2.1.1 Outline the cell theory.

All living things are made from cells they are a basic unit of structure
Smallest unit of life
Derived from pre-existing cells by division
Original cell
Contain a blueprint for growth, development & behaviour
theory
Site of all metabolism

2.1.2 Discuss the evidence for the cell theory.

Scientists looked at the structures of organisms under microscopes and found they were all
made form small units called cells.
The cells were able to survive on their own for a period of time, but nothing smaller was able
to survive.
Experiment sterilise two samples of nutrients. Seal one and expose the other to air. Observe
that the organisms must arise from other existing organisms/ cells.
2.1.3 State that unicellular organisms carry out all the functions of life.
2.1.4 Compare the relative sizes of molecules, cell membrane thickness, viruses,
bacteria, organelles and cells, using the appropriate SI unit.
1 millimeter (mm) = 10-3 meters
1 micrometer (m) = 10-3 millimeters = 10-6 meters
1 nanometer (nm) = 10-3 micrometers = 10-9 meters
Molecule
Thickness of cell membrane
Viruses
Bacteria
Organelles
Eukaryotic cells

1 nm
10 nm
100 nm
1m
up to 10 m
up to 100 m

2.1.5 Calculate the linear magnification of drawings and the actual size of
specimens in images of known magnification.
2.1.6 Explain the importance of the surface area to volume ratio as a factor limiting
cell size.
Volume increases at a faster rate than surface area. As volume increases, the surface area :
volume ratio decreases and the cells interior has decreasing access to the external
environment. The cell becomes less efficient as substances must be transported in & out.
Diffusion in/ out is much slower.
2.1.7

State that multicellular organisms show emergent properties.

The properties are worth more than the sum of individual parts.
2.1.8

Explain that cells in multicellular organisms differentiate to carry out

specialized functions by expressing some of their genes but not others.
Genes - a specific region of a chromosome which determines the development of a
specific characteristic.
When a cell differentiates, particular genes are activated, resulting in a specialised cell.
Totipotency - a cells potential to specialise
Highly specialised cells are unable to divide
Specialised cells are dependent upon each other

2.1.9 State that stem cells retain the capacity to divide and have the ability to
differentiate along different pathways.

Stem cells are pluripotent and can produce differentiate into many cells.
2.1.10

Outline one therapeutic use of stem cells.

Bone marrow cells can be harvested before chemotherapy and replaced afterwards to ensure
the patient has an ample supply of red and white blood cells, as the stem cells found in bone
marrow are killed during chemotherapy.
2.2.1 Draw and label a diagram of the ultrastructure of Escherichia coli (E. coli) as
an example of a prokaryote.
2.2.2 Annotate the diagram from 2.2.1 with the functions of each named structure.
2.2.3

Identify structures from 2.2.1 in electron micrographs of E. coli.

Escherichia Coli

Cell Wall

Plasma
Membran
e
Pili
Ribosome
s
Cytoplas
m
Flagella

Protects the cell from structural

damage (pressure-wise & external
damage)
Maintains the cells shape
Semi permeable membrane
Controls entry & exit
Helps cell connect to others during
exchange of DNA
Synthesise protein
Jelly-like substance
Site of metabolism
Movement

2.2.4 State that prokaryotic cells divide by binary fission.

2.3.1 Draw and label a diagram of the ultrastructure of a liver cell as an example
of an animal cell.
2.3.2 Annotate the diagram from 2.3.1 with the functions of each named structure.
2.3.3 Identify structures from 2.3.1 in electron micrographs of liver cells.
Rough
Endoplasmi
c Reticulum
Lysosome

Plasma
Membrane
Ribosomes

Golgi

Nucleus

Mitochondri

Contains ribosomes.
Synthesises proteins for use
outside the cell
Break down waste & cellular
debris using digestive
enzymes
Controls entry & exit
Semi permeable
Synthesise proteins according
to RNA orders.
Free floating or on RER
Two subunits
Processes materials produced
in the cell for intra/extra
cellular use
Control centre of the cell
Contains hereditary
information
Site of respiration converts

2.3.4 Compare prokaryotic and eukaryotic cells.

Eukaryotes
Chromosomes enclosed in nuclear envelope
Mitochondria for ATPs
Longer ribosomes (80S)
Many organelles

Prokaryotes
Naked DNA in the cytoplasm
No mitochondria
Shorter ribosomes (70S)
Fewer organelles

2.3.5 State three differences between plant and animal cells.

Characteristic
Cell wall

Plant
Made from cellulose

Animal
none

Chloroplasts
Vacuole
Centrosome
Plasticity/ Cell shape

Used for photosynthesis

Large, permanent; filled with
fluid
none
Fixed shape due to cell wall

Energy storage

Starch

2.3.6 Outline two roles of extracellular components.

Plant Cell Wall
Protects the cell from pressure & external damage.
Strength comes from cellulose arranged in microfibrils.
Prevents excessive osmosis.
Gives structure & the ability to stand against gravity
Animal Glycoproteins

Attached to the membrane

Used in adhesion, support & movement

none
Small temporary vacuoles
Outside nucleus
Rounded, able to change
shape
Glycogen

2.4.1 Draw and label a diagram to show the structure of membranes.

Structure
Integral Protein
Phospholipid Bilayer
Cytoskeleton
Glycoprotein
Peripheral Protein
Cholesterol

Function
Permanent, allows facilitated diffusion & active transport (if it is a
channel)
Two layers of globular proteins, allows selective entry and exit
Scaffold of fibrous proteins
Protein with polysaccharide attached, acts as receptor
Temporary, allows entry (outer) & exit (inner) for specific
substances
Reduces fluidity

2.4.2 Explain how the hydrophobic and hydrophilic properties of phospholipids help
to maintain the structure of cell membranes.

The phospholipids are made from a phosphate group connected to a glycerol and two fatty
acid tails.
The phosphate head is hydrophilic; they are attracted to water
The fatty acid tails are hydrophobic; they are repelled by water.
In a watery environment, the phospholipids will automatically form a bilayer as above.
The cell will therefore remain stable but allow flexibility, as the phospholipids are in a fluid.
2.4.3 List the functions of membrane proteins.
Proteins are used as hormone binding sites, electron carriers, pumps for active transport,
receptors, channels for passive transport, and enzymes

2.4.4 Define diffusion and osmosis.

Passive diffusion unaided movement of particles from an area of high concentration to low
concentration
Osmosis unaided movement of water through a semi-permeable membrane from an area of
high water potential to low water potential.
2.4.5 Explain passive transport across membranes by simple diffusion and
facilitated diffusion.
Passive Diffusion
Particles move through the semi-permeable lipid bilayer through simple diffusion until the
concentration on both sides is even. Hydrophobic molecules diffuse inwards through this
method.
Facilitated Diffusion
Channel proteins allow hydrophilic & charged molecules in (inside of cell is hydrophobic)

2.4.7 Explain how vesicles are used to transport materials within a cell between the
rough endoplasmic reticulum, Golgi apparatus and plasma membrane.
Proteins are synthesised in the rough endoplasmic reticulum by ribosomes. Vesicles transport
the protein to the golgi apparatus, and then to the plasma membrane. The vesicle fuses with
the membrane and expels its contents outside the cell. This is exocytosis. The membrane
then pinches inwards and the vesicle detaches. This is endocytosis.

2.4.8 Describe how the fluidity of the membrane allows it to change shape, break
and re-form during endocytosis and exocytosis.
The phospholipids which make up the membrane are in a fluid state. This allows them to
move, change shape, and allow vesicles to fuse with it. This is critical during endocytosis and
exocytosis as it means that substances are able to enter & exit the cell.
2.4.6 Explain the role of protein pumps and ATP in active transport across
membranes.
Active transport is used to transport substances against a concentration gradient. The protein
pump requires energy to open and close, which it receives from ATPs. Note that protein
pumps are specific.

2.5.1 Outline the stages in the cell cycle, including interphase (G 1, S, G2), mitosis
and cytokinesis

G1 Cell grows and matures

S DNA is replicated in preparation for mitosis
G2 Cell grows further and prepares for mitosis
Mitosis Divided into prophase, metaphase, anaphase
& telophase. Daughter cells genomes are separated.
Cytokinesis The cytoplasm divides to create two
daughter cells. In animals, the cell membrane divides
plate between the daughter cell s is formed.

and in plants, a

2.5.2 State that tumours (cancers) are the result of uncontrolled cell division and
that these can occur in any organ or tissue.
2.5.3 State that interphase is an active period in the life of a cell when many
metabolic reactions occur, including protein synthesis, DNA replication and an
increase in the number of mitochondria and/or chloroplast
2.5.4Describe the events that occur in the four phases of mitosis (prophase,
metaphase, anaphase and
telophase).
Interphase

1.

2.

3.

4.

5.

Includes G1, S, and G2

New organelles grow during G1.
Chromosomes replicate & coil to form
chromatids during S. Cell grows in
preparation for mitosis during G2
Prophase
Nuclear membrane breaks down,
nucleolus disintegrates
Metaphase
Centrioles move to poles
Spindle appears
Chromatids line up
Anaphase
Spindle retreats & chromatids split,
forming two sets of DNA
Telophase
Nuclear membrane reforms
Nucleolus reforms
Chromatids decondense to form
chromatids
Cytokinesis
Cell pinches in half
Cytoplasm divides

2.5.5 Explain how mitosis produces

two genetically identical nuclei.
During the S phase of interphase, the DNA is duplicated in the form of sister chromatids
held together by a centromere. During mitosis, the chromatids are separated to opposite
sides of the cell, before it is divided into two daughter cells. The daughter cells are thus
genetically identical.
2.5.6 State that growth, embryonic development, tissue repair and asexual
reproduction involve mitosis.