Unit - I Transportation

Unit I
Highway Development and History of Roads
History of Transportation Engineering
Humans have migrated by their feet..

Use domesticated animals to carry them and
goods..
Built machines, vehicles and devices to help them
carry more..
Established trade routes..
Well used paths became more and more
permanent..
These paths became first roads..
Maintained the roads and look at ways in which
they can be made easier to travel
FIRST Transportation Engineers..
Transportation
Need for transportation..
Contributes to
Economic
Industrial
Social
Cultural Development
Modes of Transportation
Three Basic Environments

Land
Water
Air
Major Modes of Transportation
Roadways or Highways
Railways
Waterways
Airways
Airways
Fastest of all the modes
Comfortable
Saves lot of time for passenger and goods
transportation
Waterways
Slowest among the four modes
Needs minimum energy to haul unit load
though unit distance
Only possible between sea routes or along
rivers/canals where inland transportation
facilities are available
Railways
Advantageous for movement of goods and
passengers between stations, particularly for
long distances
Railway tracks could serve as arteries for
transportation by land and road system can
form as a feeder system to interior parts and to
the intermediate localities between stations
Energy requirement to haul unit load though
unit distance is only a fraction of that required
th
th
1
1
by road
to
4
6
Best for goods transfer where facilities available
Roadways
Only mode which could give maximum service to

one and all
Maximum flexibility for travel with reference to
route, direction, time and speed of travel, through
any mode of road vehicle
Only mode which provides door to door service
All the other three modes are dependent on
Roadways mode
Therefore needed to serve as feeder system to
other modes of transport as well as serves as
independent facility of road travel
Branches of Transportation Engineering

Airport Engineering
Harbor Engineering
Railway Engineering
Highway Engineering
Characteristics of Road Transport
Used by various types of road vehicles such as

cars, buses, trucks, two and three wheelers,
bicycles and animal drawn vehicles. Where as
waterways and railways have limited users
Relatively small investment to the government.
Motor vehicles are much cheaper than rail
locomotives, ships and aircrafts.
Construction and maintenance is relatively
cheaper than other modes
Complete freedom to road users
Particularly in short distances, roads save time
Characteristics of Road Transport

Due to the flexibility of the movements for the
road users, it is accident prone.
Speed is directly related to the severity of the
accident. Safety is dependent on the speed.
Air and rail transportation is also not accident
proof. Mass causalities possible and might be
more disastrous than road crashes.
Road transport is the ONLY mode that offers
itself to the whole community alike
Historical Development of Roads
Early Development
Footpaths are the oldest mode of travel
Animals usage
Simple animal drawn vehicles after the invention of
wheel
Brought the necessity for hard surface for the
wheeled vehicles.
Hard surface from Mesopotamia dates as old as 3500
years
First authentically recorded road: Constructed by
Assyrian Empire in 1900 BC
Roman Roads
Roads were constructed on a large scale
One of the earliest constructions techniques
Constructed many roads radiating in many directions
from Rome exclusively for military operations
Roads were build of stone blocks of considerable
thickness
Appian Way built in 312 BC for over 580 km
Features of Roman Road:
Were built straight regardless of gradient
Built after soft soil was removed and hard stratum was reached
Total thickness of 0.75-1.2 m even though loads are very low
Roman Roads Typical Cross Section
Roman Roads Typical Cross Section
Roman Roads Construction Steps

Trench of width of carriage way was dug in straight line
by removing loose soil until they reach hard stratum
One or two layers of large foundation stones with lime
mortar at the bottom of thickness around 10-20 cm.
Vertical kerb stones were places at the edges
Another layer of lime concrete with large size broken
stones laid over bottom layer(s) upto a thickness of 2540 cm
Another layer of lime concrete with small size broken
stones laid over the above layer upto a thickness of 2540 cm
Top layer of dressed large stone blocks.
Tresaguet Construction (1716-1796 AD)

Developed an improved method of construction in
1764 AD
Developed several methods of construction which
were considered to be quite meritorious.
Main feature of his proposal : construction thickness of
around 30 cm
He considered subgrade drainage condition and
drainage of surface water.
Served as Inspector General of Roads in France from
1775-85 and implemented his method in 1775.
During Napoleon regime, major road development in
France
Tresaguet Construction Typical Cross Section
Tresaguet Construction Construction Steps

Large stones were embedded at the two edges of the
pavement and a layer of large foundation stones were
laid on the edge by hand.
Corners of the heavy foundation stones are hammered
and the spaces are filled with smaller stones. Broken
stones were filled upto a thickness of 8 cm and
compacted.
Top wearing course was made up of smaller stones and
compacted to a thickness of 5 cm at the edges and
gradually increasing towards the center thereby giving
slope to provide surface drainage.
Shoulders are also provided with cross slope.
Metcalf Construction (1717-1810 AD)

Took charge of road construction in England same
time when Tresaguet was working in France.
Was responsible of construction of 290 km of road in
the northern region of England.
Metcalf was blind Much of his work is not recorded.
Telford Construction (1757-1834 AD)

Founder of Institute of Civil Engineers in London.
Also believed in using heavy foundation stones above
the soil subgrade in order to keep the foundation
firm.
Insisted on providing definite slope for the top
surface of the pavement by varying the thickness of
the foundation stones.
Telford Construction Typical Cross Section
Telford Construction Construction Steps

A level subgrade was prepared with design width of 9m
Large foundation stones of thickness 17 to 22 cm were
laid with hand with their large face down position to
make them stable. Stones of lesser thickness at the
edge and larger thickness towards the center.
Spaces between the foundation stones were filled with
small stones and chipping and properly beaten down.
Central 5.5 m was filled with two layers of angular
broken stones to compacted thickness of 10 and 5 cm.
Macadam Construction (1756-1836 AD)

Entirely new method of road construction as compared
to the previous methods.
Surveyor General of Roads in England and his new
concept of road construction became known by 1827.
First method based on scientific method.
Realized that the stresses due to the wheel load of
traffic gets decreased at the lower layers of the
pavement hence no need of heavy stones as the
lowest layer of the pavement.
Macadam Construction (1756-1836 AD)

Modifications:
Importance of subgrade drainage and compaction were
recognized and so the subgrade was compacted and prepared to
a slope of 1 in 36.
First person to suggest that heavy foundation stones are not at
all required at the bottom layer of the construction
Subgrade being the lowest portion of the pavement should be
prepared properly and kept drained so as to carry the load
transmitted through the pavement.
Total thickness was less than the previous methods.
Macadam Construction Typical Cross Section
Macadam Construction Construction Steps

Subgrade is compacted and prepared with a cross slope
of 1 in 36 upto a desired width (9 m)
Broken stones of strong variety of less than 5 cm were
compacted to a uniform thickness of 10 cm
The second strong stones of less than 3.75 cm was
compacted to thickness of 10 cm
Top layer consisted of stones less than 2 cm compacted
to a thickness of about 5 cm and finished so that the
cross slope of pavement surface is also 1 in 36.
Highway Development in India
Existence of Roads during Indus Valley Civilization

(Harappa and Mohenjo-daro) as early as 2500 to
3500 BC.
Roads with brick drains on both sides.
Different depths of roads based on different

kinds of traffic.
Punishments for obstructing roads.
Mauryan Rule in the 4th Century AD
Rajpath (Highroads)
Banikpath (Merchant Roads)

In the beginning of 5th Century AD, Emperor
Ashoka improved roads and facilities for travelers
for every 4.8-6.4 km.
Mughal Periods:
Roads were greatly improved

Roads built or maintained, were highly appreciated from
foreign visitors.
Roads were built running from North-West to Eastern
areas through Gangetic plains, also linking coastal and
central parts.
Roads in 19th Century

British developed roads mainly for connecting military and
business centers.
Jayakar Committee and recommendations

(1927)
Road development should be made a national interest since the
provincial and local government do not have financial and
technical capacity for road development.
Levy extra tax on petrol from road users to create the road
development fund called Central Road Fund
To establish a semi-official ,technical institution to pool technical
knowledge, sharing of ideas and to act as an advisory body.
To create a national level institution to carry research ,
development works and consultation.
Central Road Fund (1st March 1929)

Extra money 2.64 paisa per liter of the petrol, was
charged from all the petrol buyer in the country.
This fund was kept separate for the use in the road
development in India.
About 20% of the fund was kept to be used for the
expenses of the administrative meetings and the
research work of the highways of the national
importance in the country.
The rest of the 80% of the funds were distributed
among the provinces at that time, according to their
road users, for the development of the roads by the
state governments.
Indian Roads Congress (1934)

A semi-government organization named, Indian Roads
Congress was formed in the year December 1934
The main function of the IRC was to act as a forum
for the regular pooling of the technical knowledge
and know how, from the various parts of the country.
IRC performed the various plannings and also it has
become the most important agency to provide the
standards and the specifications for the road
construction in the country.
Played an important role in the formulation of three
20-year plans in India.
Published journals, research publications etc.
Motor Vehicle Act (1939)

The increased numbers of vehicle on the Indian roads
demanded for the rules and regulations.
The motor vehicle act was passed in 1939, which laid
down the rules for the road users and also for the
identity of the vehicles.
Act was appended with several ordinances
subsequently.
Revised in 1988
It is still running in the country in almost same way as
it was at that time.
Nagpur Road Conference (1943)

By GoI upon the initiative of IRC
The first twenty years road network plan (1943-63) was prepared
in the meeting of the Chief Engineers from the various parts of the
country at the Nagpur in 1943, (Nagpur road plan)
It was the first ever major planning which contributed a lot for the
development of the roads in the country.
It classified the Indian roads according to their location and
purpose, and also it laid down a target for a density of road
network of 16 km per 100 sq. Km in the country at the end of the
20 years road network in the year 1963.
After the starting of the 5 years plans in the year 1951, the first
two 5 years plans also contributed to the target set by the first 20
years plan of the Nagpur so the density of 16 km per 100 sq. Km
was achieved in the year 1961, 2 years earlier to the target year.
Central Road Research Institute (1950)

The main function of the CRRI is to do the research
work for the road construction and to provide the
consultation services for the state government also.
National Highway Act (1956)

An Act to provide for the declaration of certain
highways to be national highways and for matters
connected therewith.
2nd 20 Year Road Development Plan 1961-81

Initiated by IRC and finalized in 1959 in a meeting of the Chief
Engineers at Bombay. Hence Known as BOMBAY Road Plan.
Target of 32 km per 100 sq. km area by 1981
Construction of 1600 km of expressways was also included.
Attained 34.8 km per 100 sq. km in 1974
By the end of 1981, road density of 46 km per 100 sq. km
3rd 20 Year Road Development Plan 1981-2001

Prepared by Road Wing of Ministry of Shipping and Transport of
GoI.
Known as Lucknow Road Plan
More concentrated on development of National Highways as the
target lengths for NH fell short in both the first and second 20 yr
plans.
Highway Planning
Importance of Highway Planning
Objectives:
Plan a road network for safe and efficient operation, but at a

minimum cost. Cost of construction, maintenance and renewal
AND vehicle operation costs are to be considered.
To arrive with a road system and the lengths of different
categories of roads, so that they could provide maximum utility
with available resources during that plan.
To fix up date wise priorities for development of each road link
based on utility for phasing of road development program.
To plan for future requirements and improvements of roads.
To work out financial system
Classification of Roads Types of Roads
Two major categories based on their usage

during different seasons of the year:
All-weather Roads
Fair-weather Roads
Classification of Roads Types of Roads
Two major categories based on the type of the

carriage way or road pavement:
Paved Roads
Unpaved roads
Classification of Roads
Two major categories based on the type of the

pavement surface provided:
Surface Roads
Un-surfaced roads
Methods of Classification of Roads
Generally classified on the basis of:

Traffic Volume
Load Transported or Tonnage
Location and Function
Nagpur Road Plan Classification
National Highways (NH)

State Highways (SH)
Major District Roads (MDR)
Other District Roads (ODR)
Village Roads (VR)

Main highways that run through length and breadth of
the country connecting ports, foreign highways, capitals
of large states, large industrial and tourist centers as
well as roads for strategic movements of defense of
India.
Highways are assigned with respective numbers.
State Highways (SH)

Arterials of the state connecting with NH, district
headquarters and important cities.
Mainlines for traffic to and from district roads.
They might carry heavy traffic than some NH
SH and NH have the same design speed and geometric
specifications.
Lucknow Road Plan Classification
Primary Network
Expressways
Secondary System
State Highways (SH)
Major District Roads (MDR)
Tertiary system or Rural Network

Other District Roads (ODR)
Village Roads (VR)
Classification of Urban Roads

Road system within urban areas
Classification
Arterials
Sub-arterials
Collector Streets, and
Local Roads
Arterials and Sub-arterials are primarily for

through traffic on a continuous route
Collectors collect traffic from Local roads to
Arterials/Sub-arterials
Road Patterns
Rectangular or block pattern

Radial or star and block pattern
Radial or star and circular pattern
Radial or star and grid pattern
Hexagonal pattern
Minimum travel pattern
Planning Surveys
Highway Planning Phase includes

Assessment of road length requirement for an area
(district or state or country)
Preparation of master plan showing the phasing of the
plan in annual or 5 year
Studies in Planning Surveys
Economic Studies
Financial Studies
Traffic or Road Use Studies
Engineering Studies
Planning Surveys
Economic Studies Details to be Collected

Population and distribution in each village, town or
other localities
Trends of population growth
Agricultural and industrial products area wise
Agricultural and industrial development and future
trends
Existing facilities with regard to communications,
recreation and education etc.
Per capita income
Planning Surveys
Financial Studies Details to be Collected

Sources of income and estimated revenue from
taxation on road transport
Living standards
Resources at local level, toll taxes, vehicle registration
and fines.
Future trends on financial aspects
Planning Surveys
Traffic or Road Use Studies Details to be

Collected
Traffic volume in vehicles per day, annual average daily
traffic, peak and design hourly traffic volume
Origin and destination studies
Traffic flow patterns
Mass transportation facilities
Accidents, their cost analysis and causes
Future trend and growth in traffic volume and goods
traffic.
Planning Surveys
Engineering Studies Details to be Collected
Topographic surveys
Soil surveys
Location and classification of existing roads
Special problems in drainage, construction and
maintenance of roads
Highway Planning in India
Nagpur Road Plan

5 different road types (NH, SH, MDR, ODR,VR)
Recommendations regarding road geometric
standards of roads, bridge specifications etc.
Calculation of lengths of different types of roads
Two categories
Nagpur Road Plan

First category roads (NH, SH and MDR)
A B
NH SH MDR (km)
1.6N 8T D R
8 12
A = Agricultural Area in sq. km

B = Non-agricultural Area in sq. km
N = Number of towns n villages with population 20015000
T = Number of towns n villages with population over
5000
D = Development allowance (15% of RL)
R = Railway line length in km
Nagpur Road Plan

Second category roads (ODR and VR)
ODR VR(km) 0.32V 0.8Q 1.6P 3.2S D

V = Number of villages with population 500 or less
Q = Number of villages with population 501-1000
P = Number of villages with population 1001-2000
S = Number of villages with population 2001-5000
D = Development allowance (15% of RL)
Nagpur Road Plan Salient Features

Responsibility of construction and maintenance
Central Government
20 yr plan intended for 1943-63

Add 2 lakh km of surface roads and unsurface roads (bringing
total to 5.32 lakh km @ density of 16km / 100 sq.km. By 1963)
Formula based on Star and Grid pattern of road work

First Category Roads
Developed and agricultural area <8 km of metalled road
Agricultural area 3.2 km
Non-agricultural area 32 km
Second Category Roads

Development allowance and Railway track length
Bombay Road Plan (1961-81)

Overall road length of 10.57 lakh km by 1981 @ 32
km per 100 sq.km.
Rs. 5200 crores
Five different formulae to calculate lengths of different
road types

Formula for NH(km)
A B C
64 80 96 32K 8M D
A = Developed & Agricultural areas, sq.km

B = Semi-developed area, sq.km
C = Undeveloped area, sq.km
D = Development allowance of 5% of road length
K = Number of towns with > 1,00,000 population
M = Number of towns with 1,00,000-50,000

Formula for NH+SH (km)
B
C
A
20 24 32 48K 24M 11.2N 1.6P D

N = Number of towns with 50,000-20,000 population
P = Number of towns with 20,000-10,000

Formula for NH+SH+MDR (km)
C 48K 24M 11.2N 9.6P

A B
D
8 16 24 6.4Q 2.4R

Q = Number of towns with 10,000-5,000 population
R = Number of towns with 5,000-2,000

Formula for NH+SH+MDR+ODR (km)
3 A 3B C 48K 24M 11.2N 9.6P

16 32 16 12.8Q 4R 0.8S 0.32T D

S = Number of towns with 2,000-1,000 population
T = Number of towns with 1,000-500

Formula for NH+SH+MDR+ODR+VR (km)
A B C 48K 24M 11.2N 9.6P

4 8 12 12.8Q 5.9R 1.6S 0.64T 0.2V D

V = Number of towns with <500 population
Highway Alignment
What is Alignment?????
The position or layout of the centerline of the highway
on the ground
Horizontal alignment
Vertical Alignment
Necessity for alignment
Increase in construction cost

Increase in maintenance cost
Increase in vehicle operation cost
Increase in accident rate (decrease in safety)
Highway Alignment
Basic requirements for an ideal highway

Alignment
Short
Easy
Safe, and
Economical
Highway Alignment
Factors controlling alignment

Shortest route
Straight distance between two stations might not be practical
due to intermediate obstructions and topography
may have step gradients not good for vehicle operation
Short and easy route

Might have construction and management issues
Economical aspects
Which might be economical in the initial construction cost, need
not be the same in maintenance or in vehicle operation cost.
Short and easiest route for vehicle operation might not be
economical
Alignment can hardly ever fulfill all the requirements at

the same time; hence judicial choice is made..FACTORS
Highway Alignment
General factors controlling highway alignment
Obligatory points
Traffic
Geometric Design
Economics, and
Other considerations
Additional factors to be considered on Hill Roads
Stability
Drainage
Geometric Standards of Hill Roads, and
Resisting Length
Highway Alignment
Obligatory Points
Control points governing the alignment of highways
Two categories
Points through which alignment is to pass
Points through which alignment should not pass
Highway Alignment

May cause alignment to often deviate from shortest
or easiest path Mountain Pass
Highway Alignment

or easiest path Bridge Site
Highway Alignment

or easiest path intermediate town.
Highway Alignment
Points through which alignment should not pass

Should be avoided religious places, very costly
structures, unsuitable land etc.
Highway Alignment
Traffic
Should suit traffic requirements
O-D studies should be performed and desired lines be
drawn showing the trend of traffic flow
Geometric Design
Gradient
Radius of the curve
Absolute minimum sight distance
Planning Surveys???
Economic studies
Financial studies
Traffic studies
Engineering studies
Engineering Surveys for Highway Locations

Before finalizing the highway alignment,
Engineering surveys are to be carried out.
Should be carried in 4 stages
Map study
Reconnaissance
Preliminary surveys
Final location and detailed surveys
Map Study
First stage
Topographic maps possible to suggest likely routes
Several possible alternate routes
Alignment of road based on details on the map:
Alignment avoiding valleys, ponds, lakes etc.
Road has to cross a row of hills, possibility of crossing through
mountain pass
Approximate location of bridge
Reconnaissance
Second stage
To examine the general character of the area
Field survey
Simple instruments can be carried to collect
additional details rapidly (but not accurately)
If area is large, then aerial survey might be done
Preliminary Survey
Third stage
Objectives:
To survey various alternate alignments after reconnaissance
To compare the different proposals for good alignment
To estimate quantity of earthwork materials and other
construction aspects and to workout the cost of alternate
proposals.
To finalize the best alignment from all considerations
Preliminary Survey conventional methods
Primary Traverse
Topographical features
Levelling work
Drainage studies and hydrological data
Soil surveys
Material survey
Traffic survey
Determination of final centerline
Final Location and Detailed Survey

Once alignment finalized after preliminary survey, the
centerline needs to be established in the field
Location centerline on drawing needs to be shifted to
the ground.
Transit theodolite
Wooden pegs are driven along the centerline @ 50 m intervals
on plain ground or @ 20 m on hilly terrain
Detailed Survey
Temporary BM are established at 250 m intervals and at all
drainage and underpass structures
Levelling work GREAT importance
Vertical alignment, earthwork quantities and drainage details

Unit - I Transportation

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Unit - I Transportation

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Unit I

Highway Development and History of Roads

History of Transportation Engineering

Humans have migrated by their feet..

FIRST Transportation Engineers..

Three Basic Environments

Major Modes of Transportation

Only mode which could give maximum service to

Branches of Transportation Engineering

Characteristics of Road Transport

Used by various types of road vehicles such as

Characteristics of Road Transport

Historical Development of Roads

Historical Development of Roads

Historical Development of Roads

Historical Development of Roads

Roman Roads Typical Cross Section

Historical Development of Roads

Roman Roads Typical Cross Section

Historical Development of Roads

Roman Roads Construction Steps

Historical Development of Roads

Historical Development of Roads

Historical Development of Roads

Tresaguet Construction (1716-1796 AD)

Historical Development of Roads

Tresaguet Construction Typical Cross Section

Historical Development of Roads

Tresaguet Construction Construction Steps

Historical Development of Roads

Metcalf Construction (1717-1810 AD)

Historical Development of Roads

Telford Construction (1757-1834 AD)

Historical Development of Roads

Telford Construction Typical Cross Section

Historical Development of Roads

Telford Construction Construction Steps

Historical Development of Roads

Macadam Construction (1756-1836 AD)

Historical Development of Roads

Macadam Construction (1756-1836 AD)

Historical Development of Roads

Macadam Construction Typical Cross Section

Historical Development of Roads

Macadam Construction Construction Steps

Highway Development in India

Existence of Roads during Indus Valley Civilization

Different depths of roads based on different

Highway Development in India

Roads were greatly improved

Highway Development in India

Highway Development in India

Roads in 19th Century

Jayakar Committee and recommendations

Highway Development in India

Central Road Fund (1st March 1929)

Highway Development in India

Indian Roads Congress (1934)

Highway Development in India

Motor Vehicle Act (1939)

Highway Development in India

Nagpur Road Conference (1943)

Highway Development in India