Fundamental Theorem of Algebra

Every polyn om ia l equ a t ion P x 0

wit h com plex coefficien t s h a s a t lea st
on e root .

Theorem
E ver y polyn om ia l of degr ee n ca n be
expr essed a s pr odu ct of n lin ea r fa ct or s.
x 3x 2
2

degr ee: 2

= x 2 x 1
x 3 6 x 2 11 x 6
= x 1 x 2 x 3

degr ee: 3

Theorem
E ver y polyn om ia l equ a t ion P x 0
of degr ee n h a s a t m ost n dist in ct r oot s.
In gen er a l, a polyn om ia l equ a t ion ca n be
wr it t en a s
P x a x r1

k1

x r2

k2

x rm

km

r1 , r2 ,..., a n d rm a r e t h e dist in ct r oot s a n d

k1 k 2 ... k m n

P x a x r1

k1

x r2

k2

x rm

km

if
k i 1,

ri is a sim ple r oot .

k i 2,

ri is a dou ble r oot .

k i m , ri is a r oot of m u lt iplicit y m .

Example 1.6.12
Det er m in e t h e r oot s of
P x x 1 x 3 x 5 0
2

dist in ct r oot s: 1, 3, 5
1 is a sim ple r oot .
3 is a dou ble r oot .
5 is a r oot of m u lt iplicit y 4.

Theorem

A polyn om ia l equ a t ion P x 0 of degree

n h a s exa ct ly n root s, a root of m u lt iplicit y
k bein g cou n t ed a s k root s.

Example 1.6.13
F or m a n equ a t ion wh ich h a s
1 a s a dou ble r oot
2 a n d 4 a s sim ple r oot s
a n d n o ot h er s.

x 1 x 2 x 4 0
2

Theorem
Let P x 0 be a polyn om ia l equ a t ion wit h
r ea l coefficien t s. Th en if P x 0 h a s a
com plex r oot , t h en it s con ju ga t e is a lso a
r oot of t h e equ a t ion .
a bi

a bi

Example 1.6.14
F orm a n equ a t ion wit h in t egr a l
coefficien t s a n d wit h lowest possible
degr ee h a vin g 1 2 a n d 2 3 i a s
r oot s.
1

x 2 x 2 3i x 2 3i 0

x 2 x 2 3i x 2 3i 0

2 x 1 x 2 3i x 2 3i 0

2 x 1 x 2 3i x 2 3i 0
2 x 1 x 2 3i
2

2 x 1 x 4 x 4 9 1 0
2
2 x 1 x 4 x 13 0
2

Theorem
Th e r oot s of P x 0 a r e pr ecisely
t h e a ddit ive in ver ses of t h e r oot s of
P x 0.
2 is a r oot of P x 0
2 is a r oot of P x 0

Example 1.6.15
Obt a in a n equ a t ion wh ose r oot s a r e
t h e n ega t ives of t h e r oot s of
2x 5 3x 3 4 x 2 x 2 0
P x 2x 5 3x 3 4 x 2 x 2 0
P x 2 x 3 x 4 x x 2 0
5

2 x 5 3 x 3 4 x 2 x 2 0

Variation of Signs
If t h e t er m s of P x a r e a r r a n ged in
descen din g power s of x , we sa y t h a t
a va r ia t ion of sign occu r s wh en t wo
su ccessive t er m s h a ve differ en t sign s.

Example 1.6.16
Det er m in e t h e n u m ber of va r ia t ion of
sign s for ea ch polyn om ia l.
1. x 5 x 4 2 x 2 3 x 4
va r ia t ion of sign s: 3
2. 2 x 3 x 4 x x 2
5

va r ia t ion of sign s: 4

Descartes Rule of Signs

Th e n u m ber of posit ive r oot s of t h e
polyn om ia l equ a t ion P x 0 wit h
r ea l coefficien t s is equ a l t o t h e
n u m ber of va r ia t ion of sign s in P x
or less t h a n t h a t by a n even n u m ber .

Descartes Rule of Signs

The number of nega t ive root s of P x 0

is t he number of posit ive root s of P x 0.

Example 1.6.17
Det er m in e t h e possible n u m ber of posit ive,
n ega t ive, a n d com plex r oot s of
P x 2x 7 4 x 4 2x 3 x 5 0
P x 2 x 4 x 2 x x 5 0
7

posit ive r oot s: 2 or 0

n ega t ive r oot s: 3 or 1
com plex r oot s: 6,4 or 2

Rational Root Theorem

Con sider
a 0 a1 x a 2 x ... a n x 0, a n 0
2

wit h in t egr a l coefficien t s.

p
If
is a r oot , wh er e p a n d q a r e
q
r ela t ively pr im e in t eger s, t h en p is a
fa ct or of a 0 a n d q is a fa ct or of a n .

Example 1.6.18
Solve 2 x 3 3 x 2 7 x 3 0
p : 1, 3

q : 1, 2

p
1
3
: 1, 3, ,
q
2
2
2x 3 3x 2 7x 3 0
2 x 3 x 7 x 3 0
3

posit ive r oot s: 3 or 1

n ega t ive r oot s: 0

2x 3x 7x 3 0
3

p
1 3
: 1,3, ,
q
2 2

2x 3

3 x 2

7x

3
2

7
1

3
6

1 is n ot a r oot

2x
1
2

3 x
3

7x

1
1

is a r oot a n d x is a fa ct or .
2
2

2
x 2 2x 2x 6 0

2
x

2
x
2x 6 0

2
x

2
x
x 3 0

2
x

0
x
x 3 0

1
x
2

1 11i
x
2

1 1 11i 1 11i
SS ,
,

2
2
2

Example 1.6.19
Solve x 4 8 x 3 14 x 2 13 x 6 0
p : 1, 2, 3, 6
q : 1
p
q

: 1, 2, 3, 6

x 4 8 x 3 14 x 2 13 x 6 0
x 4 8 x 3 14 x 2 13 x 6 0
posit ive r oot s: 0
n ega t ive r oot s: 4 or 2 or 0

x 4 8 x 3 14 x 2 13 x 6 0
p : 1, 2, 3, 6
q

x 4 8 x 3 14 x 2 13 x 6
1
8
14
13
6
1 7
7 6
1

1 is a r oot , x 1 is a fa ct or .

x 1x

7x 7x 6 0
2

3
2
x

1
x

7
x
7x 6 0

p
q

: 1, 2, 3, 6
x 3 7x 2 7x 6
1 7
7
6
1

6 is a r oot , x 6 is a fa ct or

x 1 x 6 x

x 1 0

 x 1 x 6 x
x 1 0
x 1

x 1 0

x 6 0
x 6

x x 1 0
a 1
b 1
2

c 1

1 1 4 1 1

2
1 3 1 3i

2
2

1 3i 1 3i
S S 1, 6,
,

2
2

Equations in Linear or Quadratic

Forms
Som e equ a t ion s ca n be con ver t ed t o
lin ea r or qu a dr a t ic equ a t ion s.
equ a t ion s in volvin g r a t ion a l expr ession s
equ a t ion s in volvin g r a dica ls
equ a t ion s in qu a dr a t ic for m

Example 1.6.20
1
2
7

2
x 2 x 1 x x 2

Solution: The LCD of the RE is

Multiplying both sides by the LCD:

x 2 x 1.

2
7
1

x 2 x 1 x 2 x 1 x 2 x 2 x 2 x 1
EQUATIONS & INEQUALITIES

2
7
1

x 2 x 1 x 2 x 1 x 2 x 2 x 2 x 1
x 1 2 x 2 7 x 2

x 2

Checking the results shows that the LCD 0 for

x. 2
Therefore, the solution set is

SS . 2

Example 1.6.21
3
2
3

2
x 3 x 2 x 5x 6

Solution:
The LCD of the fractions is

x 3. x 2

Multiplying both sides by the LCD yields:

3 x 2 2 x 3 3

3x 6 2 x 6 3
x3

Checking the results shows that the LCD = 0 for

3 3 is NOT a solution, hence,
.xThus,
there is NO SOLUTION to the equation.
Therefore, the solution set is

SS

Example 1.6.22
x 3 1 3x

x 3

x 3 3x 1

3 x 1 squa re bot h sides of t he

2

x 3 9x 2 6x 1
9x 2 7x 2 0

9x 2 0
2
x
9

equa t ion not t he equa t ion

9 x 2 x 1 0

x 1 0
x 1

Ch eckin g:
2
2
8
2
2 2
x
:
9 3 1 3 3
9

9 3
2
is a n ext ra neous solut ion
9

x 1 :

3 1 3

S S 1

3 1 3

Example 1.6.23
2x 5 x 1 2

2x 5 x 1

2x 5 2 2x 3x 5 x 1 4
2

3x 4 2 2x 3x 5 4
2

3 x 2 2 x 2 3 x 5

3 x 2 2 x 3 x 5
2

9x 4 2x 3x 5
2

9 x 8 x 12 x 20
2

x 12 x 20 0
2

x 10 x 2 0
x 10 0

x 2 0

x 10

x 2

Ch eckin g:
x 10 :

2 10 5 10 1 8 4

10 is a n ext ra neous root .

x 2:

2 2 5 2 1 4 2
2 is a n ext r a n eou s solu t ion

SS

Example 1.6.24
x 1 2x
4

1 0

2 x

x 1 0
2

x 1
x i
2

S S i , i

Example 1.6.25
2

2
2

6 1 5 1 6 0
x
x

2
Let u 1
x
2
6u 5u 6 0

2u 3 3u 2 0

3
u
2

2
u
3

3
u
2
2 3
1
x
2
2 x 4 3 x
5 x 4
4
x
5

2
u
3
2 2
1
x 3
3x 6 2x
x 6
4

S S , 6
5