Value education in the context of our environment is expected to bring about a new sustainable way of life. The
different component of value education are as follows:
1) Environmental Values: The Western, modern approach values the resources of Nature for their utilitarian
importance alone. However true environmental values go beyond valuing a river for its water, a forest for its
timber and non-wood forest products, or the sea for its fish. Environmental values are inherent in feelings that
bring about a sensitivity for preserving nature as a whole.
2) Valuing Nature: We must appreciate that we belong to a global community that includes another 1.8 million
known living forms. We need to develop a sense of values that lead us to protect what is left of the wilderness by
creating effective National Parks and Wildlife Sanctuaries.
Most of the current environmental movement focuses on issues that are concerned with the management of
the natural environment for the benefit of man, however Deep Ecology promotes an approach that is
expected to bring about a more appropriate ecological balance on Earth and is akin to a spiritual approach to
Nature.
3) Valuing cultures: Every culture has a right to exist. Tribal people are frequently most closely linked with Nature
and we have no right to force on them our own modern way of life. We have to take measures to provide them
with modern health care and education that gives them an opportunity to achieve a better economic status
without disrupting their culture and way of life.
4) Social justice: As the divide widens between those people who have access to resources and wealth, and those
who live near or below the poverty line, it is the duty of those who are better off to protect the rights of the poor
who do not have the means to fight for their rights. The developing world would face a crisis earlier than the
developed countries unless the rights of poor people that are fundamental to life are protected.
5) Human heritage: Heritage preservation is now a growing environmental concern because much of this heritage
has been undervalued during the last several decades and is vanishing at an astonishing pace.
6) Equitable use of resources: An unfair distribution of wealth and resources, based on a world that is essentially
only for the rich, will bring about a disaster of unprecedented proportions. Equitable use of resources is now seen
as an essential aspect of human well being and must become a shared point of view among all socially and
environmentally conscious individuals.
7) Common Property Resources: The water that nature recycles, the air that we all breathe, the forests and
grasslands which maintain our climate and soil, are all common property resources. The proper sharing and its
management through community participation is essential for these resource conservation.
8) Ecological degradation: Changes in land use from natural ecosystems to more intensive utilization such as
turning forests into monoculture forestry plantations, wetlands into agriculture land leads to its degradation. carry
an ecological price. There is need for conserving such ecosystem before they get damage to a extent that we cant
replenish them back.
HIV/AIDS
The Acquired Immunodeficiency Syndrome (AIDS) is caused by the Human Immunodeficiency Virus (HIV) which
mainly spread from infected person to other individuals due to contact with tissue fluids during needle sharing,
blood transfusion and unprotected sex.
HIV can also pass from infected mothers to their babies during pregnancy, delivery or breast feeding. HIV however
doesnt spread through tears, sweat, and urine or by sharing utensils, towels, clothing's and insect bites.
AIDS itself does not kill humans, the HIV destroy or disables the T-cells in the human body which are the key infection
fighters in the immune system, resulting into making human body more susceptible for the other infectious disease.
The AIDS was discovered in 1983, however yet not sufficient information is available regarding its primary source.
Most evidence suggests that AIDS has spreads from Africa and the virus has been transferred from primates like
African monkey or Chimpanzees.
Recent estimates indicate that about 40 million people are living with HIV/AIDS worldwide and 70% of them are in
Sub Saharan African region. By 2002, India had an estimated 3.97 million infected individuals. HIV/AIDS has been
identified as the fourth largest cause of mortality and about 3 million people died due to HIV/AIDS in 2003.
HIV/ AIDS has a serious impact on the socioeconomic fabric of society:
1) Household income: If the working head of family suffers from AIDS it reduces the household income which may
have repercussions for every member of the family such as Children may be forced to abandon their education.
2) Basic necessities: The poor households coping with members who are sick from HIV or AIDS have to reduce
spending on necessities such as clothing, electricity etc. even further.
3) Food production: The AIDS epidemic adds to food insecurity in many areas, as agricultural work is neglected or
abandoned due to household illness. Some studies show that HIV/AIDS results into decrease in crop production by 20%
in countries like Mozambique, Botswana, Namibia and Zimbabwe.
There is a close association between poverty, a degraded environment, and malnutrition. Although malnutrition is
rarely listed as the direct cause of death, it contributes to about half of all childhood deaths.
Poor feeding practices - inadequate mother milk , providing the wrong foods, giving food in insufficient quantities,
contribute to malnutrition. Malnourished children are more vulnerable to disease.
Women welfare:
Women, especially in lower income group families, both in the rural and urban sector, work longer hours than men. The
daily collection of water, fuel wood and fodder is an arduous task for rural women.
Women are often the last to get enough nutrition as their role in traditional society is to cook the family meal and feed
their husband and children. This leads to malnutrition and anemia due to inadequate nutrition.
The sorry plight of women includes the fact that the girl child is given less attention and educational facilities as
compared to boys in India.
The Environmental Protection Act (EPA) was enacted by the Indian parliament in 1986. EPA was enacted soon after the
Bhopal Gas Tragedy as umbrella legislation to:
To provide framework for co-ordination of central & state authorities established under Water and Air Acts.
To fills the gaps in the existing laws for tackling environmental problems.
The decline in Environmental quality has been evidenced by increasing pollution, loss of vegetation cover and biological
diversity and in food chains, growing risk of environmental accidents and threats to life support systems. The world
communitys resolve to protect and enhance the environmental quality found expression in the decisions taken at United.
Nations Conference on the Human Environment held at Stockholm in June 1972.
Some of the important sections of the Act are as follows:
SECTION 2 - Definitions
Under Section 2, general definitions are provided. However it states that such definition is valid only unless the context
otherwise requires. Some of these important definitions are:
Sec 2 (a) - environment Includes water, air and land and the interrelationship which exits among and between water, air
and land, and human beings, other living creature, plants micro organism and property;
Sec 2 (b) - environment pollutant means any solid, liquid or gaseous substance present in such concentration as may be,
or tend to be injurious to environment.
Sec 2 (c) - environment pollution means the presence in the environment of any environmental pollutant.
Sec 2 (d) - handling in relation to any substance means the manufacture, the processing, package, storage, transportation,
use, collection, destruction, conversion, and offering for sale, transfer or the like of a substance.
Sec 2 (e) hazardous substances means any substance or preparation which by reason of chemical or physic chemical
properties or handling, is liable to cause harm to human beings, other living creature plants and micro-organism,
property.
Sec 2 (f) occupier in relation to any factory or premise, means a person who has control over the affairs of the factory or
the premises and includes, in relation to any substance, person in possession of the substance;
SECTION 3-6 Powers Conferred to the Central Government General powers conferred to Central government are
provided under Section 3 to 6.
These powers include:
Making rules to regulate environmental pollution;
Notifying standards and maximum limits of pollutants of air, water, and soil for various areas and purposes;
Prohibiting & restricting the handling of hazardous substances, and location of industries.
Sec (3) Empowers government to constitute authority/s for the purpose of exercising powers and performing such
functions (as conferred by the Act).
Sec (4) Grants power to appoint a person for fulfillment of powers conferred under section 3 such as inspection,
examination, collection of samples, etc.
Sec (5) - Grants power to issue directions in writing to any officers/authority to
Comply.
Sec (6) Empowers government to make rules to achieve the object of the Act.
SECTION 7-17 - General Provisions
Sections 7-17 pertain to general provisions for Prevention, Control and Abatement of environmental pollution. These
provisions empower central government to take measures necessary to:
These provisions also provide directions to both public and concerned authorities for
Revdanda Creek Notification (1989), which prohibits setting up industries in the belt around the Revdanda
Creek as per the rules laid down in the notification.
The Environmental Impact Assessment of Development Projects Notification, (1994 and as amended in 1997).
As per this notification:
All projects listed under Schedule I require environmental clearance from the MoEF.
Projects under the delicensed category of the New Industrial Policy also require clearance from the MoEF.
All developmental projects whether or not under the Schedule I, if located in fragile regions must obtain MoEF
clearance.
Industrial projects with investments above Rs 500 million must obtain MoEF clearance and are further required
to obtain a LOI (Letter Of Intent) from the Ministry of Industry, and an NOC (No Objection Certificate) from
the SPCB and the State Forest Department if the location involves forestland. Once the NOC is obtained, the
LOI is converted into an industrial license by the state authority.
The notification also stipulated procedural requirements for the establishment and operation of new power
plants. As per this notification, two-stage clearance for site specific projects such as pit-head thermal power
plants and valley projects is required.
Site clearance is given in the first stage and final environmental clearance in the second. A public hearing has
been made mandatory for projects covered by this notification. This is an important step in providing
transparency and a greater role to local communities.
Ash Content Notification (1997), required the use of beneficiated coal with ash content not exceeding 34% with
effect from June 2001, (the date later was extended to June 2002). This applies to all thermal plants located
beyond one thousand kilometers from the pit-head and any thermal plant located in an urban area or, sensitive
area irrespective of the distance from the pinhead except any pit-head power plant.
Taj Trapezium Notification (1998), provided that no power plant could be set up within the geographical limit of
the Taj Trapezium assigned by the Taj Trapezium Zone Pollution (Prevention and Control) Authority.
Disposal of Fly Ash Notification (1999) the main objective of which is to conserve the topsoil, protect the
environment and prevent the dumping and disposal of fly ash discharged from lignite-based power plants. The
salient feature of this notification is that no person within a radius of 50 km from a coal-or lignite-based power
plant shall manufacture clay bricks or tiles without mixing at least 25% of ash with soil on a weight-to-weight
basis. For the thermal power plants the utilization of the fly ash would be as follows:
Every coal-or lignite-based power plant shall make available ash for at least ten years from the date of
publication of the above notification without any payment or any other consideration, for the purpose of
manufacturing ash-based products such as cement, concrete blocks, bricks, panels or any other material or for
construction of roads, embankments, dams, dykes or for any other construction activity.
Every coal or lignite based thermal power plant commissioned subject to environmental clearance conditions
stipulating the submission of an action plan for full utilization of fly ash shall, within a period of nine years from
the publication of this notification, phase out the dumping and disposal of fly ash on land in accordance with the
plan.
Most important notifications were the EIA notifications of 1994 (as amended in 1997) and 2006. As per EIA process
environmental clearance from MoEF is required for Schedule I projects
All developmental projects whether or not under the Schedule I, if located in fragile regions
Industrial projects with investments above Rs 500 million.
A two stage clearance for site-specific projects such as pit-head thermal power plants and valley projects is
required. In first stage site clearance is given and in the second stage Environmental Clearance (EC) is given
Public hearing is mandatory to provide transparency and a greater role to local communities.
Permits judicious and regulated use of forest land for non-forestry purposes
BACKGROUND
Indiscriminate and massive diversion of forest land for non forestry purposes since independence.
Approximately 4.3 million ha. of forest land diverted during 1950 to 1980 for non forestry purposes.
The subject forest was brought in the concurrent list in 1977.
In 1980, the Forest (Conservation) Act was enacted for providing a higher level of protection to the forests and to
regulate diversion of forest lands for non forestry purposes.
FOREST CONSERVATION ACT MAIN FEATURES: the main features of Forest Conservation Act of 1980 and
its amendment in 1988. The silent feature of this act is as follows:
1. The state government has been empowered to use the forests only for forestry purpose. Any diversion to other
land use required the prior permission of central government.
2. Provision for the conservation of all type of forest areas.
3. Any illegal non-forest activity within the forest area are prohibited under this act, however some activity such
as fencing, water holes, check post, wireless communication are allowed.
In 1992, the 73rd and 74th Amendments to the Constitution furthered governance through panchayats. It gives
States the ability to provide power to the local panchayats to manage local forest resources. Some silent features
of 1992, Amendment in the forest act are as follows:
1. Some non-forest activity such as drilling and hydroelectric project were allowed in forests, without cutting
trees or limited cutting with prior approval of Central government.
2. Tusser cultivation( silk yielding insect) in forest areas by tribal is treated as forestry activity however it should
not involve some specific tree such as Asan or Arjun.
3. Removal of stones, bajri, boulder etc. from river-bed located within the forest area fall under non-forestry
activity.
4. Any proposal sent to Central govt. for non-forest activity must have a cost-benefit analysis and EIA report of
the proposed activity.
Penalties for offences in Reserved Forests:
Felling, collecting of timber, bark or leaves, quarries or collecting any forest product is punishable with imprisonment for
a term of six months, or with a fine which may extend to Rs.500, or both.
Penalties for offences in Protected Forests:
A person who commits any of the following offences like felling of trees, or strips off the bark or leaves from any tree or
sets fire to such forests, or kindles a fire without taking precautions to prevent its spreading to any tree mentioned in the
Act, whether standing or felled, or fells any tree, drags timber, or permits cattle to damage any tree, shall be punishable
with imprisonment for a term which may extend to six month or with a fine which may extend to Rs.500, or both.
Procedure for Forest Clearance
Proposals recommended by the State / UT Govt.s Forwarded to the Central Govt. for approval under Section 2
of the Act.
Proposals examined by Forest Advisory Committee (FAC) constituted under Section 3 of the Act.
Decisions taken on the basis of the recommendations of the FAC.
FC Rules, 2003 prescribe specific time limits for processing the cases.
IMPACT OF THE ACT
During 1950-80, the rate of diversion of forest land for non-forestry purposes was 1,50,000 hectares per annum
After enactment of the FC Act, 1980, the rate of diversion of forest land for non-forestry purposes came down to
about 35,000 ha per annum
SECTOR-WISE AREA DIVERTED UNDER FC ACT, 1980 (IN PERCENTAGE)
FAC is a seven member Committee under the chairmanship of DGF & SS, MoEF.
Three non official members eminent experts in forestry and allied disciplines appointed for a period of two
years.
ADGF, MoEF; Additional Commissioner (Soil Conservation), Ministry of Agriculture.
IGF (FC) -- Member Secretary
Meeting not less than once a month, generally at New Delhi
Quorum is Three.
Certain conditions are stipulated at the time of granting approval
Compensatory Afforestation,
Catchment Area Treatment,
Phased Reclamation of mining area
Safety zone Area
Rehabilitation of Project affected families, if any.
Muck disposal plan
under FC Act:
To an industrial unit, the rebate in water cess provides little incentive to control pollution whereas for the State Pollution
Control Board, cess may constitute 50 percent or more of its income.
The State Boards have the power to prosecute an offender but not to impose any fine or punishment. The State Boards also
have the power to direct the closure of any activity that may cause pollution.
2. The rating of the Schedules I to V is in accordance with the risk of survival of the wildlife (fauna) enlisted in
them. Animals included Schedule are provided for total protection from hunting and the trade and commerce
related to such animals are strictly regulated. The schedule VI has been added to include the specified plant
species to be protected by the Wildlife (Protection) Amendment Act of 1991.
3. An expert committee, constituted by the Indian Board of Wildlife considers amendments to the Act, as and when
necessary.
4. With the amendment of the Act in 1991, powers of the State Governments have been withdrawn almost totally.
Now the State Governments are not empowered to declare any wild animal a vermin. Further by addition of
provision, immunization of livestock within a radius of 5 km from a National. Park or sanctuary has been made
compulsory. Broadly speaking the amendment provides the follows:
NGOs like WWF-India and Traffic-India will make available technical and legal guidance when needed.
Provision to prohibit collection and exploitation of wild plants which are threatened with extinction.
Provision to extract and deal in snake venom for producing life saving drugs.
In the case of a second or subsequent offence of the same nature mentioned in this sub-section, the term of
imprisonment may extend to six years and not less than two years with a penalty of Rs.10,000.
Drawbacks:
1) The ownership certificates for animal are permissible.
1) Some states such as Jammu and Kashmir this law is not applicable.