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SECTION I
Instructors Manual
to Accompany
JUMPSTART: A Sentence-toParagraph Worktext with
Readings

The Philosophy Behind Jumpstart:


A Sentence-to-Paragraph Worktext with Readings
Jumpstart: A Sentence-to-Paragraph Worktext with Readings is aimed at helping basic writing
students achieve the level of proficiency necessary for success in their college courses. The text
focuses on sentence-level concerns and whole discourse, as well as laying a solid foundation for
academic success by infusing instruction with academic content. Unlike other workbooks that
focus on sentence proficiency, it connects learning to writing in other classes, so students
understand its importance across the disciplines. Also unlike similar texts, it offers abundant
support for multilingual students.
In the current major revision of Jumpstart: A Sentence-to-Paragraph Worktext with Readings,
the mission of the text has been expanded. New reading and study skills features, a crosscurricular emphasis, exercises derived from textbook excerpts, and writing applications across
the disciplines now prepare students for the kinds of reading and writing they will do in college.
In addition, this edition engages a tech-savvy generation by offering guidance in the use of
computers, expanded opportunities to learn from the Web, and writing assignments that integrate
visual and verbal rhetoric. In short, because Jumpstart: A Sentence-to-Paragraph Worktext with
Readings is aligned with the interests of college students and all aspects of college-level work,
those who use the book will be poised for a successful transition to college writing and to writing
competence in all their courses.

An Overview of the Text


Jumpstart: A Sentence-to-Paragraph Worktext with Readings is organized to provide students
with on-going, progressive instruction and practice in developing sentence-level skills while
providing opportunities to write and to read. As in the previous edition of Jumpstart, every
feature of this edition is designed to support and encourage students.
Whole Discourse and the Writing Process
Part One, Writing Paragraphs and Essays, emphasizes both process and product.
A new opening chapter, Becoming a Better Writer, introduces the importance of writing in
college and in the workplace.
A new chapter on revising and editing, Revising and Editing a Paragraph, gives emphasis
to these important stages in the writing process.
An expanded chapter on writing essays supports students who are ready for more complex
writing forms.
Each of the four chapters in Part One closes with sequenced writing activities that move
students from idea generation to whole discourse.
Reading and Writing Supports for Students
Chapter goals are listed at the beginning of every chapter.
Abundant, varied exercises provide on-going reinforcement and practice, and review
exercises are strategically placed for additional reinforcement.
Grammar Alerts, Spelling Alerts, and Punctuation Alerts highlight pitfalls for students to
avoid.
Connect for Success is a new feature that addresses academic success by focusing on reading
skills, study skills, and applying knowledge outside of the developmental classroom.
Composing at the Computer tips are designed to address to todays technological challenges
and give students information on strategies for writing at the computer.
Troubleshooting tips in the margins point out common pitfalls and offer specific strategies for
avoiding them.
A generous number of varied writing activities insure that every student can find a topic of
interest.
If English is Your Second Language provides invaluable tips for non-native English speakers
throughout the text.
Group Activities are emphasized in exercises that provide opportunities for collaborative
work and peer review.
End of Chapter Features
Getting in Gear writing assignments based in academic content and cultural literacy
materials and accompanied by visuals guide students through the writing process. Students
have the chance, for example, to learn about and draw inspiration from Auguste Rodins The
Thinker, Jesse Owens success at the 1936 Olympics, and Robert Frosts famous poem
Mending Wall.
Weblinks in the Getting in Gear assignments send students to sites where they can learn more
about academic subjects.

Recharge sections highlight the main points of the chapter for easy review.
End of Unit Feature
PowerUp consists of cumulative exercises that ask students to analyze the structure and
grammar of textbook passages, as well as the content, and to write a response to what they
have read.

The Exercises
A wide variety of exercises formats (one-third of all exercises are new to this edition) give
students a range of practice and keep them interested. Exercise formats include whole
discourse, continuous discourse, sentence combining, collaborative activities, and mix-oferror activities.
Exercises adapted from biology, art, education, speech, psychology, sociology, business,
music, childcare, medical assisting, communications, history, and political science textbooks
expose students to important academic content across the disciplines and help them become
more comfortable with college-level language, information, and ideas.
A new appendix includes eight multi-paragraph exercises with a mix of errors so students can
practice editing the way they should edit their own writing for more than one kind of
mistake.
Chapter review exercises appear at the end of every chapter.
Unit review exercises focusing on multiple skills appear at the end of every unit.
Group activities are offered for collaborative learning experiences.
The Readings
The twelve selections, including 7 new essays, address a range of themes by diverse authors
including Maya Angelou, Sandra Cisneros, and Amy Tan.
Chapter 30: Reading and Writing in Response to Reading includes an expanded introduction
to reading which explains the importance of reading, the connection between reading and
writing, and the reading process. It also includes instruction on how students can use context
clues to figure out the meaning of unfamiliar vocabulary.
A sample marked essay in Chapter 30 illustrates the active reading process.
On Writing marginalia point out previously studied grammar, usage, or rhetorical features in
each selection.
New post-reading questions focus on critical thinking and students reading processes as well
as on reading comprehension.
Responses to each reading are framed in a Getting in Gear writing assignment that includes a
visual, weblink, and strategies for completing the assignment.
The Appendices
Appendix I provides an overview of the parts of speech.
Appendix II provides a review of word parts.

Sample Syllabus
A syllabus is a highly effective instrument that can be used by both students and teachers alike to
provide organization and direction for a writing course. To be most effective, however, a syllabus
should be a flexible and general guide rather than a carved in stone agenda for addressing the
objectives of the course. Of course, it is the nature of basic writing classes to run out of term
before running out of instructional opportunities, so remember to approach the following sample
syllabus as a guide and adjust it as necessary to fit your classroom needs.
The sample syllabus is intended to encourage the flexible use of Jumpstart: A Sentence-toParagraph Worktext with Readings while maintaining a logical order for the presentation of
course objectives. Its purpose is to provide support to those who perhaps are teaching basic
writing skills for the first time and to suggest alternative course directions for more experienced
teachers.
The syllabus is designed for a sixteen-week semester and is based on the fundamental
pedagogical principles of sentence-level skill instruction and practice coupled with whole
discourse activities.

Sixteen-Week Semester Syllabus


Week
1

Objective
Diagnosis of Student Skill Levels
Becoming a Better Writer
Drafting a Paragraph
Language Skills Evaluation
Writing Practice

Activity
Comprehensive Diagnostic Test
Chapter 1
Chapter 2
Chapter Tests
Writing Activity

Revising and Editing a Paragraph


Writing an Essay
Language Skills Evaluation
Reading Skills
Writing Practice

Chapter 3
Chapter 4
Chapter Tests, Review Test Part One
Reading Selection
Writing Activity

Identifying Subjects and Verbs


Chapter 5
Eliminating Sentence Fragments
Chapter 6
Improving Sentences with Coordination
Chapter 7
Language Skills Evaluation
Chapter Tests
Reading Skills
Reading Selection
Writing Practice
Writing Activity

Improving Sentences with Subordination


Eliminating Run-On Sentences and
Comma Splices
Language Skills Evaluation
Writing Evaluation

Chapter 8

Progress Check
Using the Present Tense/Subject
Verb Agreement
Using the Past Tense
Language Skills Evaluation
Reading Skills
Writing Practice

Student Conferences

Chapter 9
Chapter Tests, Review Test Part Two
Writing Activity

Chapter 10
Chapter 11
Chapter Tests
Reading Selection
Writing Activity

Using the Perfect Tenses and the Active


and Passive Voice
Using the Progressive Tenses
Eliminating Inappropriate Tense Shifts
Language Skills Evaluation
Writing Evaluation

Chapter 12
Chapter 13
Chapter 14
Chapter Tests, Review Test Part Three
Writing Activity

Using Pronouns
Chapter 15
Achieving Pronoun Antecedent Agreement
Chapter 16
Language Skills Evaluation
Chapter Tests
Reading Skills
Reading Selection
Writing Practice
Writing Activity

Eliminating Other Pronoun Errors


Language Skills Evaluation

Chapter 17
Chapter Tests, Review Test Part Four
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Week

Objective

Activity

Reading Skills
Writing Practice

Reading Selection
Writing Activity

Progress Check
Using Adjectives and Adverbs
Using Participles and Infinitives to Describe
Using Prepositions
Language Skills Evaluation

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Achieving Parallelism
Chapter 21
Solving Special Sentence Structure Problems
Chapter 22
Varying Sentence Openers
Chapter 23
Language Skills Evaluation
Chapter Tests, Review Test Part Six
Reading Skills
Reading Selection
Writing Practice
Writing Activity

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Spelling Correctly
Chapter 24
Using Frequently Confused Words Correctly
Chapter 25
Language Skills Evaluation
Chapter Tests, Review Test Part Seven
Reading Skills
Reading Selection
Writing Practice
Writing Activity

12

Using Capital Letters and Endmarks


Using Commas
Language Skills Evaluation
Reading Skills
Writing Practice

Chapter 26
Chapter 27
Chapter Tests
Reading Selection
Writing Activity

13

Using Apostrophes
Punctuating Quotations
Language Skills Evaluation
Reading Skills
Writing Practice

Chapter 28
Chapter 29
Chapter Tests, Review Test Part Eight
Reading Selection
Writing Activity

14

Progress Check
Portfolio Presentations to the Class

Student Conferences
Presentations

15

Exam Preparation

Comprehensive Review

16

Final Examination

Final Exam

Student Conferences
Chapter 18
Chapter 19
Chapter 20
Chapter Tests, Review Test Part Five

Using the Marginalia and Special Features


Jumpstart: A Sentence-to-Paragraph Worktext with Readings provides a variety of effective
marginalia and boxed features throughout the text. They are designed to offer your students
extensive supplemental instruction, activities, and cross-references to enhance the use of the text
and the competencies under consideration. When you first introduce the text at the beginning of
the semester, encourage your students to pay attention to the marginalia and boxed features as
they read the text and to utilize them to heighten their understanding of the material and its
applications.
Marginalia
Troubleshooting
These tips offer additional information, helpful reminders, and cross-references. Be sure to
call attention to the Troubleshooting tips marginalia in your classroom discussions, and take
advantage of opportunities to reiterate other writing competencies through the crossreferences. You may want to require your students to include the Troubleshooting tips most
helpful to their own writing in their notebooks.
On Writing
The On Writing marginalia included with the reading selections point out previously studied
grammar, usage, or rhetorical feature of the selection. Make the On Writing marginalia a
regular part of your classroom discussions of the readings by looking at effective applications
of grammar, usage, and rhetorical features. Doing so will help students understand the
relationship of the competencies studied to effective communication and their own writing.
Special Features
Connect for Success
Connect for Success boxes are interspersed throughout the text and contain specific
suggestions for how students can use what they are learning in Jumpstart to achieve success
in other classes. Calling attention to these boxes provides an opportunity to show students
how what they are learning in the writing classroom applies to other areas of their academic
lives, and some of the practical ways in which what they are learning will benefit them and
contribute to their success in college.
Composing at the Computer
Composing at the Computer tips describe efficient strategies for using a computer during all
stages of the writing process. Even students who are very tech-savvy in terms of accessing
the Web may not be familiar with all the ways they can use a computer to write.
If English is Your Second Language
These tips, which appear at the end of every chapter in Parts 2-8, provide instruction on
issues of particular importance to students who speak English as a Second Language.
However, the clear explanations of these topics are also of great help to many English
speaking developmental students who have difficulty with the same concepts.
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Using the Reading Selections


The twelve reading selections in Jumpstart include a range of themes by diverse authors. Basic
writing students need to see that good writing is not just something they have to study in a
writing class but is, instead, a means by which we all communicate ideas and experiences.
Reading other peoples ideas and experiences helps to expand our boundaries and enhances our
understanding of others, and the ideas and experiences in the reading selections in Jumpstart
help students see the bigger picture of what they can communicate in their own writing.
Before assigning any of the reading selections, be sure to spend some time discussing the Steps
for Critical Reading in Chapter 30. Encourage your students to read actively, not just for
content, but also with an eye to effective applications of grammar, usage, and rhetorical features.
You may find it helpful to discuss each selection first in terms of content, allowing for reactions
to the readings and the exchange of ideas. Then move to examples of how the writer
communicated his or her ideas and experiences through the effective use of language and
rhetorical styles and encourage students to make their own writing more effective by example.
Each reading is accompanied by an interactive vocabulary feature, which appears in the left
margin. Vocabulary words from the selection are given in bold and students are asked to write in
educated guesses as to their meanings using context clues. Then they are asked to write in the
dictionary meanings after they have finished reading the selection to see how they compare.
Readings are followed by comprehension and critical thinking questions, as well as by Getting in
Gear writing assignments accompanied by visuals which are designed to guide students through
the writing process. Weblinks in the Getting in Gear assignments send students to sites where
they can learn more about the topic under discussion. Use the writing assignments to encourage
students to write about ideas and topics important to them and to enhance their understanding of
how to tailor their writing style based on what they want to communicate.

Teaching Notes on Jumpstart Chapters


The following teaching notes on the individual chapters in Parts One through Eight include
suggested approaches to the material and suggested methods of addressing typical student
problem areas.
Chapter 1: Becoming a Better Writer
Basic writing students need to be taught that writing is a form of communication and a skill that
they will use throughout their lives. Students will also need guidance and modeling to learn that
writing is the result of a process; good writing is the result of several steps. As they practice the
writing process students should be encouraged to find strategies that they find most helpful to
them as each writer develops his or her own approach to completing the process.
Basic writing students benefit from structured instruction that provides them with strategies and
practice for each stage of the writing process. Students often see writing as a linear, one-shot
deal and aim just to fulfill an assignment. Providing students with many practice exercises on the
following topics will most effectively help them become successful writers: identifying a topic,
considering the audience for their writing, employing written and graphic formats for developing
a topic, writing drafts, and revision and editing strategies.
Chapter 2: Drafting a Paragraph
It is ironic that many basic writing students complain that they have nothing to write about, and
yet, given the first opportunity, they respond to short writing activities by writing several loosely
structured paragraphs or even an essay. While many of your students may balk at studying the
characteristics of the paragraph and its parts, stating that they studied paragraph writing in
elementary school, the fact is that many students are less daunted by the paragraph. You may
want to remind your students that writing paragraphs offers them the opportunity to work with a
manageable unit of writing while learning grammar and organization before moving on to larger
essays.
An effective technique to use when studying the principles of good paragraph writing is analyze
the paragraph structure found in professionally written and entertaining essays. The reading
selections in Part Nine of Jumpstart offer excellent examples, and you may want to bring in
paragraphs extracted from popular magazines. When students read these paragraphs and analyze
their characteristics, they will quickly see that simple paragraph writing is not as easy as it first
appears. Perhaps, more importantly, they will also recognize that the paragraph, though simple in
form, is far from simplistic.
Chapter 3: Revising and Editing a Paragraph
Students often need encouragement to see that the time spent on revision and editing is worth
their while. Including drafts in the grading of a final written piece is one way to emphasize the
value of the process and provide motivation for students to use all stages of the writing process.
Another strategy that will help students develop good writing habits that include revision and
editing is to model for students how to organize a timeline for the revision and editing of a
written piece. Many students think they can complete a writing assignment in one sitting.
Creating a timeline will emphasize that revision and editing is most effective when you take a
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break from a draft before revising, that revision on a piece of writing should happen more than
once, and that it is helpful to get feedback from objective readers on drafts.
It is helpful to teach students how to make positive but substantive comments on others writing
so they can practice revising with one another in a meaningful way. Students also need to learn
that revision is different from editing (focuses on content, organization and wording) and should
be completed before editing (focuses on mechanics). Many students confuse editing with
revision and lose the benefit of engaging in both processes before doing a final proofread on their
writing.
Chapter 4: Writing an Essay
Although many students may try to pack too much into a paragraph, they are also apt to be
overwhelmed by the thought of writing an essay. You can give them the guidelines they need by
emphasizing the five-paragraph essay format. In the beginning, they will likely find reassurance
in having a structure within which to fit their point. By allowing them to follow a prescribed
format in the beginning, you also allow them to build the confidence necessary to branch out on
their own later and let their point mold their structure.
The most effective means of teaching essay writing is to read good essays. Part Nine of
Jumpstart contains excellent examples of essay writing. As you move through the reading
selections, encourage students to read actively and to look for the components good essay
writing. Point out the basic structure of introduction, body, and conclusion in the reading
selections, and indicate how the writers have worked within but expanded that structure to
communicate their ideas. Essay writing provides a good context for practicing the writing
process.
Chapter 5: Identifying Subjects and Verbs
When discussing simple sentences, you may find that many of your students mistakenly believe
that a simple sentence is a short sentence. A fun way to deal with this problem and to reinforce
the parts of the simple sentence is to put a two-word sentence such as I drove on the board and,
through class participation, continue to add to the sentence until it is quite lengthyand
probably quite humorous. Of course, some students may call out additions that would cause the
sentence to be compound or complex, but you can use those responses to reinforce the parts of
the simple sentence by looking at ways to modify the responses to keep the sentence simple.
Those responses are particularly helpful not only in studying the simple sentence but also in
moving on to discuss compound and complex sentences and sentence variety.
Chapter 6: Eliminating Sentence Fragments
It is not unusual for students to quickly recognize sentence fragments in other peoples writing
while continuing to create fragments in their own. Therefore, testing students through error
identification exercises addresses only one of the goals of this chapter. While error identification
exercises reinforce the components of a complete sentence, it is essential also to incorporate
practice in finding and eliminating fragments through student writing activities.
One problem that may arise as you discuss sentence fragments is that your students are
accustomed to hearing fragments used in conversation. Since we often hear fragments without

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recognizing that they are incorrect, remind your students that reading aloud is not a good way to
identify fragments in their writing.
Students may also be accustomed to seeing fragments used (sometimes effectively) in
advertising, magazine articles, and best-selling books. Explaining exceptions to the rule can be
challenging, but one way to approach occasional and purposeful rule-breaking is to compare
proficiency in language to proficiency in a sport. For example, you must learn to hit a golf ball
straight up the fairway before you can purposely and effectively slice it to the right. Of course, if
you hit it to the right as a mistake, you may very well end up in the woods or in the lakenot an
error you want to make.
Chapter 7: Improving Sentences with Coordination
Basic writing students need to be encouraged to use a variety of sentence patterns in their
writing. As a result of their hesitancy to do so, they often end up with writing that sounds choppy
and immature. Although you certainly want to recommend that students look for two or more
short sentences in a row that they might want to make into one longer sentence through
coordination, you may also want to remind students of the importance of building sentences
according to the meaning they want to convey.
Perhaps one reason that students are hesitant to use coordination is that they fear longer
sentences give them more opportunities for mistakes, particularly in punctuation. While teaching
coordination, you may want to refer students to the chapter on comma usage, Chapter 27.
Chapter 8: Improving Sentences with Subordination
One question that students may have when revising sentences using subordination is, How do I
know which idea to subordinate because it is less important? When the question does arise, it
offers an excellent opportunity to reiterate the individual writers ability to create meaning
through sentence structure.
Once again, students may be hesitant to employ subordination due to punctuation fears. You may
want to refer to the chapter on commas. Be sure to remind students that if the dependent clause
comes before the independent clause, a comma is needed after it, but if the dependent clause
comes after the independent clause, no comma is needed. Usually an example using the same
clauses works best, such as:
Because it was raining, I carried my umbrella.
I carried my umbrella because it was raining.
It is also a good idea to use an example such as this one using the word because since many
students often mistake because for a coordinating conjunction and put a comma in front of it.
Another subordinating conjunction students frequently try to use as a coordinating conjunction is
however.
Chapter 9: Eliminating Run-On Sentences and Comma Splices
One of the most frequently occurring errors in students writing is the comma splice. In fact,
students often create comma splices by trying to avoid short sentences that they mistakenly

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assume will be fragments. The problem gets worse when students create run-on sentences by
trying to avoid comma splices.
As is true with fragments, students are more apt to recognize comma spices and run-on sentences
in other peoples writing than in their own. Therefore, basic writing students need to deal with
these errors through whole discourse exercises as well as through error identification exercises.
In addition, be sure to advise students that however is not a coordinating conjunction and cannot
be used to join two independent clauses; to do so will result in a comma splice.
Chapter 10: Using the Present Tense/Subject-Verb Agreement
Although it is true that verbs, verb tense, and subject-verb agreement cause many students a
great deal of difficulty, most students readily recognize present tense verbs. For that reason, the
more difficult problem of subject-verb agreement is best handled along with a discussion of
present tense verbs so that students can deal with what is often a difficult issue in conjunction
with a simpler concept.
It is helpful to remind students who tend to confuse singular and plural verb forms that while
nouns usually add an s to form the plural, regular verbs form the singular with an s. Given that,
however, you may find that your students have more difficulty with singular and plural forms of
to be, to have, and to do, often because of regular misuse in their conversational language.
Therefore, it is important to remind students that they cannot always depend on what sounds
right to them when selecting singular and plural verbs
Chapter 11: Using the Past Tense
Basic writing students tend to shift from the past tense to the present, particularly when narrating
events in writing. Remind students that the first verb in a sentence and in a paragraph usually
establishes the tense of subsequent verbs unless the time of the action actually changes.
Much of the difficulty with the past tense arises from the use of irregular verbs. You may find it
helpful to have students make a list of the verb forms they regularly misuse, much like a list of
frequently misspelled words, to refer to often when writing.
Chapter 12: Using the Perfect Tenses and the Active and Passive Voice
It is helpful to begin a discussion of the perfect tenses with a discussion of the past participle. As
with the past tense, you may find it helpful to have students make a list of the past participle
irregular verb forms they regularly misuse to refer to as they write. The perfect tenses tend to
give basic writing students some degree of difficulty in terms of determining when an action
takes place. Examples that remain basically the same in content but take place in different times
are most helpful for showing students the uses of the perfect tenses.
Present Perfect:
Past Perfect:

As of today, James has completed one semester.


At the end of the year, James had completed one semester.

Teaching active and passive voice can be tricky. Often, basic writers believe passive voice
structures sound more complex and sophisticated and tend to sprinkle their writing with such
structures. The result is, unfortunately, a stilted and unnatural style. Remind students that active

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voice is typically the most clear and natural structure, and encourage them to strive for the
majority of their sentences to be in the active voice.
Chapter 13: Using the Progressive Tenses
Just as an understanding of the past participle is essential to dealing with the perfect tenses, the
present participle is essential to the progressive tenses. However, students tend to have an easier
time with the concept of progressive tenses than with the perfect tenses because of the -ing
identifier. Even so, you may find it necessary to use a number of examples to help students see
the differences in the time of the action in present progressive and past progressive verb forms.
Once again, examples that remain basically the same in content but take place in different times
are most helpful for showing students the uses of these tense forms.
Present Progressive: Juan is writing his paper.
Past Progressive:
Juan was writing his paper.
Chapter 14: Eliminating Inappropriate Tense Shifts
Tense shifts are common errors in students writing, and special care needs to be paid to Chapter
14 to help students identify when and why they are likely to make these mistakes. Most typically,
students shift back and forth between past and present tense, especially when the action should
be expressed almost exclusively in the past tense.
You may find it helpful to encourage students to read their writing aloud to identify tense shift
errors since they are more likely to hear problem shifts than to see them. In addition, sometimes
students get too good at recognizing shifts and place every action in the same tense. You will
need to remind students that sometimes shifts in tense between sentences and even within
sentences are called for to indicate changes of time.
Chapter 15: Using Pronouns
To help students understand how pronouns can be used as subjects and objects, you may want to
review the discussion of the subject in Chapter 5 You may also find it helpful to refer to the
discussion of prepositions and their objects in Chapter 20. You may find that students have the
most difficulty with these forms of pronouns when choosing subject and object pronouns in
compounds. It is helpful to remind them to check their usage by isolating the pronoun to see if it
makes sense alone. Another area of difficulty arises with choosing subject and object pronouns in
comparisons, so you will want to remind them to check their usage by mentally adding implied
but unstated words.
Chapter 16: Achieving Pronoun-Antecedent Agreement
Like subject-verb agreement, pronoun-antecedent agreement is a problem area for many basic
writing students. The problem, in part, arises from the regular misuse of pronoun number in
conversational English, especially in the use of they for a singular antecedent. Students need only
to listen to the radio or watch television, even news shows, for a few minutes to hear the pronoun
they used several times to refer to one person.

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Because the overuse of the singular he or she is awkward, you may want to encourage your
students to change antecedents that would require the repeated use of the singular pronoun he or
she to plural antecedents requiring the smoother sounding they.
Students can also be reminded to look at other factors within their sentences to determine
singular or plural pronoun usage. For example, if the subject and verb are plural, it is likely that
the pronoun will be plural as well. Many students, in fact, benefit from a review of subject-verb
agreement when studying pronoun-antecedent agreement, so you may want to go back to
Chapter 10 to look at agreement. In addition, identification exercises in paragraph form requiring
students to choose correct subject-verb agreement as well as pronoun-antecedent agreement can
be most helpful here.
Chapter 17: Eliminating Other Pronoun Errors
Person shifts are common problems for basic writers, particularly shifts to you and your when the
reader is not being addressed directly. You may want to try having students read their writing
aloud to a partner, with the partner paying special attention to determining whether the writing is
addressing him or her in particular or an audience in general. If, in fact, the writer uses you or
your when the audience is actually general, the partner will be quick to point out the shift.
Another typical problem involves unclear reference in pronoun use. Again, putting writers with a
partner to read their writing aloud is effective here. Unclear references typically occur because
the writer knows what he or she means, but the audience has no way of knowing without reading
the writers mind. The partner will again be quick to point out the area of confusion, and this is a
perfect opportunity to reinforce the writers responsibility to say what he or she means and not
leave it to the audience to try to figure it out.
Chapter 18: Using Adjectives and Adverbs
Collaborative paragraph work can be an effective exercise in helping students to see the power of
adjectives and adverbs. For example, you may want to try composing a simple paragraph
containing no modifiers, distributing copies of it to groups of students, and asking them to add
appropriate adjectives and adverbs to it.
A collaborative effort can also be effective in teaching the
modifiers. Ask groups of students to work together to write
and contrast two simple things, such as two foods, two
automobiles. They will find that they must work carefully
superlative forms of their modifiers.

use of comparative and superlative


a paragraph in which they compare
college courses, or two makes of
to use the correct comparative and

As with subject-verb agreement and pronoun-antecedent agreement, much misuse of adjectives


and adverbs stems from the fact that students may be accustomed to hearing the colloquial use of
adjectives as adverbs. Although such habits are difficult to break, students need to be reminded
that they cannot always rely on what sounds right to determine correct adjective and adverb
usage. You may also find it helpful to review linking verbs in Chapter 3 to help students
determine when adjectives are used as subject and object complements.
Chapter 19: Using Participles and Infinitives to Describe

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When using participles and infinitives to describe, students often inadvertently create dangling
modifiers. You will want to caution students to check every sentence they write that begins with
ing and -ed verb forms (participles) and with to + a verb (infinitives) to be sure that the
participle or the infinitive is closely followed by a word it sensibly describes.
Once students understand the concept of participles and infinitives as modifiers, you can
reinforce the problem of dangling modifiers with group activities that are both fun and
instructional. You may want to try having groups of students write sentences with dangling
modifiers that are especially absurd in the images they create. This is one case where
understanding what not to do may best teach what should be done.
Chapter 20:Using Prepositions
Once students can easily identify prepositions and prepositional phrases, they need to understand
how common expressions with prepositions vary with usage as these expressions are commonly
misused. Ask students to keep a list of idioms they find in speeches and in published writing for
sharing with the class. You may want to center some of your discussion on the fact that the
idiomatic use of many prepositions is often a matter of custom and discuss some little known or
unusual expressions.
You will want to be especially careful that your ESL students understand how prepositions are
used in English. In some languages, the use of prepositions is handled very differently than in
English.
Chapter 21: Achieving Parallelism
The issue of achieving parallelism takes on greater significance when we teach not only how
disruptive faulty parallelism can be but also how powerful a rhetorical device effective parallel
construction can be. You may want to find and share with your class examples of powerful
parallel constructions from magazines and newspapers. In particular, Martin Luther King, Jr.s
Letter from Birmingham Jail is an excellent example of how parallel structures are both
emphatic and cumulative in power.
Chapter 22: Solving Special Sentence Structure Problems
You are most likely to find examples of subjects and verbs that do not make sense together in
your students writing when forms of the linking verb to be are used. A reminder that linking
verbs cannot be used to connect things that are unequal may prove helpful.
In addition, illogical combinations of subjects and verbs tend to occur when students open
sentences with explanatory words, such as The flu is when. . . or A recession is where. . . or
The reason is because... In these cases, you will want to encourage students to eliminate is
when and is where and is because from their writing.
Many students find it easier to hear their mixed constructions than to recognize them on paper.
For this reason, try suggesting that students read their writing out loud, either to themselves or to
a partner, to edit for sentence structure problems.
Chapter 23: Varying Sentence Openers

16

Basic writing students often find that their writing sounds choppy, not because of a lack of
sentence combining, but because too many of their sentences in a row begin the same way and
they tend to use few sentence patterns. Students are particularly fond of subject-verb-object
patterns beginning with the word The. Suggest that students examine their sentence openings
carefully and try rewriting several sentences that open in the same way and to mix up sentence
constructions.
Of course, solving this problem is also another example where editing aloud can be helpful.
Students are more apt to hear the repetition of sentence openers than to see the problem on paper.
Chapter 24: Spelling Correctly
Although Chapter 24 works well in its placement in the overall organization of Jumpstart, you
may decide to work on spelling problems earlier in the term. If so, Chapter 24 can be dealt with
at any time, including interspersing it with other instruction throughout the term.
If your students use spell checkers, be sure to remind them that these devices dont actually find
mistakes but, rather, they find character strings they dont recognize. For example, if the student
typed too when he or she should have used to, a spell checker will recognize too as a word and
fail to identify it as an error.
Because spelling is such a frustrating problem for so many students, you may need to remind
them repeatedly that they should not let concern about spelling interrupt their drafting process
when writing. Encourage students instead simply to underline words that they think may be
misspelled as they draft as a reminder to check them during the editing process. Of course, this
reminder serves double duty in that it also reinforces the progression of the writing process.
Chapter 25: Using Frequently Confused Words Correctly
As is true with Chapter 24, you may want to incorporate Chapter 25 throughout the term of your
course rather than to address frequently confused words toward the end of the course. One way
of handling the list of frequently confused words is to break it into manageable units of five-to
ten-word groups per week for discussion, practice, and testing.
Chapter 26: Using Capital Letters and Endmarks
Capitalization is another area you may want to incorporate earlier in your instructional term, as
the self-contained nature of all the chapters in Jumpstart allow you to do easily. Whenever you
choose to approach capitalization, however, your lesson might best be served by a quick review
of common and proper nouns.
For the most part, students do not have a great deal of difficulty determining when to use periods
and when to use question marks, but they may misunderstand the role of the exclamation mark
and overuse it in their writing. Remind them that exclamation points are rarely appropriate in
college writing except when writing dialogue and that, even in less formal writing, the overuse of
exclamation marks gives writing a tone of immaturity.
You may want to incorporate Chapter 26 throughout your course, especially when studying
independent clauses, fragments, comma splices, and run-on sentences. In addition, you can

17

reiterate the importance of the writers responsibility in conveying meaning through the selection
of appropriate end punctuation.
Chapter 27: Using Commas
The study of comma usage can be handled at any time during your course. You may find that
some students are so focused on comma usage that you need to address it as soon as possible,
particularly in conjunction with coordination and subordination and with fragments, run-on
sentences, and comma splices.
Many basic writers either over-compensate for their confusion and pepper their writing with far
too many commas or under-compensate and use as few commas as they can. It is helpful to
remind students that even professional writers must stop from time to time to look up certain
comma usage rules.
Many students mistakenly believe that they should place a comma wherever they pause in a
sentence. Breaking this habit may be difficult, but remind them that the comma should actually
be the readers signpost to know when to pause, not the writers proclamation that he or she
paused. The writer may have paused to think or simply rest his or her hand.
One common comma usage error that may need your special attention is the habit of many
students of always putting a comma before and, regardless of its function in the sentence.
Remind students that the only time they will place a comma in front of and is when it is used as a
coordinating conjunction joining two independent clauses and when it precedes the last item in a
series.
Chapter 28: Using Apostrophes
Students all too often mistakenly form plural nouns with apostrophes. You may want to use a
number of examples of the differences between plural nouns and possessive nouns to reinforce
the role of the apostrophe. In addition, you will want to caution students to be especially careful
not to confuse contractions with the possessive forms of personal pronouns, such as whos and
whose. Thus, a discussion of apostrophes ties nicely to a discussion of frequently confused words
in Chapter 25.
Chapter 29: Punctuating Quotations
Students may display some degree of confusion over punctuation when using direct quotes.
Encourage your students to become familiar with the chart in Chapter 29 that deals with
quotation marks, comma usage, end punctuation, and capitalization in direct quotations and to
refer to it often.
In addition, because of the subtleties of wording, students may more readily discriminate
between direct and indirect quotations when they read their work aloud. You may also want to
caution students to watch for wording such as said that... as signals that what follows is likely an
indirect quotation.

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The Role of Grammar in the Composition Classroom


Basic writing students often enter a composition class with misconceptions about writing,
misconceptions that, if not addressed immediately and throughout the term, may lead to further
confusion and frustration. All too often, such students view. English and composition as two
separate and distinct entities: they expect to study grammar, punctuation, and mechanics in an
English class; they expect to learn how to write papers in a composition class. It is often a rude
awakening, therefore, when they suddenly discover that in a composition class they actually have
to know and be responsible for English stuff.
It may also be a rude awakening for us, their instructors, to discover that a composition class for
basic writers requires the inclusion of both language and writing skills. How do we fit it all in?
we may ask. How do we help students to be better writers when they dont understand the
basics of the sentence?
Jumpstart is specifically aimed at helping you to address these special needs of your basic
writing students by focusing on both sentence-level concerns and whole discourse. Also, because
basic writing students need regular practice in expressing themselves through writing activities,
Jumpstart provides opportunities in every chapter to tie the sentence-level concerns to numerous
short, specific writing activities.
We can, obviously, help basic writers by providing simple and regular examples of how grammar
assists us as writers to communicate and as readers to comprehend. However, often the role of
grammar in composition needs to be addressed before we actually engage in sentence-level
activities. It is a good idea, therefore, to introduce an example of how grammar affects meaning
as part of our introduction to the course in an attempt to set the tone for the entire term.
Try the following activity as introductory material for the role of grammar in composition. Select
one student from your class. Tell her that you are going to pretend that you own a business and
that she used to work for you. Now she has applied for a job in another city, and she has listed
you as a reference. You have been asked to write a letter of recommendation to the person who
may hire her. You are happy to do so because she was an excellent employee and you hope to
help her get the job she wants. In your letter you have written,
Maria Sanchez performs her job.
While it is true that you have written a sentence that is grammatically correct, you have not
written one that conveys what you mean. For example, by using the present tense, performs, you
have indicated that Maria still works for you. Since she is a former employee, not a current one,
you have communicated the wrong message about her employment.
Furthermore, it is unlikely that Maria hopes that you will simply say that she did her job; in fact,
to do so indicates that you cant find anything good to say about her. Therefore, you add to your
sentence to give it more specific meaning using adjectives and adverbs to describe how she did
her job.

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Maria Sanchez performed her job fairly honestly and conscientiously.


Using your modified sentence, you can now explain to the class how other language skills, in this
case punctuation, also affect meaning. Ask another student if he would hire Maria based on this
sentence. The answer will likely be, No because the sentence says that Maria did a fair job of
being honest and conscientious. In other words, Maria was somewhat honest and somewhat
conscientious; these are not the characteristics we want in an employee.
This is the perfect opportunity to show what two simple commas can do to the meaning of a
sentence. Write your sentence again as,
Maria Sanchez performed her job fairly, honestly, and conscientiously.
By adding two commas, you not only changed the meaning of the sentence from a somewhat
negative one about Maria to a very positive one, but you actually changed the meaning of a
word. By putting a comma after fairly, you made it a strong adverb describing how she treated
people equitably in the performance of her job instead of a negative adjective describing how she
was somewhat honest and somewhat conscientious.
This example shows students in a rather dramatic fashion that it is the responsibility of the writer
to express meaning clearly and correctly, using grammar, punctuation, and mechanics as
signposts.
When basic writing students understand that grammar, punctuation, and mechanics are not just
English thingsthat is, they not only have to do with correctness but with meaning as well
then those students are more likely to approach language skills as tools for making their
compositions better, not just something they have to learn to pass the test. It is helpful to remind
students that they can compete better in the work place and in school by learning and using the
dialect taught in Jumpstart.

20

Teaching Tips for the Basic Writing Course


If, as the basic writing course requires, we are teaching language skills, testing language skills,
teaching the writing process, making writing assignments, and grading those writing
assignments, perhaps for several classes, how are we to handle all of it? The following
suggestions address this dilemma in a manner that creates a positive learning environment for
your studentswhile helping you to manage the workload.
Tip 1: Making Writing Assignments Specific and Clear
Basic writing students may be easily confused by instructions to write a paper. Does a paper
mean a paragraph, several paragraphs, an essay? What is the difference between an essay, a
composition, and a paper? Basic writers tend to respond more positively and with greater
confidence to specific assignments such as write a paragraph or write a letter. It is especially
appropriate in basic writing courses to work with shorter pieces of writing such as paragraphs
and letters rather than with longer essays. By doing so, we reinforce the students understanding
of the components of good writing in manageable units.
Tip 2: Evaluating Consistently
While basic writing students become frustrated with vague writing assignments, they become
even more frustrated by vague evaluation standards. Students should know up front that although
you maintain some degree of flexibility in evaluating their writing, you also maintain certain
standards that are appropriate for effective writing.
You may find it useful to provide your students with a standard evaluation chart that lists the
components of effective writing and that indicates a system of points deducted for errors.
Although the chart provided on the following page is by no means the only one of its type, you
may find it effective for using in its entirety or for adapting it to your requirements. You may also
find that the chart serves as a specific revision and editing checklist for students.
Students should also know that learning to write better is a cumulative experience and that your
evaluations of their writing will demand more of them as they learn more. It is a good idea to
point out to them, for example, that you will be far more aware of subject-verb agreement in
their writing after they have studied Chapter 9 than before they have studied it. Besides
reinforcing chapter objectives, this evaluation technique also results in returned writing
assignments that are not covered in red (or preferably, green) ink.

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Paragraph Evaluation Guide


Structure and Content = 50%
Paragraph Development: Each error deducts 5 points from the total grade.
1. Topic sentence (The main idea of the paragraph is clearly stated in a topic sentence.)
2. Transition (The paragraph contains smooth movement from one thought to another.)
3. Unity (All ideas in the paragraph are related to the topic.)
4. Adequate detail (The detail shows; it doesnt just tell.)
5. Conclusion (The paragraph is brought to a satisfying end in the closing.)
Sentences: Each error deducts 5 points from the total grade.
1. Variety (Monotonous, short, choppy sentences are avoided; a variety of sentence patterns is
used.)
2. Form (Coordination is used to combine ideas of equal importance; subordination is used to
combine ideas not of equal importance.)
3. Sentence Structure (Problems with sentence structure and parallelism have been eliminated.)
4. Conciseness (Wordiness is avoided.)
Grammar, Punctuation, and Mechanics = 50%
Group I: Each Group I error deducts 5 points from the total grade.
1. Subject-verb disagreement
2. Error in principal parts of verb
Group II: Each Group II error deducts 2 points from the total grade.
1. Inappropriate use of subject, object, reflexive, and intensive pronouns
2. Incorrect pronoun-antecedent agreement
3. Inappropriate person shifts or tense shifts
4. Unclear or unstated pronoun reference
5. Incorrect use of adjectives, adverbs, and articles
6. Incorrect use of participles and infinitives to describe
7. Inappropriate use of prepositions and prepositional phrases
Group III: Each Group III error deducts 1 point from the total grade.
1. Capitalization errors
2. Punctuation errors (other than commas, including ending sentences and punctuating direct
quotations)
3. Incorrect apostrophe use
4. Inappropriate use of comma
5. Inappropriate word choice (frequently confused words)
6. Misspelling

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Tip 3: Dealing with Students Frustration


You may find that many of your basic writers quickly become frustrated after having their
written assignments returned with corrections and suggestions. Of course, you will want to
remind students that writing is an on-going process, one that involves particular attention to
editing and revision. In addition, the following suggestions are intended to discourage students
frustrations and to encourage their efforts.

Remind students that their mistakes are not indications of failure but, rather, are opportunities
to improve their writing.

Encourage students to build on what they already know about writing and language skills by
recognizing their strengths and fashioning their writing in such a way as to enhance those
strengths.

Work with students to set intermediate goals rather than to aim for perfection in their writing.
By doing so, you will help students to understand better that the process of writing involves
slow, steady gains rather than dramatic turnarounds.

When evaluating student writing, consistently highlight areas of improvement in addition to


problem areas. By doing so, you remind students that they are, indeed, moving forward and
becoming better writers.

Emphasize the value of students ideas by making positive comments about what they have
said. By praising their ideas, you set the stage for encouraging them to make their ideas
clearer through improved language and writing skills.

Publish students revised writing, without evaluation comments, in booklets to be distributed


throughout the class (and perhaps among classes) several times each term. Students respond
favorably to seeing their ideas and words in print.

Tip 4: Highlighting Jumpstart Chapter Objectives in Written Assignments


In order to avoid separating the sentence-level concerns of Jumpstart from the actual writing
process, especially from the students perspective, you may find it helpful to evaluate writing
assignments with two different colors of pens. For example, when you make a writing
assignment while studying Chapter 6, Eliminating Sentence Fragments, you may want to
identify any sentence fragments with purple ink and identify other errors and make general
comments with green ink. By doing so, you will have emphasized the importance of all the
issues of effective writing while maintaining a specific focus on the objectives at hand (in this
case, fragments)
Tip 5: Using Regular Student Conferences
Student conferences are an ideal way to provide special attention to your students individual
writing strengths and weaknesses. Conferences are particularly effective with basic writing
students because less confident students are more prone in a one-to-one situation to ask the
questions they hesitate to ask in front of their classmates. In addition, you are able to point out
and work to solve a students problem areas in a conference without the student feeling he or she
23

has been singled out. You may find that the most economical use of your time is to conduct
individual conferences while other students work at their desks on work sheets or writing
assignments. Even so, it is a good idea to call students to your desk one at a time for conferences
so that your conversations can be private.
One of the goals of student conferences should be for you and the student to lay out periodically
all of his or her work to that point and to examine the progression the student is making. All too
often, basic writing students tend to make the same mistakes over and over in their writing and
complain that they can never get it right. Through conferences, however, you can point out areas
of progression and encourage students not only to improve areas of weaknesses but also to
continue to build on the strengths they have and the progress they have made. Therefore,
conferences are an ideal time to work with students on individual progress logs so that they can
actually see in black and white how far they have come and can recognize their trouble spots.
If your schedule permits, student conferences are most effective when they are scheduled on a
regular basis and as an integral part of the composition course. During the conference, it is best
to deal with a students content in a piece of writing before addressing sentence-level concerns.
In that way, you have the opportunity first to compliment the student on what he or she has said
and then provide direction, if necessary, for saying it better through more detail and through
correct grammar, punctuation, and mechanicsin other words, to reinforce on a very personal
level the process and point of writing.
A sample student progress log for use in student conferences is provided on the following page
for you to use or modify according to your needs.

24

WRITING PROGRESS LOG FOR ________________________________


(students name)
Date and Title
of Writing

Strong Points

Areas to Improve

25

Assignment

Tip 6: Involving Students in Peer Review


Incorporating peer review into the composition class reinforces the need for students to be
attuned to an audience in a far more realistic setting than when instructors alone read and
evaluate their writing. In addition, peer review allows students the valuable opportunity to see
how other students handle writing tasks.
Peer review is perhaps most effective when used with ungraded writing assignments in order to
allow students the opportunity to practice good writing, revision, and editing skills. However,
peer review can also be used as a part of the revision and editing process of writing assignments
that will be graded in order to encourage students always to be aware of writing for an audience.
Regardless of when peer review sessions are conducted, students should be reminded that these
sessions offer them a chance to consider incorporating the revisions suggested by their peers;
they should never feel forced to make changes that they feel are either incorrect or inappropriate.
Peer review can be handled in a number of different ways, from using revising and editing
partners to using group peer review sessions. You may want to share your own writing
periodically in group sessions and discuss the process of your writing. Another effective
technique is to publish students works-in-progress for class discussion and review, leading the
remarks from the class in positive and helpful directions. Once reviewed, students may revise
and rewrite their assignments to be published without evaluation comments in booklets
distributed to the class.
Regardless of how peer review is handled, students need to understand from the outset of the
course what to expect as writers from peer review sessions and what is expected of them as
reviewers. One way to ensure that student writers and editors alike understand their roles in the
sessions is to provide them with response sheets that keep them focused on the task at hand.
Typical peer review response sheets are provided on the following pages for you to use and adapt
according to your needs.

26

PEER REVIEW SHEET


Writers Name________________________________
Reviewers Name___________________ Date______
In addition to identifying and marking problems with sentence structure, grammar, punctuation,
and mechanics, please respond to the following questions.
1. Can you easily tell what the topic of the writing is? If so, what is it?

2. Are you interested in reading about this topic? Why or why not?

3. What do you like best about this piece of writing?

4. Do any points go unproven or unsupported? If so, which ones?

5. Is there anything you do not understand? If so, what?

6. Does any detail stray from the topic? If so, what?

7. Does the writing come to a satisfying conclusion? If not, how do you suggest concluding it?

8. Do you have any advice for the writer that is not covered by the previous questions? If so,
what?

Source for Peer Review Sheet: Adapted from Barbara Clouse, Working It Out, p. 140. copyright 1993. Used with
permission.

27

WRITERS RESPONSE SHEET TO PEER REVIEW


Writers Name________________________________
Reviewers Name___________________ Date______
In addition to analyzing, correcting, and/or letting stand sentence-level concerns that your peer
editor marked on your paper, please respond to the following questions.
1. Did you restate the topic of your writing? If so, how?

2. Did you attempt to make your topic more interesting. If so, how?

3. Did you build on the identified strengths of this writing? If so, how?

4. Did you attempt to further prove or support any points? If so, how?

5. Is there anything you attempted to clarify? If so, what and how?

6. Did you delete any detail that strayed from the topic? If so, what?

7. Did you change the conclusion in any way? If so, how?

8. Did you incorporate any other advice of your peer editor? If so, what?

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Tip 7: Staying on Top of the Paper Load


No one is going to tell you that handling the paper load in a basic writing course is an easy task.
However, everyone will tell you that basic writing students need timely responses to their work.
Although handling the paper load can be time-consuming, you can lessen the impact of the
number of tests and written assignments that you have to grade with a little preparation and
management.

Take advantage of the Jumpstart Test Bank that has been designed to free you from the timeconsuming task of creating individual chapter tests and review tests.

Use peer review sessions to handle practice writing assignments, freeing you to concentrate
more of your time on graded assignments. You will, of course, respond to practice writing
assignments, but your responses may be more about how students revised and edited papers
to express themselves better rather than on specific sentence-level concerns.

Tape-record your responses to a students writing rather than fill the paper with corrections
and suggestions. Tape-recorded responses that the student can listen to provide a more
personal touch to the evaluation process and are the next best thing to face-to-face
conferences.

Mark only one or two kinds of errors each time you grade a writing assignment, emphasizing
the course and text objectives just covered.

Instead of marking every error, write brief summary comments of chief strengths and
weaknesses of the writing. Students are often overwhelmed by too much feedback.

If you are using a computer-based writing lab, take advantage of the opportunity to enter and
store comments on the students disks containing their writing. If you are somewhat
computer-proficient, you can even store often used comments in macro files to call up and
insert in your students writing where appropriate. Of course, if you do use canned
comments, be sure to add a personal touch to your comments by responding to specific issues
pertaining to the subject of the piece of writing.

Use student conferences to grade some pieces of writing with the student in front of you so
that he or she gets immediate feedback to the assignment and so that you can explain your
comments more completely than if you write the comments on the paper itself.

Tip 8: Using a Writers Journal


Even with our best intentions to encourage students to express themselves, we often find that
basic writing students are reluctant to do so. In fact, it is not unusual to find basic writing
students progressing in their use of language skills and organization while failing to develop a
natural tone or their own voice. It is difficult for them to see the purpose of their writing when
they find little of themselves in it.
One way to help students discover that they do, indeed, have something to say is to require a
writers journal as a part of your composition course. Most instructors find the journal most
29

useful when it is a place for students to practice the early stages of writing and, therefore,
evaluate the journal based on the expression of ideas and the regularity of writing rather than on
the correctness of language and organization. Thus, the journal can be evaluated periodically
throughout the term based on the requirements of what kind and amount of writing should be
included and how often the student should write, with the accumulated journal grade carrying the
same weight as one test grade at the end of the term. Regardless of how the assignment is
handled, however, the journal should always be a place where students feel comfortable writing.
Although journal writing is free and unstructured, basic writing students respond best to journal
requirements when they come with some set of expected guidelines. Chapter 1 in Jumpstart
provides your students with specific guidelines on how to keep a journal, including how often to
write and how to set up the journal. You may want to add your own touch to these guidelines by
explaining how often the journal will be collected and read, how long journal entries should be,
how often (if at all) you will allow class time for journal writing, and how you will expect the
students to use journal entries periodically to shape more formal writing activities.
Perhaps the biggest hurdle to overcome when requiring a writers journal is helping your
students to understand that the journal is not a daily log of their activities. One of the best ways
to help them understand the difference between a journal and a diary is to tell them to write about
their responses, their observations, and their reactions to events, rather than to write about the
events themselves. Basic writing students respond favorably to suggested lists of topics to write
about. Such lists encourage students to write about the past and the future as well as the present
and steer them away from entries such as, I woke up, I ate breakfast, I went to school, and
nothing much happened. Some journal topics are provided in Chapter 1, and more are provided
here that you may want to add to your own lists:
Additional Journal Writing Topic

Write about something that angers you, pleases you, or frustrates you.

Describe the best and worst features of your school.

Record your reactions to your writing class so far, and describe what you have found
confusing and what you have found helpful.

Describe the sounds you hear in a ten-minute period in a crowded place such as a ballpark or
a mall.

Try writing a poem or a song.

Think of the last argument you had with someone, pretend you are the other person, and
describe the argument from that persons point of view.

Write about your ideal job.

30

Write about the worst job you have ever had.

Write a letter to a company praising one of its products (or complaining about one of its
products).

Record quotations that mean something to you and explain why they are meaningful.

Obviously, the nature of some of the suggested journal topics may result in some very personal
entries. Although the temptation to help students deal with emotional difficulties and problems
may be strong, you should avoid taking on the role of personal counselor and, instead, make
professional referrals when necessary.
Students should be encouraged to look upon the journal as a place to write independently and to
explore, discover, observe, and experiment. It is a place to develop, refine, and rehearse ideas for
composition. It is a place to practice writing as a means to learn. Most of all, it is a place where
students can find their unique voice and feel confident that they do, indeed, have something to
say.

31

Computers in the Composition Class


Using computers in the composition class creates an environment that encourages working
through the complete writing process and that trains students in handling real-world and on-thejob writing situations.
Perhaps the most obvious benefit of using computers in the composition class is that computers
tend to free students somewhat from their personal attachments to their papers by offering
immediate opportunities for revision. For example, a student who has written a paper in
longhand or who has typed it may be hesitant to revise or reorganize by changing words or
moving entire paragraphs because such a revision entails the laborious task of rewriting or
retyping the entire paper; however, using a computer, the same revision involves a simple
deletion and insertion process or, in the case of moving paragraphs, a simple cutting and pasting
procedure.
In addition, many computer and word processing features such as grammar-checks, spell-checks,
thesaurus files, search and replace commands, and note windows not only make composing on
the computer easier but also supplement instruction and support correct language usage. Many
students who formerly found the entire revision process tedious now find it less daunting.
Of course, students should be reminded that grammar-checks and thesaurus files in particular
offer suggestions for better writing, not necessarily corrections. By using such programs,
however, students tend to look more closely at their writing and to gain valuable experience in
analyzing not only how to say something but also how to say it best.
Composing at the Computer tips, which appear in a number of the chapters in Jumpstart, offer
students helpful hints on writing on a computer. Instructors are encouraged to review these
carefully with students and to provide them with the opportunity to write at least some of their
papers with computer assistance.
In addition, McGraw-Hills writing program, All Write! 2.1 is available online through password
access and on CD-ROM. All Write! 2.1 is an excellent interactive, browser-based grammar and
editing tutorial program providing an online handbook, comprehensive diagnostic pre-tests and
post-tests, and extensive practice writing. Using a self-paced system, All Write! explains basic
grammar, punctuation, and spelling by using a full range of rhetorical and research topics and
techniques. The program includes comprehensive diagnostic pretests and posttests, and it offers
extensive practice sessions in over eighty objective areas. Diverse exercises include multiplechoice, error identification, and fill-in activities, as well as correction of discrete errors.
By using All Write!, students are involved in the active discovery of grammar principles and
writing skills. The key word here is active; students do not merely watch screens of data pass by.
Rather, All Write! includes high-interest animation and graphics that appeal to students and
engage their interest. Best of all, grammar instruction is given in context. Many questions are in
the context of a paragraph, making All Write! an excellent program for instruction in a realistic
setting.

32

Additionally, McGraw-Hills Online Learning Center (www.mhhe.com/jumpstart) offers a host of


instructional aids and additional resources for students, including self-correcting exercises with
feedback for right and wrong answers, writing activities for additional practice, a PowerPoint
grammar tutorial, guides to doing research on the Internet and avoiding plagiarism, and useful
web links.
Of course, seldom in life do benefits come without some drawbacks. For example, computergenerated writing may look so visually appealing to students that they may fail to see the need to
revise and edit. Students should be reminded that errors are errors, even when they are printed in
a neat and clean fashion.
Perhaps the drawback of the greatest concern when using computers in the composition class is
the tendency for students to misunderstand the role of the computer in the writing process. It is
important to make students aware that the computer will only create what the students create. It
will not find a topic and narrow that topic for them; it will not find the appropriate support for
that topic; it will not guarantee a good paper. In other words, it will not think for them. It will,
however, free them from some of the more time-consuming aspects of the editing and revision
process and allow them more time for thinking through their papers.
Student Activities Using a Computer
The following lists of student activities require students to use computers while encouraging
them to think for themselves.
Generating Ideas
Freewrite using the computer. With a full, blank screen, begin to write whatever comes to
mind about your subject (or even your lack of a subject). Write as quickly as you can,
allowing your mind to jump from one idea to the next as quickly as the connections are
made. Do not worry about grammar, punctuation, coherence, or a grade. Just write! Tell
yourself that you will write until the screen is completely full. That is about five or ten
minutes, depending on your keyboard skills. Once you fill the screen, get a printout so that
you can read what you have typed. Underline useable ideas. Perhaps there will be enough to
get you started. If not, do a second freewriting focusing on the underlined ideas.

You may want to try blindfolded freewriting, especially if you find yourself stopping to
correct errors when freewriting. No, you do not really blindfold yourself or even close your
eyes; you just turn off the screen. Find the switch that controls the brightness of the monitor
and turn it all the way down until the screen is dark. Then freewrite for five or ten minutes
before turning the screen back on to see what you have written.

List by using the computer to generate ideas. Write the first idea that comes to mind. Put it in
the form of a word or a short phrase, and do not censor yourself; write it down even if it
sounds like a rotten idea. Then press the enter key, and write another idea. Repeat these steps
until you run out of ideas. What you will end up with is a vertical list of ideas, much like a
shopping list. Now use your delete key to eliminate ideas you want to strike from your list.
Next study your list and decide what order is suggested. Try out the order using the copy-

33

paste sequence that is part of your word processing program. Rearrange your list as often as
you like until you have a suitable scratch outline to guide your first draft.
Outlining
Create a post-draft outline on the computer to refer to as you edit and rewrite. After writing
your first draft based on your scratch outline, save the file. Then create a second copy of the
draft by renaming the file with an .OUT (for outline) extension. Reduce this second copy
to an outline by identifying the topic sentence of each paragraph and deleting everything else
from each paragraph.
Next, identify your thesis sentence and write it at the top of your outline. Now use Roman
and Arabic numbers, capital and lowercase letters to sequence the sentences below the thesis
into a formal outline. Study this outline and make any necessary adjustments. Then you can
place your outline in a window and the original draft of your paper can be recalled and
revised according to the insights gained from making the outline. If your word processing
program does not offer a window, simply print the outline and use it as a revision guide.
Writing Your First Draft
Start writing your first draft on a full, blank screen with your outline in a window on the
screen or beside you if your word processing program does not offer a window. Using your
outline as a basic guide, begin writing. Do not worry during this stage whether your margins
are set just so or whether you have your line spacing correct. This is the time to get your
ideas down; do not worry whether they look pretty. Allow your draft to be rough by writing
fast and not looking back and resisting the temptation to rewrite as you draft. Keep forging
ahead to discover where your ideas will take you. You will be able to rewrite and polish the
rough spots later.
Revising
If your computer allows you to split the screen, place a revising checklist in a window to
refer to as you reread and edit your work. If you make up your own checklist, be sure to
include reminders on content, organization, and expression. Of course, your instructor may
have a revision checklist that you can use.

If you are unsure about parts of your draftif you do not know whether or not they should
be changeduse the boldface function of your word processing program to highlight the
areas in question. Then print out your draft and give it to two or more reliable readers and ask
them to react to the parts in boldface type.

If you think your draft is too short, go through the draft on the computer, and before each of
your main points press the insert key and then hit the space bar ten times. This should
visually separate each main point and its support. Now you can study each main point
individually to determine whether you can add an example, a story, or some description.
After adding detail to develop the main points, rejoin your sentences to form a longer draft.

Use your word processing programs search function to find general words you are in the
habit of using that may be replaced with more specific words. For example, you can ask the
34

computer to spot where you have used general words such as very, quite, a lot, rather, really,
great, good, bad, and some. Once the computer has located these words, you can decide
whether to keep one or more of them or to replace them to be more specific.
Editing
Edit your work for sentence structure, grammar, punctuation, and mechanics by placing an
editing checklist in a window. Consult the checklist as you edit, paying special attention to
mistakes you know that you are prone to make.

Try reformatting your text on screen with four spaces between each line. This way, you can
edit one line at a time with less of your text entering your visual field to distract you from the
words you are studying.

Look for sentence fragments in your writing by isolating every word group you call a
sentence. Insert eight spaces before each capital letter that marks the start of a sentence. Then
read each word group separately to hear if something is missing. Because each word group is
now physically separated, finding fragments can be easier. When you are finished with this
aspect of editing, reformat your text to draw everything back together.

Look for run-on sentences by using the search function to find the run-on warning words he,
she, it, they, however, therefore, hence, as a result, then, thus, finally, in addition, moreover,
furthermore, consequently, on the contrary, nevertheless, similarly, next, and for example.
Once these words are identified in your text, check for independent clauses on both sides of
these words. Wherever you find independent clauses on both sides of a warning word, be
sure you have a period, a semicolon, or a comma and a conjunction before the word.

Check your use of pronouns by using the search function of your word processing program.
First set the search to look for they, their, and them. Check to be sure that you have plural
nouns for these words to refer to. Also, check to be sure that they has a stated noun to refer
to. Next, use the search function to locate everyone, everybody, everything, someone,
somebody, something, anyone, anybody, and anything. Check to see if a pronoun refers to
each of these words. If so, use the singular form for formal usage. Finally, use the search
function to locate every use of you. Then see if you need to change this pronoun because it is
not really referring to the reader.

Of course, a discussion of computers in the composition classroom would not be complete


without a sampling of useful Internet sites for basic writing students. The following sites are just
a few of the excellent resources available for writing students on the Internet. You likely have
favorite sites of your own to add to the list.
Guide to Writing a Basic Essay
The Nuts and Bolts of College Writing
Paradigm Online Writing Assistant
Paragraph Punch
Essay Punch
11 Rules of Writing

http://members.tripod.com/~lklivingston/essay/
http://www.nutsandboltsguide.com/
http://www.powa.org/
http://www.paragraphpunch.com/
http://www.essaypunch.com/
http://www.junketstudies.com/rulesofw/
35

Purdue University Online Writing Lab


Guide to Grammar and Style
University of Richmond Writers Web
Daves ESL Caf

http://owl.english.purdue.edu/handouts/index2.html
http://andromeda.rutgers.edu/~jlynch/Writing/
http://writing.richmond.edu/writersweb/
http://www.pacificnet.net/~sperling/eslcafe.html

Many instructors find it helpful to schedule some of their class time in classrooms outfitted with
computers. Others find it more appropriate simply to encourage students to take advantage of the
computer facilities of the college on their own time. Whatever the approach, using computers in
the composition class provides a supplement to the total writing process and prepares students to
take advantage of the benefits of an increasingly prevalent technology.
Source for Student Activities Using a Computer: Adapted from Barbara Clouse, Working It Out, chapter by chapter
Use a Computer suggestions. Copyright 1993. Used with permission.

36

ESL Concerns in the Composition Class


Throughout Jumpstart you will find tips for students who are non-native users of English. These
tips appear within the chapters under the heading If English Is Not Your First Language.
Perhaps what is most important to remember about ESL concerns is that they encompass more
than just grammar. Many of the problems that non-native users of English face have to do with
basic linguistic differences. For example, ESL students may have difficulty with English
sentence structure, rhetorical patterns, and organization styles, not because they cannot
understand them, but because language in their culture may not follow the linear patterns found
in the English language.
Another problem ESL students often encounter is topic selection. While American students often
choose topics that argue accepted ideas, ESL students often come from cultures where
controversial subjects are considered rude at best, if not taboo. Getting these students to express
their opinions without apologizing for them may not be a matter of avoiding weakness in writing
style; it may actually run counter to their value systems. One way to handle this problem is to
allow ESL students to concentrate more of their writing on informing and describing.
The most common English language problems ESL students encounter can be categorized in
several specific areas.

Many languages use a phonetic alphabet. Spelling in English, however, is seldom as logical.

Word order in sentences may vary in some languages. For example, Arabic languages use a
verb-subject-object pattern, whereas English uses a subject-verb-object pattern.

In some languages there are no plural forms of nouns and no variations in verb tense. In
English, however, words often change their form according to context and function.

Adjectives and adverbs usually follow the noun they modify in Arabic, French, Spanish, and
Italian whereas in English they usually appear before the nouns they modify.

In some languages, the use of prepositions is handled very differently than in English. For
example, whereas a native English speaker might use the prepositional phrase different from,
an ESL speaker is likely to express the same phrase as different to.

In languages such as Spanish, the subject does not have to be included in a sentence when the
conjugated verb form indicates who is performing the action; however, such an omission in
English constitutes a sentence fragment.

In many languages, passive sentence construction is not only common but more acceptable
than active sentence construction; in English, however, passive constructions are more often
considered a weak style.

37

Additional Writing Activities


While some students prefer to choose their own writing topics, many find topic selection a
frustrating task. To help in this area, Jumpstart provides many writing activities for use
throughout.
Sometimes, however, instructors and students alike prefer to have more choices than those
provided in the text. The following additional writing topics may prove useful.

A big birthday bash is being planned for someone you respect and care a great deal for (you
pick the persona friend, a relative, a teacher, a coach, a member of the clergyanyone
you regard highly). You have been asked to write a one-paragraph character sketch of that
person which presents and illustrates one of that persons best traits. Mention the trait in the
beginning of your paragraph, and go on to give examples that illustrate the trait(s). The
sketch will be photocopied and distributed to everyone at the birthday party.
Your audience, therefore, will be people who also know and care for the person.
Your role as writer is that of an admirer.
Your purpose is to praise the person by sharing impressions and experiences.

You are a member of the local Chamber of commerce, which is putting together a brochure to
promote tourism in your area. Pick a spot in your area (a recreational spot, a historic area, an
educational place, an amusement spot) and write a description of it to be included in the
brochure. Your description should be one paragraph.
Your audience is the traveler looking for a place to spend some time.
Your role is that of someone who takes pride in the spot you are describing.
Your purpose is to persuade the reader to visit your area.

For the last week you have been home with the flu, and to pass the time you have watched a
great deal of television. The programming aimed at children, you have noticed, is mindnumbing. Even worse, the shows and accompanying commercials are manipulative, aimed at
getting children to pester their parents for toys and sugared foods. You become outraged and
write a letter of protest to the networks.
Your audience is the person at the network responsible for scheduling childrens
programming.
Your role is that of a concerned citizen.

38

Your purpose is to persuade the networks to improve the quality of shows and commercials
aimed at children.
You have recently acquired a pen pal who lives in a third world nation. He or she has asked
that in each letter you describe a different facet of American life, as honestly and precisely as
possible. Pick one aspect and write a thorough description.
Your audience is your pen pal who knows very little about this country.
Your role is that of an ambassador and teacher.
Your purpose is to inform through description.

As part of a job application, you have been asked to write a character sketch of yourself that
presents and illustrates your chief strengths and weaknesses. Your sketch should be two
paragraphs.
Your audience is the personnel director responsible for hiring.
Your role is that of job applicant.
Your purpose is to present a realistic, yet favorable portrait.
Source: Adapted from Barbara Clouse, Working It Out, pp. 131-134. copyright 1993. Used with permission.

39

Building Vocabulary
Chapters 24 and 25 of Jumpstart offer excellent instruction on spelling and frequently confused
words. However, you will likely want to incorporate additional vocabulary building skills
throughout your course. The reading selections are an excellent place to start to help students
build vocabulary skills.
You may want to encourage your students to keep a vocabulary notebook where they record
words they encounter in the reading selections which are unfamiliar to them. Each entry could
include the word itself, its definition, the sentence in the reading selection in which it is used, and
another sentence written by the student using the word. While students should be responsible for
recording unfamiliar words they find in their vocabulary notebook, you may want to point out
particular words in the selections that you suspect are unfamiliar to most of your students and
have them include those words in their notebooks as well.
In addition, many excellent sites exist on the Internet for vocabulary building. A few such sites
are listed here, but you may know of others to add to the list.
The Miriam Webster Online Dictionary
http://www.m-w.com/
This site includes a dictionary, a thesaurus, a word of the day, and word games.
Your Dictionary
http://www.yourdictionary.com/
This site includes language dictionaries, a thesaurus, and a game room that includes word of the
day crossword puzzles.
Vocabulary University
http://www.vocabulary.com/
This site includes vocabulary puzzles and exercises that help prepare for the SAT and ACT tests.
Although it is designed for high school students, it is also an excellent site for basic college
writing students.
Dictionary.com
http://www.dictionary.com/wordoftheday/
This site includes a word of the day with examples.
Oxford English Dictionary
This site includes a word of the day.

http://www.oed.com/cgi/display/wotd

40

Transparency Masters
The following transparency masters are provided in conjunction with the skills taught in
Jumpstart and are intended to assist you in classroom instruction. While not all competencies in
the text are covered in the following transparencies, we have made every effort to cover many of
the competency areas which may need additional reinforcement.

41

THE STAGES OF WRITING


STAGE 1: Find a writing topic.
STAGE 2: Consider your purpose and your audience.
STAGE 3: Discover ideas for developing a topic.
STAGE 4: Write your first draft.
STAGE 5: Revise your draft.
STAGE 6: Edit your revised draft.
STAGE 7: Proofread your final copy.
Note: Writers often move back and forth among the stages of
writing as ideas occur to them.

Copyright 1996 by The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc. All Rights Reserved.

42

THE PARTS OF A PARAGRAPH


The topic sentence
expresses the main
idea of the paragraph.

Students should take special


care to stay physically fit. In the
dining hall, they should avoid the highfat items and heavily sugared cereals
Omit any sentences
that do not stick to the
point.

and desserts. At least three times a


week, they should get an hour of
aerobic exercise, perhaps by swimming
or walking briskly. Exercise does not
have to be expensive to be effective.

The closing brings the


paragraph to a
satisfying end.

Supporting details
develop the main
idea mentioned in the
topic sentence.

Also important is sleeping well (at least


six hours a night) and keeping regular
hours.

If

students

follow

these

commonsense guidelines, they can


stay fit and healthy in college.

Source: Adapted from Barbara Clouse, Jumpstart A Workbook for Writers, p. 34. Copyright 1995. Used with permission.
Copyright 1996 by The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc. All Rights Reserved.

THE SUBJECT AND THE


PREDICATE
43

Every sentence has two parts: (1) the subject and (2) the predicate.
To find the subject, ask who or what does or did something. If the sentence does not express
action, ask who or what exists or existed in a particular way.
Sentence: The instructor postponed the test.
Who or what did something? The instructor did something (postponed the test). Therefore, the
instructor is the subject of the sentence.
Sentence: The championship game was exciting.
Who or what existed in a particular way? The championship game existed in a particular way
(exciting). Therefore, the championship game is the subject of the sentence.
To find the predicate, ask what about the subject.
Sentence: The instructor postponed the test.
What about the instructor? The instructor postponed the test. Therefore, postponed the test is the
predicate of the sentence.
Sentence: The championship game was exciting.
What about the championship game? It was exciting. Therefore, was exciting is the predicate of
the sentence.

(Page 1 of 3)
Copyright 1996 by The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc. All Rights Reserved.

The Simple Subject


The simple subject is the most important part of the complete subject. The simple subject will be
a noun (a word that names a person, a place, a thing, or an idea), a pronoun (a word that

44

substitutes for a noun such as I, you, he, she, it, we, or they), or a form of a verb ending in -ing or
beginning with the word to.
Sentence: The instructor postponed the test.
Complete subject: the instructor
Simple subject: instructor
Sentence: The championship game was exciting.
Complete subject: the championship game
Simple subject: game
Sentence: They are my friends.
Complete subject: They
Simple subject: They
Sentence: Playing golf involves patience.
Complete subject: Playing golf
Simple subject: Playing
Sentence: To win a tennis match takes agility.
Complete subject: To win a tennis match
Simple subject: To win
Some sentences have more than one subject. In this case, a sentence is said to have a compound
subject.
Sentence: Two students and the instructor watched the movie.
Complete subject: two students and the instructor
Simple subject: students and instructor
Be careful: The simple subject is never part of a prepositional phrase.
Sentence: The flowers in your garden are beautiful.
Complete subject: the flowers in your garden
Simple subject: flowers
Sentence: The books on the table and the papers on the desk belong to Sasha.
Complete subject: the books on the table and the papers on the desk
Simple subject: books and papers
(Page 2 of 3)
Copyright 1996 by The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc. All Rights Reserved.

The Verb
Every predicate includes a verb. Sometimes the verb shows action (action verb), or sometimes it
links the subject to a word that renames or describes the subject (a linking verb).

45

Sentence: The instructor postponed the test.


Complete Subject: The instructor
Simple Subject: instructor
Predicate: postponed the test
Verb: postponed (action verb)
Sentence: The championship game was exciting.
Complete Subject: The championship game
Simple Subject: game
Predicate: was exciting
Verb: was (linking verb)
Sentence: Playing golf involves patience.
Complete Subject: Playing golf
Simple Subject: Playing
Predicate: involves patience
Verb: involves (action verb)
Sentence: The flowers in your garden are beautiful.
Complete Subject: The flowers in your garden
Simple Subject: flowers
Predicate: are beautiful
Verb: are (linking verb)
The complete verb can be made up of more than one word. The action verb or the linking verb is
the main verb. The other verb is the helping verb.
Sentence: We should plan ahead.
Action Verb: plan
Helping Verb: should
Complete Verb: should plan
Sentence: That young man may be the winner.
Linking Verb: be
Helping Verb: may
Complete Verb: may be
Some sentences have two or more verbs for the same subject. In this case the sentence is said to
have a compound verb.
Sentence: We watched the movie and ate popcorn.
Compound Verb: watched and ate
(Page 3 of 3)
Copyright 1996 by The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc. All Rights Reserved.

COORDINATION
46

1. Two independent clauses can be joined in the same sentence with a comma and
a coordinating conjunction. The coordinating conjunctions include:
and

but

or

nor

for

so

yet

I studied hard, so I should do well on the test.


2. Two independent clauses can be joined in the same sentence with a semicolon,
a conjunctive adverb, and a comma. The conjunctive adverbs are:
consequently
furthermore
however
instead

meanwhile
moreover
nevertheless
nonetheless

otherwise
therefore
thus

I studied hard; therefore, I should do well on the test.


3. Two independent clauses can be joined in the same sentence with a semicolon.
I studied hard; I should do well on the test.

Copyright 1996 by The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc. All Rights Reserved.

47

SUBORDINATION
1.

An independent clause and a dependent clause beginning with a


subordinating conjunction can be joined in the same sentence. The
subordinating conjunctions are:
after
although
as
as if
as long as
as soon as
as though

because
before
even though
if
since
though
unless

until
when
whenever
where
wherever
whether
while

Because I studied hard, I should do well on the test.


or
I should do well on the test because I studied hard.
2.

An independent clause and a dependent clause beginning with a relative


pronoun can be joined in the same sentence. The relative pronouns used to form
relative clauses are:
who
whose
which
People who study hard should do well on the test.

that

Sharon, who studied hard, should do well on the test.


These are the class notes that I studied.

Copyright 1996 by The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc. All Rights Reserved.

48

RECOGNIZING FRAGMENTS
Test Statement:
Because the storm forced us to cancel our plans.
1. Does it have a subject (understood or stated)?
2. Does it have a complete verb?
3. Does it have enough completeness to stand independently?
FOR A STATEMENT TO BE COMPLETE,
THE ANSWER TO ALL THREE QUESTIONS MUST BE YES.
YES

1. Does it have a subject?

The subject is the storm.


Th

YES

2. Does it have a complete verb?

The complete verb is forced.


NO

3. Does it have enough completeness to stand independently?

Even though the statement has a subject and a complete verb, if someone made this
statement to you, you would need more information for it to make sense.
THE STATEMENT IS A FRAGMENT
BECAUSE IT DID NOT ANSWER YES TO ALL THREE QUESTIONS.

Copyright 1996 by The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc. All Rights Reserved.

49

RUN-ON SENTENCES
AND COMMA SPLICES
A run-on sentence is a problem that occurs
when two independent clauses are not separated.
I want to buy a new car I am saving my money.

A coma splice is a problem that occurs


when two independent clauses are separated only by a comma.
I want to buy a new car, I am saving my money.
Eliminating Run-On Sentences and Comma Splices
1. Use a period and a capital letter to make each independent clause its own
sentence.
I want to buy a new car. I am saving my money.
2. Separate independent clauses with a comma and a coordinating conjunction.
The coordinating conjunctions are:
and

but

or

nor

for

so

I want to buy a new car, so I am saving my money.

Copyright 1996 by The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc. All Rights Reserved.

50

yet

SUBJECT -VERB AGREEMENT


Regular Verbs

With he, she, it, or a singular noun add an -s or -es verb.


He likes mysteries.
She works as a waitress.
It happens every day.
A tree grows slowly.

With I, we, they, you, or a plural noun subject, leave off the -s or -es ending to the verb.
I swim every day.
We enjoy golf.
They believe in magic.
You seem happy.
Cars cost a lot of money.

Have/Has
With I, you, we, they, or a plural noun subject, use have.
I have a new car.
You have my books.
We have two cats.
They have many friends.
Students have many choices.
With he, she, it, or a singular noun subject, use has.
He has my keys.
She has a beautiful voice.
It has potential.
The cat has fleas.

(Page 1 of 2)
Copyright 1996 by The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc. All Rights Reserved.

51

Am/Is/Are
With I, use am.
I am hungry.
With he, she, it, or a singular noun subject, use is.
He is friendly.
She is my roommate.
It is raining.
Dinner is ready.
With you, we, they, or a plural noun subject, use are.
You are lucky.
We are prepared.
They are thrilled.
The dogs are barking.

Do/Does
With I, you, we, they, or a plural noun subject, use do.
I do like chocolate.
You do well in your classes.
We do housework.
They do exercise every day.
Birds do make nice pets.
With he, she, it, or a singular noun subject, use does.
He does good work.
She does enjoy dancing.
It does look like rain.
The woman does paint well.

(Page 2 of 2)
Copyright 1996 by The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc. All Rights Reserved.

52

THE TENSES
The Simple Tenses
A verb in the present tense shows that something is happening now or that
something happens regularly.
I am happy. (happening now)
The flowers bloom in the spring. (happens regularly)

A verb in the past tense shows that something took place before now.
I was happy. (irregular verb)
I drove to work. (irregular verb)
The flowers bloomed in the spring. (regular verb)

A verb in the future tense shows that something will take place in the future,
whether it is one second into the future or years into the future.
I will be happy.
I will drive to work.
The flowers will bloom in the spring.
Note: Use will to point to the future from the present. Use would to point to the future from
the past.
I hope I will arrive before evening. (points to the future from the present)
I hoped I would arrive before evening. (points to the future from the past)

(Page 1 of 3)
Copyright 1996 by The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc. All Rights Reserved.

53

The Perfect Tenses


A verb in the present perfect tense shows that (1) something began in the past and
continues into the present time, (2) something began in the past and just recently
ended, or (3) something occurred at an unspecified time in the past.
Already I have run two miles. (began in the past and continues into the present time)
He has completed his training for the marathon. (began in the past and just recently ended)
I have participated in a marathon before. (occurred at an unspecified time in the past)

A verb in the past perfect tense shows that one thing occurred in the past before
another thing occurred in the past. Thus, when writing in the past tense, you can
use the past perfect to show that something happened in the more distant past.
past

more distant past

He said that Carla had arrived.


past

more distant past

I thought you had registered for classes.

A verb in the future perfect tense shows that one event in the future will occur
before another event in the future.
will happen first

will happen second

I will have finished studying before you arrive.


will happen first

will happen second

You will have written your essay before I begin mine.

(Page 2 of 3)

54

Copyright 1996 by The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc. All Rights Reserved.

55

The Progressive Tenses


A verb in the present progressive tense shows that (1) an action is in progress
right now or (2) something will take place in the future.
Juan is taking his exam. (in progress right now)
Tomorrow I am leaving for Florida. (will take place in the future)

A verb in the past progressive tense shows that something was ongoing in the
past. The past progressive tense can be used to show that (1) one thing was going
on before another thing happened, (2) one thing was going on at the same time
another thing happened, or (3) one thing was going on after another thing
happened.
This happened second.

This happened first.

Before you arrived, I was studying for my exam.


Both events happened at the same time.

I looked around the room while you were talking.


This happened first.

This happened second.

After the movie ended, we were laughing.

A verb in the future progressive tense shows future action that will be ongoing.
Mike will be spending his vacation in Maine.
I will be learning how to prepare tax returns.

(Page 3 of 3)
Copyright 1996 by The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc. All Rights Reserved.

56

TENSE SHIFTS
Sometimes writers must move from one tense to the next to show a change in time.
Example: moving from the present to the future.
present

future

Kerry hopes that Janice will call tonight.


Example: moving from the past to the present.
past

present

Last year I wanted to major in business, but now I want to major in computers.
However, if you move from one tense to another without a valid reason, you create
a tense shift that confuses the time frame of your writing.
Confusing tense shift:
past

present

After I closed the shop, a customer comes to the door.


Correction:
past

past

After I closed the shop, a customer came to the door.


Confusing tense shift:
present

past

When I get a raise, I could get a new car.


Correction:
present

present

When I get a raise, I can get a new car.

Copyright 1996 by The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc. All Rights Reserved.

57

CHOOSING SUBJECT
AND OBJECT PRONOUNS
To decide whether a subject or object pronoun is needed in a compound, rule out
everything in the compound except the pronoun.
Sam and (me or I) registered for classes.
Me registered for classes.
I registered for classes.
Correct: Sam and I registered for classes.
To decide whether a subject or object pronoun is needed in a comparison, mentally
add the missing words.
Vic runs faster than (me or I).
Vic runs faster than me runs.
Vic runs faster than I run.
Correct: Vic runs faster than I.
To decide whether a subject or object pronoun is needed when the pronoun is
followed by a noun that renames it, rule out the renaming word.
(Us or We) students are planning a party.
Us are planning a party.
We are planning a party.
Correct: We students are planning a party.

Copyright 1996 by The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc. All Rights Reserved.

58

USING REFLEXIVE
AND INTENSIVE PRONOUNS
Singular Reflexive
and Intensive Pronouns

Plural Reflexive
and Intensive Pronouns

myself yourself himself herself itself

ourselves yourselves themselves

Reflexive pronouns often indicate that the subject of the sentence did something
to or for itself.
I bought myself a new kitchen table.
Reflexive pronouns can also express the idea of being alone or doing something
without help.
We built the house ourselves.
Be careful: Do not use a reflexive pronoun without a word it can refer to.
No: Marty and myself arrived late.
Yes: Marty and I arrived late.
Intensive pronouns can emphasize the words they refer to.
The teachers themselves conducted the meeting.

Copyright 1996 by The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc. All Rights Reserved.

59

PRONOUN ANTECEDENT
AGREEMENT
-

To achieve pronoun-antecedent agreement, use singular pronouns to substitute for


singular noun antecedents, and use plural pronouns to substitute for plural noun
antecedents.
The boy rode his bicycle to the store. (The singular pronoun his substitutes for the singular noun boy.)
The boys rode their bicycles to the store. (The plural pronoun their substitutes for the plural noun boys.)

To choose the correct pronoun, rule out phrases that appear after the antecedent.
singular antecedent

singular pronoun

A box of raisins is missing from its place on the shelf.

If compound antecedents are joined by and, use a plural pronoun.


Jackson and Karen drove their cars to school.

If compound antecedents are joined by or, choose the pronoun that agrees with the
antecedent closer to it.
Either the employees or Mr. Levine will present his report.

If all the people or things in a collective noun act as one unit, use a singular
pronoun.
The team won its first game.

If the people or things in a collective noun act individually, use a plural pronoun.
The team left for their vacations.

Copyright 1996 by The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc. All Rights Reserved.

60

AVOIDING SEXIST PRONOUNS


Writers have several options for avoiding the use of masculine pronouns to refer to
singular indefinite pronouns.
Example of sexist pronoun usage:
Everyone should fill out his registration card before entering the auditorium.
The sexist pronoun usage in the above example can be corrected several ways:
Option 1: Use both a male and a female pronoun.
Everyone should fill out his or her registration card before entering the auditorium.
Option 2: Make both the antecedent and the pronoun plural.
All students should fill out their registration cards before entering the auditorium.
Option 3: Eliminate the pronoun, if possible.
Everyone should fill out registration cards before entering the auditorium.

Copyright 1996 by The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc. All Rights Reserved.

61

CONFUSING PRONOUN PROBLEMS


Person Shift
If you use I, we, or a noun, do not shift to you.
Incorrect:

I enjoy going to the beach. You can really relax there.

Correct:

I enjoy going to the beach. I can really relax there.

Unclear Reference
Unclear reference occurs when a reader cannot tell which of two antecedents a
pronoun refers to.
Unclear:
Carla was talking with Sasha when she noticed a kite flying overhead.
[Who noticed the kite, Carla or Sasha?]
Clear:

Carla was talking with Sasha when Sasha noticed a kite flying
overhead.

Clear:

Carla was talking with Sasha when Carla noticed a kite flying
overhead.

Unstated Reference
A pronouns antecedent must be written out, or a problem called unstated reference
occurs.
Unclear:

When I called the telephone company, they said they would connect
my service today.

Clear:

When I called the telephone company, the customer representative


said that the installers would connect my service today.

Copyright 1996 by The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc. All Rights Reserved.

62

ADJECTIVES, ADVERBS,
AND ARTICLES
The following paragraph contains adjective, adverb, and article usage errors, as well as errors
in comparative and superlative forms.
The more happier you are with your career choice, the more better you are likely to do
your job. As you consider your career choices, you should be as much aware of the kind of
environment you enjoy working in as the kind of work you enjoy doing. For example, a career in
computer programming may not be best for anyone who dislikes working in a office. On the
other hand, people who do not enjoy the outdoors may not do their better work in an career that
requires a great deal of outside work. If you enjoy traveling, you may want to consider a career
as an consultant. Many high trained specialists travel from company to company, working on
whatever projects require their services. Whatever your skills may be, remember that people
respond to situations and environments different, and what might be a well career choice for your
best friend may not be the best choice for you. There is nothing no better than making a living at
what you enjoy and in a place you enjoy doing it, but there is nothing. worser than making a
living at what you dislike and in a place you dislike.
Revision:
The happier you are with your career choice, the better you are likely to do your job. As
you consider your career choices, you should be as much aware of the environment you enjoy
working in as the work you enjoy doing. For example, a career in computer programming may
not be best for anyone who dislikes working in a office. On the other hand, people who do not
enjoy the outdoors may not do their best work in a career that requires a great deal of outside
work. If you enjoy traveling, you may want to consider a career as a consultant. Many highly
trained specialists travel from company to company, working on whatever projects require their
services. Whatever your skills may be, remember that people respond to situations and
environments differently, and what might be a good career choice for your best friend may not be
the best choice for you. There is nothing better than making a living at what you enjoy and in a
place you enjoy doing it, but there is nothing worse than making a living at what you dislike and
in a place you dislike.

Copyright 1996 by The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc. All Rights Reserved.

63

USING GOOD/WELL
1. Good is an adjective, so it usually describes nouns. Good is also often used as
an adjective after the words taste, feel, and look.
Jason is a good swimmer. [Good describes the noun swimmer.]
A good book can help you make the most of a rainy day. [Good describes the
noun book.]
This cake tastes good. [Good describes the noun cake.]
This coat feels good on a cold day like today. [Good describes the noun
coat.]
Mark looks good today. [Good describes the noun Mark.]
2. Well is an adverb, so it usually describes verbs.
Patrick cooks well. [Well describes the verb cooks by telling how.]
I hope I did well on the test. [Well describes the verb did by telling how.]
3. Well is only used as an adjective when it means healthy.
Anne does not feel well today. [Well describes the noun Anne in terms of her
health.]
The student felt well enough to attend class. [Well describes the noun student
in terms of his or her health.]

Copyright 1996 by The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc. All Rights Reserved.

64

AVOIDING DANGLING
MODIFIERS
Dangling modifiers are created when participles and infinitives are not placed next
to the words they describe.
1. A dangling modifier is created when a present participle or present participle
phrase is placed next to a word it does not describe.
Incorrect:
Driving the car, my cat watched the passing scenery. [Was the cat driving the car?]
Correction:
Driving the car, I noticed that my cat was watching the passing scenery. [Now the present
participle phrase can sensibly describe I.]

2. A dangling modifier is created when a past participle or past participle phrase is


placed next to a word it does not describe.
Incorrect:

Inspired by the music, a dance was performed by Sherry in her kitchen. [Was the dance
inspired by the music?]
Correction:
Inspired by the music, Sherry performed a dance in her kitchen. [Now the past participle can
sensibly describe Sherry.]

3. A dangling modifier is created when an infinitive or infinitive phrase is placed


next to a word it does not describe.
Incorrect:
To make better grades, the television was turned off while studying. [Did the television want
to make better grades?]
Correction:
To make better grades, Jack turned off the television while he was studying. [Now the
infinitive phrase can sensibly describe Jack.]

Copyright 1996 by The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc. All Rights Reserved.

65

COMMON EXPRESSIONS
WITH PREPOSITIONS
Some expressions use specific prepositions.

The woman was accompanied by her husband.


[accompanied by a person]

The rain was accompanied with high winds.


[accompanied with a thing]

I am still angry with you.


[angry with a person]

I am angry at your behavior.


[angry at a thing]

I cannot decide between the pie and the cake.


[between two things]

I cannot decide among the pie, the cake, and the ice cream.
[among more than two things]

Your opinions correspond to mine.


[correspond to meaning a comparison]

He has promised to correspond with me.


[correspond with meaning letter writing]

I differ with you about the best course to take.


[differ with meaning disagree]

Your answers differ from mine.


[differ from meaning is unlike]

Jackson disagrees with Paul.


[disagrees with a person]

They disagree on everything.


[disagrees on a topic or a thing]

I hope you will not respond with anger.


[respond with a reaction]

Most people respond to kindness.


[respond to an action)

We must always be responsible for our own actions.


[responsible for an action]

She feels responsible to the people who helped her.


[responsible to a person)
(Page 1 of 2)
Copyright 1996 by The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc. All Rights Reserved.

66

Some expressions are never correct.


No:

Your opinions are different than Jans.

Yes:

Your opinions are different from Jans.

No:

That coat is identical to mine.

Yes:

That coat is identical with mine.

No:

Your apartment is similar with mine.

Yes:

Your apartment is similar to mine.

No:

This bookstore is independent from the college.

Yes:

This bookstore is independent of the college.

No:

I enjoy many sports, like baseball, football, and tennis.

Yes:

I enjoy many sports, such as baseball, football, and tennis.

No:

I want to go over to the library.

Yes:

I want to go to the library.

No:

We should head towards home.

Yes:

We should head toward home.

(Page 2 of 2)

Copyright 1996 by The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc. All Rights Reserved.

67

ACHIEVING PARALLELISM
Lacks parallelism:

I like swimming and to hike.

Correction:

I like swimming and hiking.

Correction:

I like to swim and to hike.

Lacks parallelism:

Kim told me to buy groceries and that I


should meet her at home.

Correction:

Kim told me to buy groceries and to meet her at


home.

Correction:

Kim told me that I should buy groceries and


that I should meet her at home.

Lacks parallelism:

My new job is fun, exciting, and it is


rewarding.

Correction:

My new job is fun, exciting, and rewarding.

Correction:

My new job is fun, it is exciting, and it is


rewarding.

Lacks parallelism:

You either ride with us or you ride with


James.

Correction:

Either you ride with us or you ride with James.

Lacks parallelism:

Tonight, I must not only study for the exam,


but also I must write an essay.

Correction:

Tonight, not only must I study for the exam, but


also I must write an essay.

Copyright 1996 by The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc. All Rights Reserved.

68

SOLVING PROBLEMS
WITH SENTENCE STRUCTURE
Simple Subjects and Verbs
That Do Not Make Sense Together
No:

The purpose of the course teaches business accounting methods.

Yes:

The course teaches business accounting methods.

Yes:

The purpose of the course is to teach business accounting methods.

Illogical Equations with Forms of Be


No:

At one time, a banker was a career for men only.

Yes:

At one time, banking was a career for men only.

No:

Ann Maries reaction to the test was very difficult.

Yes:

Ann Maries reaction to the test was that it was very difficult.

Is when, Is where, The reason.. .is because


No:

Stress is when people feel overwhelmed.

Yes:

Stress causes people to feel overwhelmed.

No:

The reason I am taking this course is because I want to learn more about photography.

Yes:

The reason I am taking this course is to learn more about photography.

Yes:

The reason I am taking this course is that I want to learn more about photography.

Mixed Sentence Structures


No:

The doctor asked are you taking your medicine.

Yes:

The doctor wanted to know whether I was taking my medicine.

Yes:

The doctor asked me whether I was taking my medicine.

Copyright 1996 by The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc. All Rights Reserved.

69

VARYING SENTENCE OPENERS


The following passage sounds choppy because every sentence begins the same way
with the subject.
My cousin Amy is one of the friendliest people I know. Amy loves to talk
with people. She makes friends wherever she goes. Amy is also a good listener.
She believes that everyone has something worthwhile to say. People enjoy
spending time with Amy because they feel after talking with her for a few minutes
that they have known her forever.
Unpleasant choppiness can be avoided by varying sentence openers. The following
revised passage uses a variety of sentence openers.
My cousin Amy is one of the friendliest people I know. Because she loves to
talk with people, Amy makes friends wherever she goes. Believing that everyone
has something worthwhile to say, she is also a good listener. After talking with
Amy for a few minutes, people feel that they have known her forever and enjoy
spending time with her.

Copyright 1996 by The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc. All Rights Reserved.

70

SPELLING AND
FREQUENTLY CONFUSED WORDS
The following paragraph contains spelling errors and words that are frequently
confused.
A few days ago, I was already to spend the afternoon relaxing. However, after noticing that
my flowers had become overun with weeds, I had to except the fact that it was time to do some
gardening. Even though I am happyest when I can simply enjoy the beauty of flowers, I no that
sometimes I have to do some work to keep them healthy. After I moveed all of my gardening
equipment from the garage to the yard, I set down to think about what I needed to do first. Since
the weeds were the most noticable problem, I decided to tackle them first. I went through the
garden one row at a time, grabing and pulling weeds whereever I found them. I soon regreted
that I had waited so long to take care of my gardening because there were alot of weeds that had
grown to several feet in hieght and that were difficult to remove. Even though I beleived that I
could finish the job in about an hour, I actualy spent the entire afternoon in the garden. When I
was finally threw with the gardening, I lay down on a chaise lounge on my patio were I could
survey my work. It was then that I realized that sometimes hard work is worth the effort when
its affects are so beautiful.

Revision:
A few days ago, I was all ready to spend the afternoon relaxing. However, after noticing
that my flowers had become overrun with weeds, I had to accept the fact that it was time to do
some gardening. Even though I am happiest when I can simply enjoy the beauty of flowers, I
know that sometimes I have to do some work to keep them healthy. After I moved all of my
gardening equipment from the garage to the yard, I sat down to think about what I needed to do
first. Since the weeds were the most noticeable problem, I decided to tackle them first. I went
through the garden one row at a time, grabbing and pulling weeds wherever I found them. I soon
regretted that I had waited so long to take care of my gardening because there were a lot of
weeds that had grown to several feet in height and that were difficult to remove. Even though I
believed that I could finish the job in about an hour, I actually spent the entire afternoon in the
garden. When I was finally through with the gardening, I laid down on a chaise lounge on my
patio where I could survey my work. It was then that I realized that sometimes hard work is
worth the effort when its effects are so beautiful.

Copyright 1996 by The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc. All Rights Reserved.

71

CAPITALIZATION
Capitalize names of people and animals.
No: My Dog fifi is a French poodle.
Yes: My dog Fifi is a French poodle.

Capitalize titles before peoples names.


No: I will ride with aunt Kim and my Uncle.
Yes: I will ride with Aunt Kim and my uncle.

Always capitalize the personal pronoun I.


No: James and i will work together.
Yes: James and I will work together.

Capitalize names of nationalities, languages, and religions.


No: I enjoyed the african art exhibit.
Yes: I enjoyed the African art exhibit.

Capitalize names of specific geographic locations.


No: I grew up in the south, but I later moved North to minnesota.
Yes: I grew up in the South, but I later moved north to Minnesota.

Capitalize the names of specific organizations1 companies, institutions, colleges,


and buildings.
No: He attends Ohio university and works for the republican party.
Yes: He attends Ohio University and works for the Republican Party.

(Page 1 of 2)
Copyright 1996 by The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc. All Rights Reserved.

72

Capitalize names of historic events, documents, and periods.


No: I enjoy studying Important Battles such as the battle of Gettysburg.
Yes: I enjoy studying important battles such as the Battle of Gettysburg.

Capitalize references to God and sacred books and documents.


No: Sean used the bible as a reference in his paper an world Religions.
Yes: Sean used the Bible as a reference in his paper on world religions.

Capitalize names of months, days, and holidays.


No: My favorite Holiday is christmas, which will be on saturday this year.
Yes: My favorite holiday is Christmas, which will be on Saturday this year.

Capitalize specific brand names.


No: I bought a new pair of nike shoes.
Yes: I bought a new pair of Nike shoes.

Capitalize the first and last words of a title and everything in between except
articles, conjunctions, and prepositions.
No: I enjoyed legends of the fall.
Yes: I enjoyed Legends of the Fall.

Capitalize names of languages and specific courses.


No: I am taking french 102 even though I find the study of french difficult.
Yes: I am taking French 102 even though I find the study of French difficult.

(Page 2 of 2)
Copyright 1996 by The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc. All Rights Reserved.

73

ENDING SENTENCES
The following passage is difficult to understand because the punctuation ending the
sentences is either missing or inappropriate.
I walked into the classroom and sat down a few minutes later. I realized! That
the instructor was talking about history. I wondered what history had to do with
English? After another few minutes of trying to make sense of the lecture. I
realized, much to my embarrassment! That I was in the wrong classroom grabbing
my books, I stood up quickly to leave of course, in doing so I made so much noise
that everyone was aware of my mistake. Is this English 101! I asked when the
instructor shook his head to indicate that it wasnt all I could do was to get out as
quickly as I could as the door closed behind me. I shouted, Sorry?
Revision:
I walked into the classroom and sat down. A few minutes later, I realized that
the instructor was talking about history. I wondered what history had to do with
English. After another few minutes of trying to make sense of the lecture, I
realized, much to my embarrassment, that I was in the wrong classroom. Grabbing
my books, I stood up quickly to leave. Of course, in doing so I made so much noise
that everyone was aware of my mistake. Is this English 101? I asked. When the
instructor shook his head to indicate that it wasnt, all I could do was to get out as
quickly as I could. As the door closed behind me, I shouted, Sorry!

Copyright 1996 by The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc. All Rights Reserved.

74

COMMAS
Commas used to separate items in a series.
I bought a dress, a scarf, and a pair of shoes this afternoon.
No commas with a pair.
I ate a salad and a roll.
Comma after an introductory element.

When you finish your work, give me a call.


Comma with coordination.
We can study at my house, or we can go to the library.
No comma unless an independent clause appears on both sides of the coordinating
conjunction.
I entered the room and looked around.
Commas with a nonessential element.
Li, hoping to enter the marathon, has been running every afternoon.
No commas around essential elements.
The school that I attend has an interesting history.
Commas with a parenthetical element.
More and more people, it seems to me, are learning to use computers.
Commas with dates.
Our last meeting was held on Friday, June 1, 2001, in the Administration Building.
Commas with an address.
My new address is 632 Springdale Road, Mt. Gilead, North Carolina 27306.

Copyright 1996 by The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc. All Rights Reserved.

75

APOSTROPHES
Apostrophes with Contractions
A contraction is formed when two words are combined and one or more letters are
omitted. An apostrophe stands for what is omitted.
For example:
are not
could not
did not

=
=
=

arent
couldnt
didnt

is not
she will
who has

=
=
=

isnt
shell
whos

Be Careful : Be sure to place the apostrophe at the site of the omitted letters.
No: didnt

Yes: didnt

Apostrophes Showing Ownership


The apostrophe is used with nouns to show possession.
1. If a noun does not end in -s, form the possessive by adding an apostrophe and an s. This rule
applies to both singular and plural nouns.
girl + s = girls
people + s = peoples

Give me the girls books.


It is the peoples choice.

2. If a singular noun ends in -s, form the possessive by adding an apostrophe and an s.
Lois + s = Loiss
Ms. Jones + s = Ms. Joness

That is Loiss car.


Rover is Ms. Joness dog.

3. If a plural noun ends in -s, form the possessive by adding just an apostrophe.
girls + = girls
schools + schools

These are the two girls essays.


Ten schools students arrived.

Be Careful: Possessive pronouns do not take an apostrophe.


No: yours
No: theirs

Yes: yours
Yes: their

Be Careful: Do not use an apostrophe with plurals that do not show possession.
No: The students brought their books to class.
Yes: The students brought their books to class.
Copyright 1996 by The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc. All Rights Reserved.

76

PUNCTUATING
DIRECT QUOTATIONS
A direct quotation is the reproduction of someones exact spoken or written words.
Direct quotations appear in quotation marks. How punctuation is handled depends
on the nature of the quotation and where the quotation is placed in the sentence.
Matthew said, I must study tonight because the test is tomorrow.
I must study tonight because the test is tomorrow, Matthew said.
I must study tonight, Matthew said, because the test is tomorrow.
Mia asked, Do you want me to help you study?
Do you want me to help you study? Mia asked.
Do you, Mia asked, want me to help you study?
An indirect quotation refers to someones words or thoughts but does not
reproduce those words or thoughts exactly. Indirect quotations do not appear in
quotation marks.
Matthew said that he must study tonight because the test is tomorrow.
Matthew asked whether he must study tonight because the test is tomorrow.

77

Copyright 1996 by The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc. All Rights Reserved.

78

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