Science 10 Provincial Notes

1.1 Biomes
The World is the BIOSPHERE
As in all of the living that occur on the earth and their interactions with all other non-living thing
things
It is very difficult to study the world, as there is much variation
Ecology divides the Biosphere up into chunks that are easier to study
Biomes
Biomes are the largest division of the biosphere
There are 8 land biomes (terrestrial) & many more aquatic biomes
Defined broadly by their BIOTIC (living) and ABIOTIC (non-living) factors
Factors that Affect Biome Conditions
Certain factors affect TEMPERATURE and PRECIPITATION, which are the main conditions of a
biome:
- Latitude
- Elevation
- Ocean currents
Latitude
Measured in degrees from the equator
Areas closest to the equator have a more constant temperature

Elevation
The higher you go, the less atmosphere you have on top of you
Thinner atmosphere holds less heat
Ocean Currents
CONVECTION cycles warm water from the equator up to the poles (bringing cool water back to the
equator)
Water is a heat sink (high specific heat) that can stabilize temperatures
Adaption to Biomes
Plants and animals will often evolve adaptations to better suit their biomes condition
3 main types:
- Structural
- Physiological
- Behavioural
Structural Adaptation
An outward physical change to an animal (or plant) that gives it better chance to survive
Ex. Opossum has a prehensile (can grab and curl) tail
Physiological Adaptation
Physiological adaptation is an adaptation that occurs within the animal (not surface)
Ex. Snake venom
Behavioural Adaptation
Adaptations to the behaviour of an animal
Ex. Squirrels storing nuts for the winter

1.2 Ecosystems - Further Dividing Biosphere

Biomes can be subdivided into ecosystems

Ecosystems have abiotic components that support biotic components
Can be large (like a park), or small (like a tide pool)

Habitat
A division of the ecosystem
The place where the organism actually lives
Abiotic Interactions
Nutrients are chemicals that are required for growth and repair
Oxygen and sunlight are important for plant life
Soil is an integral nutrient store for plants
Species, Organisms, Populations and Communities
A species is a group of organisms that are so closely related they can reproduce
A population is all of one particular species in an area (ex. herd)
A community is all of the populations in one ecosystem
Biotic Interactions
Commensalism
An interaction between two species where one is helped, but the other is not affected
Ex. Remora shark attaching to whales or larger shark to feed off of messy eating
Mutualism
Both organisms benefit from the interaction
Ex. Bees pollinate plants while gaining the means to make honey
Parasitism
One organism is harmed and the other is helped
Ex. Cymothoa Exigua replacing fish tongue
Competition
Two or more organisms compete for the same resource (food, habitat, etc.)
Predation
Occurs when one animals eats another
Some animals have developed means to hide (camouflage) or look like things that are poisonous
(miming)

2.1 Energy Flow in Ecosystems

Energy Must be Able to Grow
Living things need to grow and reproduce
Once dead, there must be a way for matter and energy to be recycled
The term BIOMASS is given to the total mass of all organic materials
Producers and Consumers
Producers are anything that produces carbohydrates (energy) from the sun using photosynthesis
Consumers eat the plants or other consumers to gain their energy
When they die?
Decomposition is the process of breaking down organic wastes or dead organisms
If the thing breaks down the dead stuff is living We can call it BIODEGRADATION
! We classify the living thing itself as a decomposer
Food Chains
One of the ways to describe the flow of energy through an ecosystem
Each level on the chain is called a TROPHIC LEVEL
Terms
PRIMARY PRODUCER Typically a plant. Creates energy from sunlight
PRIMARY CONSUMER Eats the primary producer
SECONDARY CONSUMER Eats the primary consumer
TERTIARY CONSUMER Eats the secondary consumer
DETRIVER An animal that eats dead things
Food Web
Similar to a food chain, but it relates to many different food chains together
Food Pyramids
Used to show how much energy is lost at each level
Up to 90% of the energy is lost at each level
100% " 10% " 1% " 0.1%

2.2 Nutrient Cycles

There must be a way for CARBON, NITROGEN & PHOSPHORUS to cycle around in the biosphere
If there wasnt, then everything would be trapped in dead matter & there would be nothing to build
anything with

Stores and Sink

If a nutrient is trapped in a dormant form, it is considered a STORE/SINK
Some SINKS are short term, others are long term
Ex. A STORE OF CARBON is called: coal
The nutrient cycles explain how nutrients are released from the stores, and how they get back into
them
Carbon Cycle
Anything that is living on Earth has carbon in it
The 3 mains producers of CARBON: Photosynthesis, Cellular Respiration, Decomposition
Photosynthesis
The method by which plants use sunlight and carbon dioxide to create sugar
Light + 6CO2 + 12H2O " C6H12O6 + 6O2 + 6H2O
Takes carbon out of the atmosphere (store) & make it available for other organisms
Cellular Respiration
When an animal eats sugar, it needs to break it down, so it can turn it into useful energy for growth &
repair
C6H12O6 +6O2 " 6CO2 + 6H2O
Decomposition
Once matter has died, decomposition is undertaken by bacteria and fungi
This decomposition makes the carbon in the dead organisms available for use by other organisms
Sedimentation and Decomposition
Sedimentation occurs when particles turn to rock over time (due to the pressure from things piling on
top of it)
Results in formation of rock with carbon in it (store)
Decomposition is the breakdown of dead organic matter releasing carbon into the environment as
carbon dioxide.

Nitrogen Cycle
Nitrogen is an important part of DNA, RNA and protons
It is also the most abundant gas in the Earths atmosphere (78%)
Plants are unable to use atmospheric nitrogen. It must be made available by certain processes.
Nitrogen Fixation
Atmospheric nitrogen (N2) is converted into NITRATE (NO3) or ammonium (NH4+)
N2 + 3H2 = 2NH3
nitrogen + hydrogen = ammonia fertilizer

Both of these compounds can be used by plants

Nitrogen fixation is done by:
! Nitrogen fixing bacteria in the roots of legume plants
! Lightning strikes
! Cyanobacteria

What happens after it has become Nitrate & Ammonium?

A 2nd process called NITRIFICATION converts the ammonium into Nitrate
This process is done by Nitrifying Bacteria

Uptake
Now that the nitrogen has been converted into useable Nitrate, plants can uptake it and incorporate it
into proteins
This is how nitrogen is introduced into the food chain
Returning Nitrogen to the atmosphere
In order to maintain balance in an ecosystem, some nitrate must be converted back into atmospheric
nitrogen
This is done by DENITRIFYING BACTERIA
Nitrogen can also be cycled into the atmosphere in volcanic ash & nitrous oxide

Phosphorus Cycle
Phosphorus is an important part of DNA, RNA and bones
***1 of 3 nutrients that isnt found in the atmosphere***
Phosphorus is stored as Phosphate ions in rocks
Can be released by the process of WEATHERING (environmental breakdown)

Human Effects on Nutrient Cycles

Human activities often disrupt the nutrient cycles
Deforestation/fossil fuels increase carbon dioxide in the atmosphere
Run off over fertilization can increase nitrogen level in lakes and streams
This disruption can have a negative effect on biodiversity of ecosystems
2.3 Effects of Bioaccumulation on Ecosystems
Bioaccumulation
Human-made Compounds
Compounds like pesticides & industrial by-product get into the base level of the food chain & get
consumed by primary producers
When animals up the food chain eat these producers, these compounds can cause health issues
If an organism eats toxin-infected material every day, the toxin will build up in that organism
This build up inside the organism is called BIOACCUMULATION
Biomagnification
Animals higher on the food chain will eat many organisms that have been bioaccumulating toxins
As a result, the concentration of these toxins will magnify as you move up the food chain since it gets
stored in the tissues
Keystone Species
A keystone species is a species that affects many different food webs.
It is very important to the ecosystem and harming it will harm the whole system (ex. Salmon)
Method of Quantifying Toxins
PPM (parts per million)
If you are take 1 PPM, then there is 1 part of the part of the thing you are looking for to 999, 999 parts
of everything else
Ex. If 4 PPM lead 4 parts lead to 999, 996 parts everything else
PCBs
Stands for PLYCHLLORINATED BIPHENYLS
Used in many industrial processes (manufacturing plastics, etc.)
Fat-soluble toxin that harms immune system of Orca

POPs
Persistent Organic Pollutants
Typically pesticides like DDT (dichloro diphenyl trichloroethane)
Kills bugs very well, but toxic to man animals (thins bird shells)
Heavy Metals
Any metal of high density is considered a heavy metal
Examples: Lead, Cadmium, Mercury, Copper, Selenium
Lead
Used to be used in gas to stop rough idling
Also large amount in e-wash
Effects nervous and reproductive systems in humans
3.1 Change in the Ecosystem
Adaptive Radiation
Adaptive Radiation is where many different species evolve from one ancestral species
This allows species to inhabit different niches, lessening competition
Natural Selection
Organisms with traits that are beneficial to survive will be more likely to pass their genes on to future
generations
Ecological Succession
After serious damage has been done to an ecosystem (by natural disaster), there must be a way for
the land to be reclaimed
There processes are called ECOLOGICAL SUCCESSION, there are 2 types: - Primary - Secondary
Primary Succession
Reclaiming land from rock (like after a volcanic eruption)
Step 1:
! Spores from lichen & other PIONEER SPECIES are blown in on the wind or, are carried in
on birds
! Pioneer species are organisms that are capable of living and growing in harsh conditions
Step 2:
! Pioneer species consume rock, breaking it down & releasing nutrients
! When the organism dies and rots, it adds to the growing layer of soil
Step 3:
! Plants and other organisms take hold, animals move in. Eventually a MATURE
COMMUNITY (a.k.a. CLIMAX COMPOUND) is achieved
Secondary Succession
Happens after a forest fire or other catastrophic event where the soil remains
Just like primary succession, but it starts at the point where the plants take hold and animals move
in

Natural Disasters
Flooding
Can cause soil erosions, and large amounts of property damage
Sometimes causes raw sewage to be released into populations causing disease
Tsunami
Caused by underwater earthquakes or mudslides
Massive damage from concussive force of the wave
Salt can cause problems in ecosystems
Drought
Below average precipitation
Can cause problems with farming and livestock
Major issue with changing climate
Insect Infestation
Introduced species of insect can cause serious harm to plants, in an ecosystem
As the plants are also habitat for many other creatures, the whole ecosystem suffers
Pine Beetle
Burrows into older, weaker pine trees
Younger pine trees produce resin that flushes them out
Blue Stain Fungus
Stressed trees (drought, overcrowding, etc.) produce less resin and are unable to fight off the
beetle
The beetle has developed a symbiotic relationship with the blue stain fungus that inhibits resin
production
Warmer winter temperature kills off less beetles
Sustainability
The use of resources in a manner that allows the resource to recover
Resource Use
Refers to the way in which humans acquire and use materials like gas, oil, wood
If we are talking about how land is used, we call it LAND USE
Problems with Human Expansion
Human-built roads and other pathways divide ecosystems into smaller fragments
This will affect wildlife and plant seed movement
Habitat Loss
Refers to the complete destruction of an ecosystem
The habitat can no longer support the plants and animals that are native to it
Deforestation
Where trees are cut down and not replaced
Can lead to soil degradation (no roots to hold nutrient rich soil in place) it will wash away/ erode
with rain
Effects of Agriculture
Loss of biodiversity in the region (only growing one or two crop plants)

Tractors and other farm machinery can cause SOIL COMPACTION which harms soil health
This compaction can increase the amount of run-off (rain water washing away nutrients) and
increase the amount of nitrogen and phosphorus
Excess grazing animals can also stress the land through compaction and loss of plant biomass

Aeration
Punching out plugs of earth can help allow air and nutrients to reach the root systems
Effects of Exploitation
Contamination
Toxins from manufacturing can leach into the environment, harming living things
Over Exploitation
The use of a resource till it is completely exhausted
Can cause extinction
Overexploitation and Food Webs
Certain species are critical to the success of an ecosystem (typically because they are food for
many things). These species are known as KEYSTONE SPECIES
Harming the health of a keystone species can have devastating effects on the ecosystems
Orcas
Orcas used to eat these sperm whales
Now that they werent around anymore they had to eat harbour seals, sea lions, fur seals, and sea
otters
The result of this was a lack of sea otters
Sea otter eat sea urchins, without them, the sea urchins grew out of control (and ate through much
of our kelp forests)
Kelp forests are very important marine ecosystems
In the end
Preying on sperm whales lead to a large decline in kelp forests
3.3 Introduced Species
Native and Foreign Species
A native species is a species that belongs in a given ecosystem
Foreign species are species that are not native to an ecosystem
These foreign species can be INTRODUCED (brought in) on purpose or accident
Some of these introduced species can be considered INVASIVE if they harm the native species r
take over their habitat
Competition
The invasive species competes with the native species for resources
Ex. The Africanized honey bee
Invasive species often have advantages over the native species as they lack in natural predators in
the new environment
Invasive species arent all bad they can be very useful (Asian carp)
Habitat Alteration
The invasive species alters the habitat, negatively affecting the native species
Ex. the Kudzu vine

Predation
The invasive species actively hunts and eats the native species.
Ex. the Cane toad
Disease or Parasitism
Invasive species either bring disease or is itself a parasite
Ex. Tongue eating louse
4.1 Atomic Theory and Bonding
What is an ELEMENT?
Anything you can see on the PERIODIC TABLE is an ELEMENT
An element is a PURE SUBSTANCE
Elements cannot be broken down by chemical means
The smallest piece of an Element
The smallest piece of an element that still has properties of that element is an ATOM
What is a COMPOUND?
A compound is two or more atoms CHEMICALLY BONDED TOGETHER IN A SPECIFIC MATTER
A compound s a PURE SUBSTANCE
The smallest piece of a compound
The smallest piece of a compound that still has properties of that compound is a MOLECULE
What are atoms made of?
Atoms are made up of 3 subatomic particles: PROTONS, NEUTRONS, ELECTRONS
PROTONS
Protons live in the nucleus
Have a mass of 1 Atomic Mass Unit (a.m.u.)
Has an electric charge of +1
NEUTRONS
Neutrons also live in the nucleus
Have a mass ever so slightly larger than a proton (still considered 1 amu)
Has an electric charge of 0
ELECTRONS
Electrons live in orbit around the nucleus
Have so little mass, they are considered to be massless (9.1x10-31kg)
Has an electric charge of -1
How to figure out how many of each there are in an atom?
The ATOMIC NUMBER (abbreviated z) is usually located on top of the atomic symbol
The atomic number is the number of protons in the element
The number of protons DEFINES THE ELEMENT (42 protons is Mo 41 is Nb)

What else does the atomic number equal?

In an ATOM, the number of electrons is the same as protons
This is not true for ions (atoms that have gained or lost electrons and are charged)

Neutrons
The ROUNDED ATOMIC MASS is basically equal to protons and neutrons
# of Neutrons = rounded atomic mass - atomic number
Ex. Molybdenum
N = 96 - 42
N = 54 neutrons
Ion Formation
Remember that the number of protons defines the atoms
Ion Formation
Remember that the number of protons defines the atoms
When an atom gains or loses electrons, it will become charged. We call these things IONS
Ions form because atoms want to have a full outer (valence) shell of electrons
How to judge the charge?
Look at the upper right hand corner for the charge
If the ion is a positively charged ion, it is a CATION
If the ion is a negatively charged ion, it is a ANION
How do we figure out protons, neutrons and electrons for ions?
The # of protons and neutrons will be the same as if you are calculating them for an atom
You must consider the charge of the ion to get the electrons
+2+ - lose electrons
"-2 - add electrons
Bohr Models
Electrons live in orbits
Remember this pattern (you can count it off the period table): 2,8,8
Take your total number of electrons, and start filling shells till you have found them all a home
Nitrogen:
#p = 6
#n = 6
#e = 6

Carbon:
#p = 7
#n = 7
#e = 7

Oxygen:

Oxygen Ion:

*Ions have brackets around them

Lewis Structures
Only show the outer (valence) electrons
Binding pairs of electrons are shown on a line
Oxygen Atom:

Oxygen Ion:

Bohr Sodium Atom: Bohr Sodium Ion:

Lewis Sodium Atom:

Lewis Sodium Ion:

Lewis Structures for Basic Polyatomics

Step 1: Count up all VALENCE electrons
Ex. NO3N
O3
5 + 3(6) + 1 = 24
Step 2: Skeleton.
Connect the atoms with lines. Each line is TWO ELECTRONS & signifies a bond
Ex.

Step 3: Place remaining electrons around the atoms to fill up the valence shell
Remember the OCTET rule: Each atom wants 8 electrons (except H, which wants 2)

Ex.
The number of electrons has to equal the
total number of valence electrons (Step 1)

Step 4: Check if all elements have full octets

If they dont, use a lone pair from (an)other element
This creates a BOND = bonding electrons count for both atoms

Step 5: Dont forget the sign (and brackets!)

Ex.

Ex.

Bohr Models and Lewis Structures for Ionic Compounds

Models with a metal and a non-metal
Place the ions beside each other

Bohr:

Lewis:

Ionic

LiCl

CaF2

Covalent
- Share electrons
- Bohr: balls
- Lewis: lines
- Has a charge
- Non-metal vs. metal

Give and take electrons

Bohr: bracket
Lewis: brackets
Has a charge
Non-metal vs. metal

Diatomic molecule - Pair of atoms of the same element that are joined together by COVALENT
bonds.
Ex. Br2, N2, O2, C2 HOFBriINCl
4.2 Names and Formulas Compounds

There are 4 types of chemicals we have to between names and formulae

Binary ionic (one metal and one non-metal)
Ionic with multivalent metals
Ionic with polyatomic ions
Binary covalent (non-metal and non-metal)

For Ionic Compound Naming

Place the cation (positive ion) first, and the anion (negative ion) second, but change the ending to
ide
Ex. Lithium + Fluorine = Lithium Fluoride
For the Formula
Write down the symbol of the metal (cation) with its charge, and the non-metal (anion) with its
charge
Use the fewest of each ion needed to get a net charge of zero. Show the number with subscripts
(unless its a 1)
Magnesium Fluoride = Mg2+F- = MgF2

Magnesium Phosphide = Mg2+ P3- = Mg3P2

Beryllium oxide = Be2+ O2- = BeO

Sodium Nitride = Na+ N3- = Na3N

Multivalent Metals
You have to use the charge of the anion to figure out the roman numeral
Roman numerals are used to show the charge: I, II, III, IV, V, VI, VII, VIII, IX, X
Ex. What is the name of FeCl3 = Iron (III) Chloride
Formula for Copper (II) Bromide = CuBr2
Osmium (IV) Nitride = Os3N4
What About Polyatomic Ions
You will occasionally see things that are not on the periodic table in a name (such as Carbonate or
Perchlorate)
In a formula, it will appear as a grouping atoms (KNO3 for instance)
They are treated as a single entity, and their endings are NOT changed
Brackets may have to be used to show that there is more than one of the polyatomic ion in
question
Ex. Ca(NO3)2 is different from CaNO32
What is the name of the following compounds?
Mg(NO3)2
=
Magnesium Nitrate
NH4Cl
=
Ammonium Chloride
What is the formula for:
Aluminum bicarbonate
Sodium acetate
Iron (III) sulfide
Rhenium (VII) phosphite

=
=
=
=

Al(HCO3)2
NaCH3COO
Fe(HS)3
Re3(PO3)7

Covalent Compounds
Covalent compounds are NON-METAL bonded to NON-METAL
The rules for these are slightly different
DO NOT EVER REDUCE THE SUBSCRIPT ON COVALENT COMPOUNDS
The Only Prefix Rule
If the 1st element in the only one (its a mono) we dont use the mono
Ex. CO = Carbon monoxide NOT monocarbon monoxide
Ex. N2H4 = Dinitrogen tetrahydride
Ex. Dihydrogen monoxide = H2O
Ex. Dicarbon hexahydride = C2H6
4.3 Chemical Equations
Balancing Equations (Making sure the world doesnt end)
Remember what an equation looks like: REACTANT PRODUCTS
Why will the world end?
The Law of Conservation of Mass States:
Matter cannot be created nor destroyed, only changed from one form to another
Ex. Magnesium metal reacts with Oxygen gas to form Magnesium oxide
Mg(s) + O2 (g) MgO(s)
2Mg + O2 = 2MgO

Phases
(s) = Solid
(aq) = Aqueous dissolved in solution
(l) = Liquid a pure liquid
(g) = Gas
We use coefficients to make sure we have equal number of atoms on each side of the equation

Ex. P(s) + Cl2 (g) PCl3 (g)

= 2P + 3Cl2 2PCl3
Ex. Al(OH)3 + HCl AlCl3 + H2O
Al(OH)3 + 3HCl AlCl3 + 3H2O
5.1 Acids and Bases

Acids in Everyday Life

Acids can be recognized from their chemical formula because of a H in the front: HCl, HBr
HCH3COO - acetic acid
CH3COO - also acetic acid
Acids have a sour taste and are corrosive to metals
Critic (in citrus fruits) and carbonic acids (in pop) are common acids found in foods
Naming Acids
When a compound with the hydrogen in the front is in aqueous solutions, we use its acid
name. (for a few exceptions, it can be liquid)
HCl(g) is Hydrogen chloride, but HCl(aq) is Hydrochloric acid
3 Types of Chemical Name Endings
ide, ate, ite
ide Endings
For Normal endings (-ide) the word Hydrogen is added to the front and the ending becomes -ic
acid
Hydrogen Fluoride becomes Hydrofluoric acid
ate Endings
If the name ends in -ate, the Hydrogen is dropped and the ending is changed to -ic acid
Ex. Hydrogen nitrate becomes Nitric acid
ite Endings
If the formula ends -ite the hydrogen is dropped and the ending is changed to ous acid
Hydrogen nitrite would become Nitrous acid
Bases in Everyday Life
Bases can be recognized from their chemical formula because of on OH in the end:
NaOh, LiOH, Ba(OH)2
Bases are bitter tasting and felt slippery
Often found in cleaning solutions
The pH Scale
Stands for the potential hydrogen
Each level is 10x stronger than the previous one

pH Indicators
There are solutions that will change colour in certain pH ranges (see p. 224)
You can use this to dial in the pH of an unknown substance
5.2 Salts
What is a salt?
A salt is an ionic compound (a metal and a non-metal), that is the non-water product of an acid/
base reaction
Ex. HBr + NaOH NaBr + H2O
acid + base salt + water
Metal Oxide
A metal oxide is a metal reacted with an oxide
When a metal oxide is dissolved in water, you create a base
Ex. MgO + H2O Mg(OH)2
Mg oxide + water base
Ex. Calcium oxide reacts with water
CaO + H2O Ca(OH)2
Non-metal Oxide
Non-metal bonded to an oxide
When a non-metal oxide (unofficial: nmo) is placed in water, you get an acid
Ex. SO2 + H2O H2SO3
nmo + water acid
Ex. Carbon dioxide reacts with water
CO2 + H2O H2CO3
Metals Reacting with Acids
Metals will react with acids to create a salt and hydrogen gas
Ex. H2SO4 + 2Na Na2SO4 + H2
Carbonates and Acid rain
H2SO4 and HNO3 are the main acid components of acid rain
These acids react with the carbonate ions found in limestone around many lakes to neutralize it,
protecting the ecosystem
Some lakes do not have limestone, so they will become acidic
5.3 Organic Compounds
Organic Compounds Must Contain Carbon
Almost all compounds that contain carbon are considered ORGANIC
Except:
Carbonates (anything with CO3-2)
Carbides (for now anything with a Carbon at the end of the formula)
Oxides of Carbon
Methods of Drawing Organic Compounds
Structural formula
Drawn out like a Lewis structure, except no lone pairs shown

Hydrocarbons
Hydrocarbons contain ONLY Carbon and Hydrogen
Many of them are fuels (methane, propane, butane, etc.)
Alcohols
Contain a covalently bonded OH group in the formula
All alcohols are poisonous
Commonly used as solvents

6.1 Types of Chemical Reactions

Types of Radiation
SYNTHESIS
DECOMPOSITION
SINGLE/ DOUBLE REPLACEMENT
COMBUSTION
ACID BASE
General rule that works most of the time
When predicting products that are not elements, use the charges of the ions to create the new
products
Synthesis
Two or more things come together to form one
Ex. Magnesium reacts with oxygen
Mg + O2 MgO
2Mg + O2 2MgO
Decomposition
One thing breaks down into two or more different things
At this level, you will always break things down to their elements
Ex. Water breaks down
H 2O H 2 + O 2
2H2O 2H2 + O2
Single Replacement
One thing bumps out another in a compound
Be sure you sub the metal for metal or the non-metal with the non-metal
Ex. Lithium reacts with iron (II) chloride
Li + FeCl2 LiCl + Fe
2Li + FeCl2 2LiCl + Fe
Double Replacement
Two things in different compounds switch positions
Ex. Lead (II) nitrate reacts with potassium iodide
Pb(NO3)2 + KI KNO3 + PbI
Pb(NO3)2 + 2KI 2KNO3 + PbI2

Acid Base
An acid (H in front) reacts with a base (OH in the back) to create a salt & water
Ex. Hydrobromic acid (HBr) reacts with sodium hydroxide
HBr + NaOH NaBr + H2O
acid + base salt + water
Combustion
A hydrocarbon reacts with oxygen to form Carbon dioxide and water
C10H8 + 12O2 " 10CO2 + 4H2O
If the hydrocarbon has a S or a N in it, SO2 and NO2 will be produced as well
Ex. 2C2H7N + 9O2 " 4CO2 + 7H2O + 2NO2
2C2H7S + 15O2 " 8CO2 + 10H2O + 2SO2
6.2 Factors Affecting Reaction

Chemical Reactions can happen at different speeds

Somethings are very fast, like a burning match, others are quite slow, like rusting iron
The speed at which the reaction occurs is called the Rate of Reaction
It is possible to speed up or slow down a Reaction Rate

Collision Theory
A chemical reaction happens when particles collide with
! The correct orientation
! Enough energy to begin the reaction (Activation energy)
Temperature
Temperature is the average kinetic energy of all particles in a sample
If you increase the temperature, you increase the numbers of particles that have enough energy to
undergo a reaction
Increasing temperature also increases the number of collisions, but it is far less of an effect
Concentration
The concentration of a solution is now much SOLUTE is dissolved in a certain amount of
SOLVENT
If you have more SOLUTE, then there are more particles to undergo collisions, and thus the rate of
reaction will increase
Surface Area
Only effects heterogeneous (different phases) systems (and solid/solid**)
If you increase the surface area, you are increasing the amount of stuff in contact, allowing for
more collisions
Increasing surface area increases the reaction rate
Catalysts
A catalyst is something that is not consumed (or is consumed and regenerated) in a reaction and
increases the rate
Catalysts do this by lowering the amount of energy required for a successful collision

7.1 Atomic Theory, Isotopes, and Radioactive Decay

Radioactivity
High energy rays and particles are called RADIATION
Travel like a wave in space. The smaller the wavelength the more energetic it is
The longer the wavelength the less energetic it is (ex. radiowaves)
Isotopes and Decay
Isotopes are different forms of an element that differ ONLY IN NUMBER OF NEUTRONS
Samples of elements in nature are usually a mixture of different isotopes
Protons, neutrons and electrons for isotopes
= Neon; 10 protons; 11 neutrons; 10 electrons

Sometimes an isotope is unstable, and will emit radiation to become more stable
There are 3 types: alpha, beta and gamma

Alpha Radiation (decay)

Is a Helium nucleus
Most massive and slowest radiation particle
Cannot penetrate paper
Beta Radiation
Is an electron emitted from the nucleus
A lie that works: its like a neutron split into a proton and an electron
Atomic mess will stay unchanged, but the atomic # will increase by one
Cannot go through tinfoil
Gamma Radiation
Is a high energy proton of energy from an excited particle
Does not change the atomic mass or number
Goes through most things (need lead or concrete to stop it)
Nuclear Equations
Pretend that the arrow is an equal sign and treat the top row and bottom row as separate additions

7. 2 Half-Life
What is half-life?
Half-life is the amount of time it takes for half of a substance to decay (become something else)
An elements half-life is constant. (Ex. Carbon-14 has a half-life of 5730 years. This doesnt
change EVER)
As a result, you can use the amount of a substance that remains as a clock to tell how old
something is Carbon dating, potassium clock, etc.)
Decay Curves
Because everything decays in the same way, all decay curves will look the same
The difference is that the time scale on the bottom will differ

Using Half-lives as a Clock

If you can figure out how many half-lives have passed, and you know how long a half-life is, you
can use the info like a clock
Ex. A substance in a bottle has a half-life of 5 days. If you find that 6.25% of the substance is
remaining how old is the sample
100 50 25 12.5 6.25
4 half-lives x 5 days = 20 days
Parent + Daughter Isotopes
When an isotope decays (parent isotope) a new isotope (daughter isotope) is created
These parent and daughter isotopes will always exist in the same pairs
8.1 The Language of Motion
Scales
Scalars have magnitude but no direction
Like time, length, area, etc.
Vectors
Vectors have magnitude and direction
Like displacement, velocity, acceleration
Guaranteed Questions
What is distance?
It is a scalar quantity.
It is the length of a path between two plants, its symbol is d.
What is position?
It is a vector quantities, it describes the distance and direction of something from a reference
point.
The symbol is
What is displacement?
It is a straight line distance from one point to another.
=
= change
Ex. A person leaves their house and walks 10m E, 20m N, and then 10m W.
Distance? = 40m
Position? = 20m N
Displacement? = 20m N - 0m N
= 20m N

8.2 Average Velocity

Speed ()
The distance an object travels during a given time interval divided by the time interval
Speed is metres per second (m/s)
It is a scalar quantity

Velocity ()
The displacement of an object during a time interval divided by the time interval
Describes how fast an objects position is changing
!

Equation: =

It is a vector quantity, and is measured in m/s

Average velocity ( av) is the rate of change in position for a time interval

9.1 & 9.2 Acceleration

Things speed up or slow down

When the velocity changes, we say the object has undergone ACCELERATION

What About Something That is Slowing Down?

Signs come into play
Just like in the last chapter, where you can have a negative position, you can have negative
velocities and accelerations
All the negative sign means is that it is going in the opposite direction
the Change in Velocity
You found it the same way you found the change in time, or the change in displacement
=
The sign of the answer will tell you which way are going
Ex. A runner starts off running at 2m/s E and speeds up to 11m/s E. What is the change in
velocity?
Acceleration due to gravity 9.8m/s2 towards center earth
12.1 Continental Drift
Continental Drift Theory
Proposed by Alfred Wegener
States that the continents have not always been where they are now
The continents float and drift on molten rock due to CONVECTION CURRENTS
Evidence #1: JIGSHAW PUZZLE FIT
The continents appear to be like parts of a jigsaw puzzle that can fit together
This super continent is called PANGAEA
Evidence #2: MATCHING GEOLOGICAL STRUCTURES
Looking at rocks and mountain ranges on different continents suggest that they were once joined
Evidence #3: MATCHING FOSSILS
Bands of fossil evidence also suggests continents were once joined
Plant life and land animals appear in different continents separated by ocean
Evidence #4: PALEOGLACIATION
Moving glaciers leave evidence in the ground it moves over
Evidence of this is found in India and Africa
Other Interesting Bits
There are coal deposits in Antarctica
Decomposing organic stuff forms coal, which there isnt much of in Antarctica.
The continent of Antarctica must have been in a more temperate area at some point

How Do These Continents Move?

The continents are on giant slabs called TECTONIC PLATES
These plates move due to CONVECTION CURRENTS in the mantle
Sea Floor Spreading
Magma pushes up through a ridge forming new rocks and pushing plates apart
Proof of this is found in MAGNETIC STRIPING
Magnetic Striping
Roughly every 200,000 years or so, the earths magnetic field changes polarity
When molten rock solidifies, the iron in it will orient itself into the pole
If you look right at the rock around a ridge, you will see that the iron is striped
12.2 Features of Plate Tectonics
The Earth is Divided into Four Sections
The crust, mantle, outer core and inner core
The crust moves on a partly molten layer of the upper mantle called the Asthenosphere due to
convection currents
Ridge Push, Slab Pull

Plate Interactions
When 2 plates come together, there are 3 things that can happen:
! They move away from each other (Divergent)
! They can come together (Convergent)
! They can slide past each other (Transform)
Divergent Plate Interactions
The 2 tectonic plates in question are moving apart from each other
The gap is known as a rift
Convergent Plate Interactions
There are 2 types of place: Oceanic and Continental
Oceanic plates are more dense than continental plates
Oceanic/ Continental Convergence
The more dense oceanic plate will slide underneath the continental plate
This cause a SUBDUCTION ZONE
A deep underwater valley, called a TRENCH forms where the plates made contact
You will see volcanoes slightly inland due to excess molten rock
Oceanic/ Oceanic Convergence
Cooling causes one plate to be denser than the other
One of the 2 plates will cool slightly faster and slip underneath the other one
You will find trenches at the boundary and volcanic chains nearby
Continental/ Continental Convergence
Neither plate is dense enough to sink so they push upwards making a large mountain range like
the Himalayas

Transform Plate Boundaries

In a TRANSFORM plate boundary, the plates are moving past each other
Earthquakes
When plates are moving against each other, they will sometimes stick and a great deal of energy
will stores
The plates will eventually move suddenly, releasing the energy suddenly
Earthquake TERMS
The FOCUS is the place the earthquake actually starts
The EPICENTER is the place on the surface directly above the focus
Seismic Waves
The energy released through the slipping of the plates is transferred through the land in the form of
seismic waves
There are 3 types waves: P, S, L
P waves and S waves are considered body wave (travel through the body of earth)
L waves are considered surface waves as they travel on the surface
P Waves (Primary Waves)
The 1st wave to be felt (travel at 6 km/s)
Causes the ground to compress and stretch
S Waves (Secondary Waves)
Also a body wave, is the 2nd wave to be felt (travel at 3.5 km/s)
Cause more damage than P waves
Direction of propagation (movement) is perpendicular to the ground
L Waves (Love Waves)
Surface waves
Slowest wave (last to arrive)
Like ripples on a pond
Volcanoes
Moving tectonic plates also cause volcanoes
The type of volcano depends on the type of plate boundary that causes it
Types are composite, shield, and rift volcanoes
Composite
Happens near subduction zone
Formed by ash and lava from many eruptions
Gas released from melting rocks
Thick magma (due to type of rock it is made of) traps gas, causing explosive eruptions
Shield
Form over hot spots (weak spot in crust where magma can flow through)
Thinner magma causes a larger, shallower volcanoes
Rift Eruption
Happens at ridge plate boundaries
Magma will seep up through the entire rift