19

www. nitap.
in
Proceedings of
North-Eastern Regional
Science Congress on
Science For Shaping

The Future of India
on 11th -13th March2013
International Journal on Current Science & Technology

Vol.-1 | No.-1 | January-June 2013
ISSN : 2320 5636
ISSN: 2320 5636
www. nitap.in

Vol.-I | No.-I | January-June 2013
ISSN: 2320 5636

Published By:
NATIONAL INSTIUTE OF TECHNOLOGY

(An Institute of national importance)
ARUNACHAL PRADESH
Designed & Printed at:
INFLAME MEDIA
Kolkata, West Bengal
ISSN: 2320 5636

Proceedings of
North-Eastern Regional
Science Congress on
Science For Shaping

The Future of India
on 11th -13th March2013
Sponsored by
Department of Science & Technology, Govt. of India.

and Indian Science Congress Association, Kolkata
Organized by
NATIONAL INSTIUTE OF TECHNOLOGY
www. nitap.in
ISCA
(An Institute of national importance)

ARUNACHAL PRADESH
(Estd. By MHRD, Govt. of India)
PO-Yupia, P.S.-Doimukh,Dist-Papum Pare
Pin-791112, Arunachal Pradesh
Ph: +91 360 228 4801, Fax: +91 360 228 4972
E-mail : pchakraborty.ece@nitap.in; conferencenitap@gmail.com
EDITORIAL BOARD MEMBERS

[1] Prof. C. T. Bhunia - Director, NIT AP
[2] Prof. M. V. Pitke - Former Professor of TIFR, Mumbai, Chair, CSE Section
[3] Prof. Ajit Pal - Professor, IIT-Kharagpur
[4] Prof. Atal Chowdhuri - Professor, Jadavpur University
[5] Prof. Y. B. Reddy - Professor, Grambling State University (USA)
[6] Prof. Mohammad S Obaidat - Professor, Monmouth University (USA)
[7] Dr. Bubu Bhuyan - Associate Professor, NEHU
[8] Prof. Swapan Mondal - Professor, Kalyani Govt. Engg. College
[9] Prof. Swapan Bhattacharjee - Director, NIT Suratkal, Chair, ECE Section
[10] Prof. P. P. Sahu - Professor, Tezpur University
[11] Prof. S. R. Bhadrachowdhury - Professor, BESU
[12] Prof. F. Masuli - Professor, University of Genova
[13] Prof. S. Sen - Professor, Calcutta University
[14] Prof. P. K. Basu - Professor, Calcutta university
[15] Prof. S. C. Dutta Roy(Bhatnagar Awardee) - Professor, IIT Delhi, Chair, EEE Section
[16] Prof. P. Sarkar - Professor, NITTR, Kolkata
[17] Prof. G. K. N. Chetry - Professor, Manipur University, Chair, BioScience Section
[18] Dr. Pinaki Chakraborty - Assistant Dean (R&D), NIT AP
[19] Dr. Nabakumar Pramanik - Assistant Dean (Exam.)
[20] Dr. K. R. Singh - Assistant Professor, NITAP
[21] Dr. U. K. Saha - Assistant Professor, NITAP
[22] Dr. Parogama Sen - Associate Professor, Calcutta University, Chair, Physical Science Section
[23] Prof. A. K. Bhunia - Professor, Burdwan University
NORTH - EASTERN REGIONAL SCIENCE CONGRESS

Programme Committee:
[1] Prof. Dilip Kumar Sinha - Former Vice-Chancellor of Viswa Bharati University
[2] Dr. Manoj Kumar Chakrabarti - General Secretary (Membership Affairs), ISCA
[3] Dr. (Mrs.) Vijay Laxmi Saxena - General Secretary (scientific activities), ISCA
[4] Mr. N. B. Basu - Treasurer, ISCA
[5] Dr. Amit Krishna De - Executive Secretary, ISCA
[6] Prof. S. C. Dutta Roy - IIT Delhi
[7] Prof. Sanghamitra Roy - ISI, Kolkata
[8] Prof. S. K. Bhatttacharyya -Director, NIT Surathkal
[9] Prof. S. Sen , University of Calcutta, West Bengal
[10] Prof. Surabhi Banerjee - Vice-Chancellor, Central University Orissa
[11] Prof. S. R. Bhadrachowdhury - Bengal Engineering & Science University, Howrah
[12] Prof. M. L. Das - Dhiru Bhai Ambani Institute of ICT, Gujrat
[13] Prof. M. V. Pitke - Former Professor of TiFR, Mumbai
[14] Prof. S. Raha - Bose Institute, Kolkata
[15] Prof. Rabindra Nath Bera - Sikim Manipal University, Assam
[16] Prof. Binay Singh - NERIST, Arunachal Pradesh
[17] Prof. P. P. Sahoo - Tezpur University, Assam
[18] Dr. Bubu Bhuyan - NEHU, Shilong
Local Organizing Committee :
[1] Prof. C. T. Bhunia -Chairman, Conference & Director, NITAP
[2] Dr. Pinaki Chakraborty - Convenor, Conference, NITAP
[3] Prof. P. D. Kashyap- NITAP
[4] Dr. Nabakumar Paramanik- NITAP
[5] Dr. U. K. Saha - NITAP
[6] Dr. K. R. Singh - NITAP
[7] Mr. Swarnendu Chakraborty- NITAP
Working Programme Committee:
[1] Dr. Pinaki Chakraborty - Convenor, Conference, NITAP
[2] Dr. Nabakumar Paramanik- NITAP
[3] Dr. U. K. Saha - NITAP
[4] Dr. K. R. Singh - NITAP
PREFACE
As for the future, your task is not to foresee it, but to enable it. ...Antoine de Saint-Exupery
The National Institute of Technology is an Institute of National Importance and a unitary University
by an act of Parliament. It is full of never-to-die spirit in implementing its defined objectives of
Education, Research, Ethics and Service-to-Society. Nothing can be more credible for an institute
of higher learning than to provide quality teaching and productive research. In its pursue of quality
teaching and in an attempt to complete man making process in holistic approach, in the B Tech
syllabi of this instute inclusion of unique compulsory courses of Values & Ehtics, Entrepreneurship
Practices, Histrography of Science & Technology, NCC among othere are made purposefully. In line
with that to root a solid foundation in research, at its very third year of inception, Ph D programms
are introduced. GOD is in favor of doers, as we are highly privileged to get the opportunity to organize
the North Eastern Regional Science Congress in this centenary year of Indian Science Congress
Association. I on my own behalf and on behalf of entire NIT family put on record our gratitude
to Indian Science Congress Association on showing their confidence & faith on our academic
potentialities & viabilities to organize the North Eastern Regional Science Congress. We feel more
honored that the several distinguished scientists and promosing youmg researchers of several
leading universities, eg University of Calcutta, Other National Institute of Technology, Manipur
University, North Eastern Hill University, Tezpur University among others have spontaneously &
generously contributed their thought provoking research papers in this conference. I thank & salute
to the esteemed contributors.
We in NIT, Arunachal believe to take challenges to realize what we think is of essential for making
NIT at par excellency. To us, sky is the only limit. Therefore our initiative to publish a Bi-Yearly
Research Journal on Current Science & Technology on regular basis can not find a better moment
than the eve of North Easter Regional Science Copngress to see the day of light. The proceedings of
the conference is therefore published as the premier issue of the Journal. Accolodates to the authors,
the editors, the organizers, the readers and all the members of family of NIT, Arunachal for their
commitment on Stop Not till The Goal Is Reached.
I have full confidence that the journal cum proceedings published on the occassion of the North
Eastern Regional Science Congress will bring scholarships in totality and figuratibility.
There is nothing so practical as a good theory. ...Ludwig Boltzman
Professor Chandan Tilak Bhunia

DIRECTOR
National Institute of Technology
Arunachal Pradesh
INDEX OF CONTENT
Sl. No.
Title
Page
The evaluation of research performance of Indian states by Dr. Gangan Prathap
11
Imbalance of Technical Education in the North East India and its Effects
by Sainkupar Marwein Mawiong
15
Reviewing And Sggestions For Revamping Technical Higher Education In India

To Meet The Challenges Of Future Scenario by A. Bhunia, A. Bhunia, S. K. Chakraborty,
P. Chakraborty, R.S. Goswami, N. Pramanik, M. K. De, P. K. Samanta and C.T. Bhunia
21
Imbalance in Technical Education-Regional by Bikash Sah, Nupur,

Santosh Shukla, Krishna Kumar
31
A comparative study of Fungal diseases of french bean (Phaseolus vulgaris. L) in organic and
conventional farming system by G. K. N. Chhetry and H. C. Mangang
35
Arbuscular mycorrhial fungi associated with the rhizospheric soil of potato plant (Solanum
tuberosum) in Barak valley of South Assam, India by Sujata Bhattacharjee & G. D. Sharma
41
Biodiversity and conservation strategies of home garden crops in Manipur by

A Premila and G. K. N Chhetry
45
Metabolic Pathways: A review by Daizy Deb and Rhythm Upadhyaya
49
Icthyofaunal Diversity of Simen River in Assam and Arunachal Pradesh, India

by Biplab Kumar Das, Aloka Ghosh and Devashish Kar
55
10
Recent Advances in Papaya Cultivation and Breeding by Aditi Chakraborty and S. K. Sarkar
59
11

Traditional organic practices with traditional inputs farming for the cultivation
of french bean in Manipur by G. K. N. Chhetry and H. C. Mangang
65
12

Induced breeding of eel-loach Pangio pangia, (Hamilton 1822) by Kh. Geetakumari,

Ch. Basudha and N. Prakash
73
13
Fungal Airspora over onion field in Mnipur valley by A. Premila
77
14
Variation in Indoor and Outdoor Aeromycoflora of a ice Mill in Imphal by A. Premila
81
15
Biochemical Networks: The Chemistry of Life by Rhythm Upadhyaya and Rhyme Upadhyaya
85
16

Applications of zeolites for alkylation reactions: catalytic and thermodynamic

properties by Dr. V. R. Chumbhale
91
17

Multichannel Transceiver System Design Using Uncoordinated Direct Sequence

Spread Spectrum by S.Kalita, R.Kaushik, M.Jajoo, P.P.Sahu
97
18

Effect of demyelination on conduction velocity in demyelinating polyneuropathic

patients by H. K. Das and P. P. Sahu
101
19
From Transistor to Medicine: Materials, Devices, and Systems by Tapas Kumar Maiti
105
20

Enzyme-modified Field Effect Transistors (ENFETs) as Biosensors : A Research Review

by Manoj Kumar Sarma and Jiten Ch. Dutta
109
21

Acetylcholine Gated Spiking Neuron Model by Soumik Roy, Meenakshi Boro,

Jiten Ch Dutta and Reginald H. Vanlalchaka
115
22

Power Efficient Adiabatic Gray to Binary & Binary to Gray Code Converter Circuits
by Reginald H Vanlalchaka and Soumik Roy
119
Sl. No.
Title
Page
23

Light Induced Plating For Enhance Efficiency by Improving Fill Factor And Short
Circuit Current by Santanu Maity, Avra Kundu, Hiranmay Saha, UtpalGangopadhyay
125
24

Image Denoising Using Sparse and Overcomplete Representations -A Study

By M. K. Rai Baruah, BhabeshDeka
129
25

FOTOFUSION - An Analysis of Image Editing on Android Platform as an Application in

Smart Phones by Smita Das, Nitesh Kr. Singh, Mukesh Kumar, Ashok Ajad, Priya Khan
135
26
Denoising of Speckled Images by Sagarika Das
141
27

A Study of Randomness and Variable Key in Cryptography

by Achinta Kumar Gogoi, Bidyut Kalita
147
28

Approach towards realizing error propagation effect of AES and studies

thereof in the light of Redundancy Based Technique by B. Sarkar, C. T. Bhunia, U. Maulik
153
29

Cipher Combining Technique to tackle Error Propagation Behavior of AES by Rajat Subhra
Goswami, Swarnendu Kumar Chakraborty, Abhinandan Bhinia, C. T. Bhunia
159
30

Two New Protocols for Improving Performance of Aggressive Packet Combining

by Swarnendu Kumar Chakraborty, Rajat Subhra Goswami, Abhinandan Bhinia, C. T. Bhunia 161
31

Review and Security Analysis of an Efficient Biometric-Based Remote User Authentication

Scheme U sing Smart Cards by Subhasish Banerjee, Uddalak Chatterjee and Kiran Sankar Das 167
32

Evolution Strategy for the C-Means Algorithm: Application toMultimodal Image

Segmentation By Francesco Masulli, Anna Maria Massone, Andrea Schenone
171
33

A Deterministic Inventory Model for Deteriorating Items With Time Dependent

Demand and Allowable Shortage Under Trade Credit by Pinki Majumder and U.K.Bera
197
34

Development of Labview Based Electronic Nose Using k-nn Algorithm for the
Detection and Classification of Fruity Odors by N.Jagadesh Babu
207
THE EVALUATION OF RESEARCH

PERFORMANCE OF INDIAN STATES
Gangan Prathap
CSIR-National Institute of Science
Communication and Information Resources
New Delhi, New Delhi 100012
E-mail : gp@niscair.res.in
ABSTRACT
We examine how various states in India have performed in
academic research on a per GDP basis. The scientific output
measured in terms of the number of papers published in a
prescribed window (which serves as a quantity proxy), and
the GDP in current dollar terms, leads to the quality proxy,
papers/GDP. The second-order indicator which is a product
of the square of the quality proxy and the quantity proxy
becomes the most practical single number scalar indicator
of performance that combines quality and quantity of output
or outcome.
Keywords -Quality; Quantity; Quasity; Exergy, Performance;
Bibliometrics.
I. NTRODUCTION
As early as 1939, J D Bernal made an attempt to measure
the amount of scientific activity in a country and relate it to
the economic investments made. In The Social Function of
Science (1939), Bernal [1] estimated the money devoted to
science in the United Kingdom using existing sources of data:
government budgets, industrial data (from the Association
of Scientific Workers) and University Grants Committee
reports. He was also the first to propose an approach that
became the main indicator of science and technology: Gross
Expenditures on Research and Development (GERD) as
a percentage of GDP. He compared the UKs investment
(0.1%) with that of the United States (0.6%) and USSR
(0.8%) and suggested that Britain should devote (0.5-1.0%)
of its national income to research. Since then, research
evaluation at the country and regional levels has progressed
rapidly and there are now exercises carried out at regular
intervals in the United States of America, European Union,
OECD, UNESCO, Japan, China, etc.
Science is a socio-cultural activity that is highly disciplined
and easily quantifiable. The output of science can be easily
measured in terms of articles published and citations, etc.
Inputs are mainly that of the financial and human resources
invested in science and technology activity. The financial

resources invested in research are used to calculate what is
called the Gross Domestic Expenditure on R&D (GERD),
and the human resources devoted to these activities (FTER
for Full Time Equivalent Researcher) are usually computed
as a fraction of the workforce or the population. The US
science adviser, J R Steelman pointed out in 1947 that The
ceiling on research and development activities is fixed by the
availability of trained personnel, rather than by the amounts
of money available. The limiting resource at the moment is
manpower.
II. METHODOLOGY
In most countries, due to a legacy of poor investment in
higher education and research, both GERD and FTER/
million of population are sub-optimal. To see how far R&D
investment in manpower and funding terms is sub-optimal
in India, it is a good exercise to see how output is related
to actual GDP. In the present exercise, the scientific output
measured in terms of articles published from the various
states of India as registered by the Web of Science over a 3
year period (2007-2009) P, is taken as the output term [2].
The GDP of each state, in billions of dollar in 2009 ($Bn) is
taken as the proxy for the input term
(http://www.economist.com/content/indian-summary
accessed on 22 July 2011).
A simple and crude measure of the quality of scientific
activity will of course be given by the ratio of Output to
Input, q = P/$Bn. This indicator usually favours small states
at the expense of larger states where the law of diminishing
returns sets in. Indeed, there will always be cases of high
input but low output and therefore low quality, or low input
and medium output but of high quality, etc. It is therefore
desirable to assess overall performance in terms of a single
indicator. The challenge is, when given an output or outcome
(O), and an input of size Q, to combine quality q with
quantity Q and/or output O to yield a single indicator
that is the best proxy for performance. The Quasity-Exergy
Vol - I l No- I l January-June2013 P 11
paradigm [3] proposes that in any general situation where

performance needs to be evaluated, given an input Q (for
quantity) and an output or outcome O (for quasity), quality,
is defined as quasity/quantity (q = O/Q) and the simplest
and most effective indicator for performance becomes X =
qO = q2Q. Thus in this case, where Q = $Bn, and O
= P, X = P2/$Bn. That is, in Quantity-Quality-Quasity
terms, the indicator P/$Bn (papers/billion dollars of GDP)
is the quality measure. The quantity (read size) measures
are $Bn (billion dollars of GDP) and the quasity measure
is now P (papers published during 2007-2009). The energy
like term X = P/$Bn P is a product of the quality and the
quasity term and perhaps best represents the performance
of each state on a per GDP basis.
III. THE RELATIVE SCIENTIFIC

PERFORMANCE OF VARIOUS INDIAN
STATES ON A PER GDP BASIS
Table I presents the results of the output from various Indian
States from the Web of Science during 2007-2009 [2]. Tamil
Nadu accounts for the largest number of publications on
what we call the quasity basis. Table II sorts out the results
on a quality basis (Papers per billion dollars of GDP). This
is obtained by inverting the relationship proposed in Prathap
[3], namely quasity = quantity x quality. Here, the GDP of
the state in billions of dollars ($Bn) is taken as the quantity
term. The Union Territory of Chandigarh, which has many
top national research and academic institutions ranks first
among the Indian states for academic scientific research
on this basis. Delhi, which has a privileged status as the
National Capital Region, ranks second, and the erstwhile
Union Territory of Puducherry ranks third. The exergy term,
which is the product of quality and quasity, is offered as
the best single number indicator for performance. On this
basis, Delhi emerged first. This is not surprising as a very
large number of premier research and academic institutions
are based in Delhi. All this can be easily represented on a
Quantity-Quality-Quasity diagram, where the product qO
(also q2Q) is the energy like term (called exergy X)
and is a scalar measure of the scientific activity during the
window concerned that takes into account both quality and
quantity. We see from Table II and Figures 1 and 2 that
Delhis research during this period forges ahead of the rest of
the field. Indeed, in exergy terms, Delhi contributes 38% of
Indias scientific output, while on GDP terms, it accounts for
only 3.3% of Indias GDP.
IV. CONCLUSIONS
Reference [3] proposed a practical theory of performance,
associating quality with vector properties, input quantity
with scalar properties and an intermediate term, quasity,

also a vector, (quantity quality). This trinity of terms helps
generate an energy-like called exergy which serves as the
simplest indicator for performance.
We have applied these ideas to the comparative research
evaluation of various Indian states on a per GDP basis.
TABLE I
Tamil Nadu Is Ranked First On The Basis Of

The Number Of Papers Published During 2007-09.
State
Tamil Nadu
17507
Maharashtra
16577
Uttar Pradesh
15843
Karnataka
15156
West Bengal
14471
Delhi
14157
Andhra Pradesh
9494
Kerala
4559
Gujarat
4094
Madhya Pradesh
3835
Punjab
3151
Rajasthan
2814
Chandigarh
2640
Haryana
2555
Assam
2210
Orissa
2105
Uttarakhand
1223
Himachal Pradesh
1137
Bihar
1019
Jammu & Kashmir
988
Pondicherry
875
Jharkhand
698
Goa
626
Meghalaya
364
Chhattisgarh
238
Arunachal Pradesh
195
Manipur
156
Sikkim
124
Tripura
96
Mizoram
84
Andaman &
Nicobar Islands
77
Nagaland
68
Lakshadweep
Total
P 12 Vol - I l No- I l January-June2013
Number of Papers P
125619
TABLE II
On A Quality Basis (Papers Per Billion Dollars Of Gdp), Chandigarh
Ranks First. On The Second-Order Indicator Basis, Delhi Emerges First.
Bihar
32.7
31.16
31754.16
Chhattisgarh
22.7
10.48
2495.33
Lakshadweep
0.3
6.67
13.33
GDP
$Billion
q =
P/$Bn
Exergy X
= P x P/$Bn
4.1
643.90
1699902.44
180
36.1
392.16
5551818.53
160
Puducherry
2.8
312.50
273437.50
Karnataka
62.9
240.95
3651897.23
80
218.84
3831188.11
Chandigarh
Delhi
Tamil Nadu
25626.67
195.00
38025.00
76.9
188.18
2723144.88
Meghalaya
2.1
173.33
63093.33
Andaman & Nicobar

Islands
0.5
154.00
11858.00
103.5
153.07
2425127.04
Goa
4.2
149.05
93303.81
Jammu & Kashmir
7.6
130.00
128440.00
Himachal Pradesh
8.9
127.75
145254.94
Uttarakhand
9.9
123.54
151083.74
18.6
118.82
262586.02
1081.8
116.12
14586922.87
1.4
111.43
17382.86
Andhra Pradesh
85.7
110.78
1051762.38
Kerala
41.2
110.66
504477.69
700
0.8
105.00
8820.00
600
37.3
102.82
394295.58
175.3
94.56
1567580.88
Punjab
40.5
77.80
245155.58
Orissa
31.8
66.19
139340.41
Rajasthan
46.3
60.78
171027.99
Haryana
44.2
57.81
147692.87
100
Gujarat
80.1
51.11
209248.89
Nagaland
1.5
45.33
3082.67
Jharkhand
17.5
39.89
27840.23
2.6
36.92
3544.62
Uttar Pradesh
Assam
India
Manipur
Mizoram
Madhya Pradesh
Maharashtra
Tripura
Jammu & Kasmir

Himachal Pradesh
Uttarakhand
Manipur
Assam
Kerala
Mizoram
Madhya Prades h
X=100000
80
Orissa
X=50000
60
Nagaland
40
Tripur a
20
0
X=500000
Andaman & Nicobar Islands

Goa
100
206.67
West Bengal
Meghalay a
120
0.6
Arunachal Pradesh
Arunachal
140
Punjab
Rajasthan
Haryana
Gujara t
Jharkhan d
Bihar
Chattisgarh
Lakshadweep
0
1000
2000
3000
4000
5000
P
Fig. 1 The graphical representation of scientific performance
of various Indian states on a quality-quasity map.
1000
900
800
P/SBn
Sikkim
200
P/SBn
States/UTs
Chandigarh
X=5000000
500
400
Delhi
300
200
Puducherry
Sikki m
X=500000
Karnatak a
X=1000000
5000
West Benga l
Andhr a
Pradesh
Tamil Nadu
Uttar Pradesh
Maharashtra
10000
15000
20000
P
Fig. 2 The graphical representation of scientific performance of various
Indian states on a quality-quasity map (zoomed in for X<500000).

IV REFERENCES
[1] J. D. Bernal, The Social Function of Science,

London, England: George Routledge & Sons, 1939.
[2]

K. C. Garg, and S. Kumar, Scientometric profile

of Indian Science as seen through Web of Science

during 2007-2009, Indian S&T Report, CSIRNational Institute for Science, Technology and
Development Studies, India.
[3]

G. Prathap, Quasity, when quantity has a quality all of

its own - toward a theory of performance,
Scientometrics., vol. 88, pp. 555-562, 2011.
IMBALANCE OF TECHNICAL EDUCATION

IN THE NORTH EAST INDIA AND ITS EFFECTS
Sainkupar Marwein Mawiong#
# Department of Basic Sciences & Social Sciences, School of
Technology North Eastern Hill University
Mawlai Umshing, Shillong, Meghalaya, Pincode: 793022
E-mail : 1skupar@gmail.com
ABSTRACT
Technical education is supposed to be the vital components
in the overall holistic development of any region. This
paper will highlight the importance of technical education.
The different model adopted in India to impart Technical
Education. The distribution of different technical education
institutes in various part of the country. The main parts of
this paper are about the imbalance of Technical education in
North East India and its effects.
Keywords: Technical Education, North East India,
Imbalance, Holistic Development.
I. INTRODUCTION
According to AICTE Act Technical Education means as
in [2] programmes of education, research and training in
the fields of Engineering & Technology, Architecture, Town
planning & Management, Pharmacy & Applied Arts and
Crafts and such other programmes or areas as the Central
Government may declare in consultation with the council by
a Gazette notification.
Technical education in India was initiated in the mid 19th
Century. It start to gain pace in the 20th century with the
set up of constitution of Technical Education Committee of
the Central University Board of Education (CABE) in 1943.
Preparation of sergeant Report in 1944 and Formation of All
India Council of Technical Education (AICTE) in 1945 as
in [2].
Slowly the Government started to establish new institute
with world class standards like the IIT (Indian Institute of
Technology) and IIM (Indian Institute of Management) to
bridge the gap with the other developed nations. Engineers
from India are being known worldwide and their demand has
increase considerably but access of Technical education to the
rural populace is still a distant dream. There is also a regional
imbalance in engineering education establishments. Most
of the Engineering colleges are located in Andhra Pradesh,
Karnataka, Maharashtra and Tamil Nadu which does not

augur well for the balanced socio-economic development of
the country as in [2].
In India technical education has been booming of late.
Earlier it was dream-come-true for only a handful, but
today a popular choice for lakhs of students. In the current
academic year and in Tamil Nadu alone 85 new self-financing
engineering colleges were approved by AICTE and the total
number is 444, second to Andhra Pradesh (523). The five
southern states account for 69 per cent of 8.19 lakh students
enrolled in 2,297 engineering colleges across the country as
in [5].
Obviously the courses being offered have almost quadrupled
recently. In Anna University itself from just three basic
branches known as Civil, Electrical and Mechanical (Soil,
Coil and Oil branches), it has expanded to 41 courses in UG
and beyond 100 courses in PG. New and emerging areas like
Biotechnology, Nanotechnology, Ocean Engineering and
Climate Change, Environmental Engineering, etc., are also
added as in [5].
States such as Uttar Pradesh, Rajasthan and Orissa together
account for just 14 per cent of Indias technical colleges. This
regional imbalance and quality are now the grave concerns
as in [5].
II. STRUCTURE OF TECHNICAL

EDUCATION IN INDIA
Different patterns of funding and controls of technical
institutions have resulted in different organisational structures
of technical education, which may be grouped according
to the types of institutions such as the Indian Institutes of
Technology (IITs), Regional Engineering Colleges (RECs),
Government Colleges/Polytechnics, Government - Aided
Colleges/Polytechnics, Self-Financing Private Colleges/
Polytechnics and Institutes awarding PGDBM/PGDCA.
Indian Institutes of Technology (IITs), and Indian Institutes
of Management (IIMs), have been set up as institutions
of national importance and they enjoy greater autonomy

in matters of academics and administration. In addition to
the formal system of education given in the engineering
colleges and polytechnics, there are a number of professional
bodies which conduct their own examinations for serving
professionals and award certificates and diplomas which
are recognised to be equivalent to diploma/degree awarded
through the formal education system.
In the case of computer education, the Department of
Electronics has an elaborate system of giving accreditation
to computer institutes in non-formal sector for conducting of
specified levels of courses - DOEACC level O, A, B,
& C subject to their meeting of well defined norms and
criteria. In the case of pharmacy and architecture education,
the Pharmacy Council and Council of Architecture,
respectively, also have statutory obligations and the AICTE
works in close cooperation with these Councils.
Since technical education determines the development &
socio economic condition of a nation, there is greater need
for high quality technical education to produce technically
skilled manpower in India.
Technical education is imparted at three different levels in
India.
i.

Industrial training institutes (ITI), which runs trade

courses for skilled workers.
ii. Polytechnics, they run diplomas to produce middle

level (supervisory level) technicians.
iii. Engineering colleges,

graduate programme.
which
conduct
under
In the Indian system, the completion of senior secondary

examination is the stage from where higher education
begins (ten years of primary and secondary education plus
two years of higher secondary education). The first degree,
the bachelors degree is obtained after three years of study
in the case of science and liberal arts and four years in the
case of engineering and technology. The Masters degree
programme was of two years duration earlier but is currently
of one and a half year duration. The research degree (Ph.D)
takes variable time but can be completed in three years [3].
In addition to degree courses in engineering and technology a
number of discipline-oriented and certificate courses are also
available. Their range is wide, some being undergraduate
diploma courses and others postgraduate courses with a
duration of one to three years as in [3].
III. DISTRIBUTION OF DIFFERENT

TECHNICAL EDUCATION INSTITUTES IN
DIFFERENT STATES
[2] Since Independence in 1947, the Technical Education

System has grown into a fairly large-sized system, offering
opportunities for education and training in a wide variety
of trades and disciplines at certificate, diploma, degree,
postgraduate degree and doctoral levels in institutions
located throughout the country. Even though the system
boasts o institutions comparable to the best in the world,
quality of education offered in majority of institutions leaves
much to be desired.
In the year 1947-48, the country had 38-degree level
institutions with intake capacity of 2500 and 53 diploma
level institutions with intake capacity of 3670. The intake for
postgraduates was 70.
There was rapid expansion of the system in the next 20
years. By 1967-68, the number of degree level institutions
had increased to 137 with intake capacity of 25,000; and for
diploma to 284 institutions with intake capacity of 47,000.
In the year 2000, the total size of the system had increased
to 4146 institutions with approved intake capacity of
544,660. These include 838 engineering degree institutions
with admission capacity of 232,000 students; and 1224
engineering diploma institutions with admission capacity of
188,000.
Approximately, two-thirds of these institutions were in the
private sector. Postgraduate education was being offered in
246 institutions with admission capacity of 21,460.
The number of private engineering colleges & institutes is
increasing rapidly. The government expenditure in technical
education has increased many folds. Some of the industrially
developed states such as Karnataka, Tamilnadu, Maharashtra,
& AP experienced phenomenal growth both in number of
students & engineering & technical institutes over last two
decades.
TABLE I
Number And Intake Of Engineering Colleges
And Polytechnic In India
State
Engineering
College
Polytechnics
Number
Intake
Number
Maharashtra
135
35,835
169
34,645
Tamil Nadu
153
31,895
211
43,754
Karnataka
75
26,337
199
36,038
102
25,435
92
15,895
02
410
01
180
Andhra
Pradesh
Himachal
Pradesh
Intake
Assam
03
660
10
1,318
North-Eastern
States
05
860
11
1,490
Bihar
12
2,635
28
3,983
Gujarat
20
5,885
39
9,005
Sources: in [3]
If we look at the Eleventh Five Year plan it mainly focused on

increasing intake capacity (GER), starting new educational
institutions, enhancing the capacity of existing ones, starting
new programmes etc [4].
There are 81 centrally funded institutes of technical &
science education (CFTIs) out of which 30 were created
during the XI FYP [4]:
TABLE II
Number Of Centrally Funded Institutions
Centrally Funded Institutions
Number of
Institutions
Indian Institutes of Technology (IITs)
15(8)
Indian Institutes of Management (IIMs)

Indian Institute of Sciences (IISc.)
Indian Institutes of Sciences Education &
Researchv(IISERs)
National Institutes of Technology (NITs)
Indian Institutes of Information Technology
(IIITs)
National Institutes of Technical Teachers
Training & Research (NITTTRs)
Others
School of Planning & Architecture(SPAs)-3,
Indian School of Mines(ISM), North-East
Regional Institute of Science 7 Technology
(NERIST), National Institute of Industrial
Engineering (NITIE), National Institute of
Foundry & Forge Technology(NIFFT), Sant
Longowal Institute of Engineering & Technology
(SLIET), Central Institute of Technology (CIT).
TOTAL
13(7)
1
5(3)
30(10)
4
4
9(8)
81(30)
Sources: in [4]
In addition to the above the Central Government is

implementing the following schemes/programmes: as in [4]

Sub-mission on Polytechnics under coordinated

action for skill development: The objective of the
scheme is to enhance employment oriented skilled
manpower through polytechnic. Under the scheme,
financial assistance is provided to the State/UT
Government for setting up of 300 new Polytechnics in
unserved and neglected districts of the country. Out of
300 Polytechnics, financial assistance has been provided
for setting up of new Polytechnics in 277 districts.
In addition financial assistance is provided to the
existing Government/Government aided Polytechnics
for strengthening of infrastructure facility, so far 500
polytechnic have been provided for assistance of Rs.
10/20 lakhs each.
Setting up of 20 new Indian Institute of Information
Technology (IIITs): The Ministry of Human Resource
Development (MHRD) is setting up 20 new Indian
Institutes of Information Technology (IIITs) to address
the increasing skill challenges of the Indian IT industry
on a Public Private Partnership (PPP) basis. As per the
approved scheme, the partners in setting up the IIITs
would be the Ministry of Human Resource Development
(MHRD), Government of the respective States where
each IIIT will be established, and the industry. The
capital cost of each IIIT would be Rs. 128.00 crore to
be contributed in the ratio of 50:35 : 15 by the Central
Government, the State Government, and the industry
respectively. The project is targeted to be completed in
nine years from 2011-12 to 2019-20. During the current
year it is expected that 5 such institutions would be set
up. The rest would be taken in the XII FYP.
Expansion in the AICTE approved institutions: In
addition to the unprecedented expansion in the numbers
of the premier CFTI s like IITs , IIM, NITs, IISERs
etc , the number of AICTE approved institutions in the
country during the period has almost doubled which rose
from 4491 in 2006-07 to 8361 in 2011-12 and annual
intake from 907822 in 2007-08 to 2046611 in 2011-12.
Similarly, number of polytechnics has increased with
corresponding rise in intake from 417923 in 2007-08
and 1083365 in 2010-11.
The growth of the institutions for the last five years and the
number of students intake is as below:
TABLE III
INTAKE CAPACITY
National Mission on Education through ICT (NMEICT)
Technical Education Quality Improvement

Programme assisted by the World Bank (TEQIP)
Indian National Digital Library for Science &
Technology (INDEST)
Year
Number of Added
Institutions in year
Total
student
intake
for UG/
PG
Total
student
intake for
Polytechnic

2006-07
4491
171
2007-08
4885
384
907822
417923
2008-09
6230
1345
1139116
610903
2009-10
7361
1131
1408807
850481
2011-12
8361
357
2046611
987929*
*all polytechnics have not entered data.

Sources: in [4]
Regional distribution of intake capacity of AICTE approved

institutions in UG/PG/Diploma (all inclusive) is as follows:
TABLE IV
Regional Distribution Of Intake Capacity
Sl.
No
1
Region
Intake
Approved
for 201112
% of
Seats in
intake
2007Approved
08
% of
seats in
200708
Central
317932
10.48
134039
10.11
Eastern
178098
5.87
85279
6.43
North
West
454237
14.97
171010
12.90
Northern
334128
11.01
113728
8.58
South
Central
605993
19.97
228728
17.25
South West
278676
09.18
182226
13.07
Southern
475203
15.66
247689
18.68
Western
GRAND TOTAL
390273
12.86
163046
12.30
3034540
100.00
1325745
100.00
Sources: in [4]
IV. REGIONAL IMBALANCE OF TECHNICAL

EDUCATION IN NORTH EAST INDIA
[4] The Several technical institution in the North East like
Indian Institute of Technology Guwahati (Assam) (ii) Rajiv
Gandhi Indian Institute of Management (RGIIM) Shillong,
(Meghalaya) (iii) National Institute of Technology (NIT)
Silchar (Assam), (iv) National Institute of Technology (NIT),
Agartala ( Tripura); (v) North Eastern Regional Institute
of Science & Technology (NERIST), Itanagar (Arunachal
Pradesh); and (vi) Central Institute of Technology (CIT),
Kokrajhar ( Assam) etc. are taking care of the higher education
in the North East Region. Under the scheme of construction
of womens hostels in Polytechnics, Financial assistance
has been provided to the existing Government /Government
aided polytechnic in the state of Jammu & Kashmir and
NE region. Also the financial assistance has been provided
for upgradation of infrastructure facilities of Government/

Government aided polytechnic in Jammu & Kashmir and

NE region. Financial assistance has been provided for 18
districts of Jammu & Kashmir and 27 districts NER region
for establishment of new Polytechnics under the scheme of
establishment of new polytechnic in the country in unserved
and neglected districts.
We will try to highlight the number of all the Technical
educational institutions in the North East India State wise,
taking a special case of the State of Meghalaya. Compare it
with the Rest of India and show the great disparity in term of
intake capacity and standard of technical education.
Assam has got two engineering colleges, 11 polytechnics,
NIT Silchar and IIT Guwahati. Arunachal is far lacking
behind compare to Assam with 2 polytechnics namely
Rajiv Gandhi Government Polytechnic, Tomi Polytechnic,
NERIST (North Eastern Regional Institute of Sciences and
Technology), NIT Arunachal Pradesh and Rajiv Gandhi
University. Manipur is not good either with 3 polytechnic
namely Centre for Electronics Design and Technology
(CEPT) Imphal, Government polytechnic (Takylpat),
IGNOU Oinam Ibohal polytechnic Community College(
Imphal), NIT Manipur, Manipur Institute of Technology(
Government College of Technology Imphal) and Central
Agricultural University.
Tripura has got very few technical institutes they are
NIT Agartala, Tripura institute of Technology, Womens
Polytechnic and ICFAI college of Technology. Mizoram has
got two polytechnics they are Mizoram Polytechnic, Women
Polytechnic, NIT Mizoram and Mizoram University. Sikkim
has got two polytechnics namely The Advance Technical
Training centre at Bardang, East Sikkim, The Centre for
computers and communication Technology at Chiropani,
South Sikkim, SMIT and NIT Sikkim. Nagaland has got
3 polytechnic they are Government Polytechnic Kohima,
Institute of Communication & Information Technology
Mokukchung (ICIT), Khelhoshe polytechnic Atoizu (KPA),
NIT Nagaland and Nagaland University.
In Meghalaya there are three polytechnics Shillong
polytechnic, Tura polytechnic and Jowai Polytechnic.
Shillong Polytechnic was established in 1965 the courses
that it offers are (i) Civil( Intake capacity is 60) (ii) Electrical
(Intake capacity 30) (iii) Mechanical ( Intake capacity 30)
(iv) Electronics ( Intake Capacity 30) (v) Computer Sciences
& Engineering (Intake capacity 30), (vi) Two year PG
Diploma in IT (intake capacity 20). Both Tura and Jowai
Polytechnic was established in 2004 with the help of World
Bank Assisted Third Technician Education Project (Tech.
Ed. III). The course offered in Tura and Jowai are (i) Medical
Electronics (ii) Computer Application (iii) Food Processing
& Preservation and (i) Automobile Engineering (iii)
Architectural Assistantship (iii) Costume Design & Garment

Technology with an intake capacity of 30 each. These entire
polytechnic are affiliated to Meghalaya State Council for
Technical Education created in 1992 through an act called
Meghalaya State Council for Technical Education Act, 1993.
ISO 9001: 2000 certified. There is no state government
degree engineering college.
North Eastern Hill University is also offering degree in
Technology with the introduction of two new departments in
2006 they are IT & ECE and the intake capacity is 60 each.
There is a plan that in 2013 three new branches Biomedical,
Energy and Nanotechnology will be open up. To boost the
management studies in 2004 IIM Shillong was established.
Apart from all these institutions there are also three new
private engineering colleges they are UTM (University of
Technology Management), USTM (University of Science
and Technology Meghalaya) and CMJ University.
The number of intake capacity for polytechnic in Meghalaya
is only 380 which is very very less is comparison with
the other parts of the country. Regarding degree technical
education only the Private University and the Central
Government University is offering degree in Engineering in
which the total intake capacity is approximately 700 which
is nothing in comparisons with the other States. The current
picture of technical education in Meghalaya is very worst as
there is no State Government Engineering Colleges which
prevent a student from weaker economically background to
pursue higher studies in engineering as the option for is very
limited.
If we look at the Eastern part of India as a whole we can see
from Table IV that the Intake approved for 2011-12 is only
178098 and the percentage of intake Approved is 5.87 percent
which is pathetic in comparison with the other region. In the
year 2007-08 the situation is almost the same. Even though
North Eastern States is a conglomeration of seven states but
studying from Table I show us that the number of Technical
institutes in North Eastern States is very less compare to any
other developed states of India.
So a student from North East has got less opportunities and
option to pursue the careers that he dream of as there is very
less seats and the variety of course offered are not so goods
as compare to the mainstream India. This ultimately affect
the development of the region as there is very less technical
people who are able to contribute to the progress and the
over all development of the region.
There has been phenomenal growth of technical institutions
during past three decades however it has resulted in a regional
imbalance of the technical education system in the Country. In
order to overcome the regional imbalance, AICTE has given
permit for second shift of engineering college in an existing

engineering college in those states where the number of seats
available in engineering colleges per lakh of population is
less than all India average without additional investment and
also to utilize the existing resources in optimal manner and to
minimize the cost of education which will help in the
Reduction of regional imbalance by encouraging
existing technical institutions to start second shift in those
states where the number of seats available in engineering
colleges per lakh of population are less than all India
average and in institutions which are exclusively set up
for women;

Optimal utilization of resources
Reduction cost of education per student.
[6] The spread of technical education suffers from regional

imbalances. After privatisation of technical education, a large
number of new private colleges appeared in a few states
while many states that urgently needed development could
not attract such institutes. A balanced growth of technical
education in the country is desirable. Even within the same
state, there are intrastate regional imbalances with Paretos
Law of mal-distribution leading to vital few and ignored
many regions where these new colleges have emerged. While
it is understandable that certain locational advantages will
attract more private participation than others, yet the underrepresented regions do need either government supported
initiatives or Public-Private Partnership ( PPP) or the state
offers a set of packages as incentives to private academic
investors to set up quality institutions in those regions.
The con-cept of special knowledge /ones and knowledge
villages, developed by the state can be set up. These can
attract private investments.
IV. CONCLUSIONS
The strength of technical education system in India is that
it has got a very rich and learned education heritage, very
good primary education which provides a very strong
base. Indian education system Moulds the growing minds
with huge amount of information and knowledge. Indian
education system gives the greater exposure to the subject
knowledge, Indians are rich in Theoretical knowledge .India
has abducted strength of resources and man power (NASA,
MAC), cost of education is very low, number of higher
education institutions in India is more compare to developed
countries, Indians are interceded in normal education and
higher education [2].
The weakness of Indian technical education system is that
it lacks of adequate up-gradation of Curriculum. There
is no benchmark and no common course content and no

common exam procedure national wide, Lack of specialized

courses or modular and rigid curriculum learning considered
as one step process. Education is exam oriented. No fixed
parameters, Lack of Industry -Institute interaction. lack
of multidisciplinary courses. Role of teacher is confined
to teaching alone, Lack of policy makers. Mind set of
stakeholders, Lack in accepting immediate changes. Learning
is job oriented [2].
The opportunities of Technical Education in India are that
it has rich resources of human as well as physical. In India
enough number of higher education institutions can be set
up. Therefore, we can produce more and highly qualified
students, fulfilling students demands by providing enhanced
quality of education. Producing enough number of technically
skilled outputs, by giving more Autonomy, Curriculum
should be made more realistic, practically biased and job
oriented, Students will be regarded more as a customer. To
provide highly technically skilled labour to the country [2].
Similarly the threats of Indian technical education system
are Lack of interest and interaction from the industry in
developing and collaborating in the research field, threat
from within of deteriorating standards of education due
to lack of benchmark in terms of quality of institutions,
Loss of quality standards by technical institutions as more
and more students opt for education abroad, Lack of team
work. Peoples attitude, who failed to work collectively on a
common minimum platform [2] [1].
Last but not the least the biggest threat for technical education
in India is Regional Imbalance as the Region which has got
very few technical institutes will always be behind in terms
of development as there are few technical people who will
be the driving force in shaping the future of that particular
region. Eventually the Region will be underdeveloped and
the people will feel left out and feel that they are being
denied their fair share of development. So this will lead to
unrest as we have seen with so many parts of India. Which
ultimately drag the nation two steps backwards instead of
two steps forward.
ACKNOWLEDGMENT
I will like to thank Dr B. Bhuyan Head of the Department
Information Technology, North Eastern Hill University,
Shillong for kindly informing me about this Regional

Congress which is going to be held in NIT Arunachal Pradesh and

encourage us all faculty members from School of Technology to
participate in this Regional Congress.
REFERENCES
[1] S.K.Saha and S.Ghosh, Engineering Education in India:

Past, Present and Future, Propagation, A Journal of Science

Communication, Vol. 2, No. 2, July, 2011.
[2]

Shivani and S. Khurana. Technical Education in India

Present Scenario, International Journal of Research in
Economics and Social Sciences, Vol.2, Issue. 10, October,
2012. ISSN:2249-7382.
[3] Pursuit and Promotion of Sciences. Engineering and

Technical Education, Chapter VI. [Online] Availabel:
http://www.iisc.ernet.in/insa/ch6.pdf
[4] Report of the Working Group on Technical Education

for the XII Five year plan [Online] Available : http://

planningcommission.nic.in/aboutus/committee/wrkgrp12/
hrd/wg_te.pdf
[5]

The Hindu, Technical education Challenges ahead, issue:

2nd February, 2010
[6] P. Vrat, Impart Quality in Technical Education, SME

World[Online] Available : http://www.smeworld.org/story/
features/impart-quality-in-technical-education.php
[7] P.R.Dasgupta, Technical Education Contributing to

Industrial Development, Govt of India [Online] Available:
http://pib.nic.in/feature/fe0199/f0501991.html
[8] D.K.Nayak and T.V. Mohite- Patil, Impact of
Globalization & IT Revolution on Technical
Education,
[Online]
Availble:
http://dspace.
v p m t h a n e . o r g : 8 0 8 0 / j s p u i /
b i t s t r e a m / 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 / 1 2 6 3 / 1 / I M PA C T % 2 0
O F % 2 0 G L O B A L I Z AT I O N % 2 0 % 2 6 % 2 0
I T % 2 0 R E V O L U T I O N % 2 0 O N % 2 0
TECHNICAL%20EDUCATION.pdf
[9] V.P.Goel,
Technical
and
Vocational
Education

and Training (TVET) System \ in India for Sustainable
Development, Govt Of India [Online] Available:
http://www.unevoc.unesco.org/up/India_Country_
Paper.pdf
REVIEW AND SUGGESTIONS FOR REVAMPING

TECHNICAL HIGHER EDUCATION
IN INDIA TO MEET THE CHALLENGES OF FUTURE
Abhinandan Bhunia1, Abhirup Bhunia2, Swarnendu Kr. Chakraborty3,
Pinaki Chakraborty3, Rajat Subhra Goswami3, Nabakumar Pramanik3,
Mohit Kumar De3, Pralay Kumar Samanta3, Chandan Tilak Bhunia3
1
Microsoft Corporation, USA; 2 G-4, Garden Green Aprts, 184 Bansdroni Place, Kolkata-700070,
3
National Institute of Technology, Arunachal Pradesh, Yupia-791112, India
I. NTRODUCTION
Many studies have authoritatively established that
the most sufferers from the globalization forces are
the marginalized developing and poor nations. With
a pursue to make globalization a sustainable strategy
for the developing nations, it has been internationally
recognized that improved higher education, both
in quantity and quality should be one of the sound
strategies for the developing nations for the competitive
advantages. Historically this is also a conclusive and
decisive rule of development as the real wealth of a
nation is its people and more specifically so in todays
knowledge based society where Knowledge is Power.
UNESCO (United Nations Educational, Social and
Cultural Organization) [1] puts it as Without improved
human capital, countries will inevitable fall behind and
experience intellectual and economic marginalization
and isolation ...... In the developed World education is a
major political priority. The hard reality is that India is
yet to attain the international status of higher education.
Making India developed economy without developed
higher education will no way be a sustainable strategy.
Since the adoption of liberalization, privatization
& globalization in 1990s, Indias Technical Higher
Education (THE) both at UG & PG has taken a new
shape never-seen-before [2]. Private investment and
participation in THE, primarily when the Government
neither can establish new colleges & universities to cater
the demand for enrolment in THE for years after years
nor can afford to do so, has become a decisive factor to
reckon with. In such a new scenario, emerges a role to
critically reviewing the THE in a holistic approach. It is
particularly essential and of paramount necessary in view
of the fact that there is seen hardly any planned strategy
to guide and regulate THE so as to be country specific,
productive and distinctive beyond which the growth
has neither any meaning nor any relevance. There is no
meaning to be a follower and always being lagged. Need

of the hour and challenge is become leader & innovative
to restructuring and redressing THE to judiciously
make it country specific and delivery system. After all,
the socio-economic development has direct relevancy to
THE. The big challenge is just not to open the avenues for
open economy, but to regulate same for creating gracious
opportunities and scope beyond the business. After all
THE is supposed to be a human resource generation in a
process of man making in building nation.
A decisive and well-timed research has therefore been
undertaken to review the existing THE. A comprehensive
and critical review in this respect has been done in the
research.
The research aimed to study:
Quantity & quality dimension of THE
Imbalances if any in THE in respect of subjects,
geography
Deliverables & applicability
Lacks & lags in comparison with international
standard.
Based on the study as proposed above, several suggestions
in relate to modifications of systems, regulations and
structures are worked out in this research.
II. QUANTITY AND QUALITY IN THE

It is decisively established that improved and more
human resource generation shall be the sound strategy for
competitive advantages in liberalized economy. The strategy
is well adopted in the developed countries. The inclusive
analysis reveals that in developed countries the generation
of human resource is at par and in pace with that of physical
infrastructural development. In fact, human generation is
apparently and practically assumed as a social service sector

in the developed countries. In theory, the same is adopted in
developing countries but in practice it is far behind that in
practice in developing countries. Quantity wise and quality
wise scant initiative and approach is noticed in generation of
human resource in all the developing countries. The fact was
well studied in several various researches [3-7]. The thesis of
development is nothing but judicious and wide application
of science and technology in the development process. The
real difference between the developing and the developed is
nothing but science and technology.
and -12.61% respectively in Japan, Russia and India. A world

account is shown in Table 1. This clearly indicates the Indias
failure in adaptability to changing global higher education
process and to utilize the effectiveness to become leader,
although talent is no dearth in India.
Under the scenario an approach is made to critically

analyze the position of India in respect of human resource
generation, in comparison with other countries, particularly
with developed countries.
The number of universities/institutes in India is less both in

absolute term as well as in terms of per population in the
world.
The educational expenditure survey indicates that the
expenditure per university in higher education is very poor in
India again both in absolute value as well as per population
basis in the world.
It is also evident that the development is squarely related to
more number of universities, more expenditure in education,
higher GDP and better human development index.
Fig. 1 and 2 represent the comparative study of universities

versus population and population per university against
educational expenditure in different countries throughout
the world. Fig. 3 shows the comparison of total Government
spending across all areas of education over different countries
in the world.
India has made progress in terms of increasing primary
education attendance rate and expanding literacy to
approximately two thirds of the population. Indias improved
education system is often cited as one of the main contributors
to the economic rise of India. Much of the progress especially
in Higher education, Scientific research has been credited to
various public institutions.
To gain a better overview of educational resourcing, other
resourcing indicators such as government spending per
student and pupil teacher ratio should also be consulted.
A comparative study of population in core versus GDP versus
human development index in the world has been represented
in Fig 4. The Comparing educational spending with GDP can
be an indicator of the importance of education according to
government policy makers. However this indicator can be
misleading if the GDP is significantly higher or lower than
average.
The Human Development Index (HDI) is a composite statistic
used to rank countries by level of human development,
taken as a synonym of the older terms standard of living
and/or quality of life, and distinguishing very high human
development, high human development, medium human
development, and low human development countries.
After participation in globalization, the quality and
productivity of Indias research is on decline state if the share
of worlds total publication is considered. In 1990-2000, the
growth in the worlds publication share was 17.64%, -27.45%

Earlier comprehensive in respect to quantity & quality of

THE can be seen in [8]. Our present findings are in cohesion
with the findings of previous study.
II.1. INFERENCE BASED ON STUDY AS ABOVE:
III. IMBALANCES IN TECHNICAL HIGHER

EDUCATION
Several imbalances in technical higher education have
been studied authoritatively elsewhere [9, 10]. We like to
undertake studies to reexamine the imbalances if any with
respect to intake capacity in different disciplines, and the
distributions of sanctioned intake over institutes of different
states. We iterate that these imbalances are due to unplanned
growth of the technical educations in our country, which not
only hampering the quality productivity but also the future
growth plan and sustainability of technical education so far
demand & supply and national development and employment
opportunity are concerned.
We first study the existing seat capacity of two groups of
engineering disciplines. One group is core engineering
and another group is of service sector engineering. Core
engineering includes the mother engineering disciplines
namely Civil Engineering, Mechanical Engineering,
and Electrical Engineering. Service sector engineering
includes Computer Science & Engineering & Information
Technology, Electronics & Communication Engineering and
Bio-Technology. Of course Bio-Technology may belong to
a hybrid group in engineering. Fig. 5 shows existing intake
capacity of different disciplines of two distinct groups. The
result is alarming that discipline of core sector are far behind
than that of job oriented discipline like Computer Science
Engineering & Information Technology. Such un-planned
growth & uncontrolled pattern is not only creating huge
crisis in the demand and the supply of appropriate engineers

in national building but also doing academic injustice to the
engineering education. This sort of imbalance may seriously
hamper the productivity and quality of engineering education
and research. This also reflected in Fig. 6, which is for the
central universities and institutes of national importance.
This shows that the centrally funded institutes are also not
planning appropriately for growth of engineering disciplines
in equitable, sustainable and developmental manner. This is
a matter of great concern and needs remedial measures for
correction and improvement.
In Fig. 7 & 8 we study the population per available seat in
different disciplines in different states in the country. It is
reflected widely and promptly that there is huge imbalance
in the available seat over geographical regions all over India.
This unequal pattern neither is nether good for national
development nor expected. Unequal development and
pattern is sometimes the cause of social unrest. Therefore,
there is an emerging need for correcting and rectifying the
imbalances as studied.
Our observations and study further strengthens the study
made in this purpose elsewhere [9, 10].
IV. SWOT ANALYSIS OF PRIVATE

INVESTMENT IN THE VERSUS THAT OF
GOVERNMENTAL
For effective analysis and to review, we feel it necessary
to have an in depth SWOT analysis of Government versus
Private investment in THE. The analysis is made in Table-2 on
known perspectives and reports received from stakeholders.
IV.1. INFERENCES
The copying attitude of the developing countries cannot yield
good results. The above SWOT analysis clearly demonstrates
the fact is that one system cannot be replacement of another
system. Therefore there is need of any concern to ensuring
quality by copying practices of the developed countries.
India needs to devise its own policy to meet the challenges.
V. REVIEWING THE CURRENT NATIONAL

DEBATE ON ADMISSION POLICY IN UG
ENGINEERING COURSES
A debate is crippled on the admission procedure to be
adopted in the admission to the engineering colleges and
universities. The move taken by Ministry of Human Resource
Development to introduce a single admission test and /or

simpler procedure for admission in engineering colleges and
universities is a well-timed move. Several criticisms, debate
on this move are noticed in media. The fundamental question
of degrading quality on the move initiated by Ministry of
Human Resource Development needs to be examined in
totality with critical studies and analysis. This is a paramount
importance in view of the untiring protest by various senates
and different teaching forum of premier technological
universities namely Indian Institutes of Technology. This
research has made an attempt to study the relevancy of
quality with rank in Joint Entrance Examination made for
admission in engineering colleges and universities.
Our parameter of study are university score in B.Tech
examination; average score in Physics, Chemistry &
Mathematics in 10+2 and AIEEE rank on which admission
in engineering colleges and universities are made. The data
collection is of the students admitted in 2010-11 sessions
and 2011-12 sessions in National Institute of Technology,
Arunachal Pradesh.
In this work we have tried to justify the necessity or
otherwise of Joint Entrance Examination (referred example
is AIEEE rank) for admission in undergraduate engineering
examination study. For this purpose we have studied
and compared the scores of students in two disciplines
are Computer Science & Engineering and Electronics
& Communication Engineering of university (National
Institute of Technology, Arunachal Pradesh) in university
rank, class 12 score & AIEEE rank. Our study & comparison
are portrayed in Fig. 9, 10 & 11. From the figures it is evident
that:
The performance of the students in the university B.Tech
examination nearly resembles with that of the (score in
PCM) of class 12 examinations.
In certain cases particularly in case of high rank AIEEE
students, university score is also high. But the fact is that
these students PCM rank is also high in class 12 examination.
Therefore it is a decisive conclusion that, the score in PCM
in board examination may and will be the most appropriate
index of quality for admission in undergraduate THE system,
rather than conducting separate entrance examination. It may
be pertaining to mention here that the conducting of joint
entrance examination gives preference to the students of rich
families at the cost of merit of the students of poor families.
This is because of the fact that merit cannot be judged only
by making the students prepare and fittest in a particular
structure and orientation of answering in particular question
paper setting and examination patterns. Not only that,
several unholy practices and money power play sometimes
big role in deciding students future in joint entrance, as there

were several reports of question papers leaks and court cases.

Finally, a curve (Fig.12) in regard to Noble laureates of
different countries predicts that:
India has a poor performance in the index of Noble laureate,
even though a few Indians got Noble.
None of the Indian Noble winners are from so called
privileged institute that claimed that they want to admit
students based on entrance examination because of quality.
VI. REVAMPING THE:A FEW SUGGESTIONS

We like to put forward a few suggestions to improve THE
in India. The given suggestions are based on studies as
above, studies found in literature in references, and wide
collaborations with students, parents & fellow colleagues.
VI.1. REDRESSING THE ISSUES RELATING THE
QUALITY & QUANTITY IN THE
Suggestive measure for improvement of quality and quantity
will be The Government should divide progressive plan
well in advance to establish more central and state funding
Universities and Institutes with soul objective of imparting
quality education.
change to adapt the changed world. Teaching profession

in India is not only mostly under paid but also without
appreciable status.
National pool of National Professors at the rank Cabinet
Secretary with Government status may be thought off.
Such National Professors should be employed as Visiting
Professors on rotational basis to institutes with national
importance.
Eminent Professors should have not retirement age. For
quality national building the THE should generate engineers
who not only run after jobs, but who will create jobs.
For creating the stated scenario, there is an acute need of
framing syllabus that should include compulsory courses
like: Entrepreneurship Practices, Financial & Project
Management for complete human making, the courses like
NSS/NCC should be part & parcel in syllabus.
For improving research productivity particular in technical
engineering and deliverable researches, syllabus should
include papers like, Design Contest and research paper
communication.
VI.2. SUGGESTIONS IN REMOVING THE DIFFERENT
IMBALANCES STUDDING IN THE
Quality technical education should be reshaped and remodel

to produced technical engineer rather than academic engineer.
We propose the following measure for removing the

imbalance studied in this research in word to bring a cohesive
spread of technical education all over India.
A model of innovative technical education system in the name

of I-C-I (Institute cum Industry) [11-14] studied rigorously
elsewhere may be thought of as a practical solution.
All Institute whether Government of Private must

start engineering programmes with equal number of
courses in core discipline and Service Sector disciplines.
This make mandatory for academic approval for
establish Institutes / Universities.
For quality improvement brightest & scholastic students

should be encourage for technical and research profession.
For which pay and parts better than that of six pay commission
should be thought off. Improved human resources amount
to improving both quality and quantity. Over the years
and after independence, quality of Indian education
system in general has not improved with the pace of time.
One of the main attributes of maintaining and improving
quality education is the availability of quality teachers.
A World Bank Research found that Higher academic
performance can be promoted by evaluating the quality
of teaching and research. Once upon a time Indian
teaching community was full of pioneers like Rajarshi
S Radhakrishnan, Acharya J C Bose, Sir C V Raman,
Achary S N Bose and Dr. M N Saha. Today we have hardly
teachers of those statures. In reality, today teaching
profession has become out of getting the assignment by
chance rather than by choice. Young minds should
not be blamed for this. World is changing. Chang is the
law of nature. Today world is materialistic. Policy must
Government should take initiative to setup Institutes

/ Universities on priority in less penetrates zones and
or think of reserving seats for the students of the states
having low penetration
Concept of education at the door by means of online
distance education mode and or education on wheel
(please do not laugh) may be thought off.
Innovative
laughable.
suggestion
sometimes
looks
like
The pattern of fixed duration UG courses need reexamination while implementing the idea of ICT based
distance mode THE. The ideas of FARE and SARE
education[2] may be experimented
Science is changing, Technology is changing, Art
is changing, Economy is changing and then Education
has to change as an inevitable consequence of this
changing scenario. India is badly lagging to move out

of its century old inertia, first and foremost of which is
to accept (at governmental and political level) the fact
that higher education currently is not a cost centre but a
really national profit centre subject to proper planning.
Education needs to be taken as strategic investment
for social growth and to create aggregate wealth and
greater equity. Question is obvious: How? International
higher education must aim for: Quality, Orientation to
meet dynamics of supply and demand both at national
and international market, equitable spread of education
without geographical, gender and race & caste bias
, Lifelong learning and lastly but most importantly
Integrating education, research & innovation in higher
education.
The application of Internet and Computer
Technology (ICT)[19-24] in imparting training, teaching
and research is common in higher education in practically
all universities and colleges in developed world. The
employment strategy and benefits of ICT bade education
and e-learning are studied elsewhere tI2-I31. The ready
availability of advanced topics, research paper, design
idea and interaction with remote experts through Internet
has made the higher education qualitative at affordable
cost. The digital and Internet access with sufficient
bandwidth should be provided in all higher educational
establishments on highest priority at no time. This is
badly needed for improving teaching. The concept
of Wired U or Networked U (U Means University)
should appear in shaping universities in India as such
universities will efficiently transit to new knowledge,
information and research at virtually no running cost,
and will be immensely beneficial to faculty members in
their functions. Workers will find Wired U or Networked
U[15] increasingly efficient to earn and update their
knowledge base by distance learning around the globe.
Knowledge workers will be updated making widespread
benefits to students, environment and organization
as a whole. Higher education must be supplemented
with new knowledge (research productivity) and
development (Innovation) to be at par with that of
developed nations. G-8 UNESCO World Forum [14]
calls Education, Research and Innovation as the three
partners for sustainable development. Nearly fifty years
ago Economics Nobel Laureate Robert Solow showed
that nearly 90% of the growth in economic output in
the United States between 1909 and 1949.......was due to
a well-funded comprehensive effort to develop and then
apply science & technology to economic development.
VI.3.SUGGESTION IN REMOVING
UNDER SWOT ANALYSIS
THE
ISSUES
SWOT analysis has predicted a green picture of private

investment in THE in India. Besides, exploitation due
to availability of cheap but qualified labour may further
degrade the expected quality from private investment in
THE. Primarily private investment in THE survives and
runs with the high tution fee collected from students. Mode
issue is therefore is why not to establish institutes under
Government control, Government Administration and
Government framework, student will pay at par with private
sector. This model will propose as Run governmentally and
earn privately.
We may like to further propose that if private sector in
Indian Scenario has to flourish and produce quality outputs
the heads of institutes of these private sector (Director, ViceChancellor should be given full financial power).
VI.4.
SUGGESTING
SIMPLER
AND
NOBLE
PROCEDURE FOR ADMISSION IN UG STUDIES IN
ENGINEERING EDUCATION
Our studies clearly demonstrate that:
Admission in UG program in Engineering must be
and should be best on score in the board examination
in class 12th with normalization of percentile basis. No
alternative solution provide better than this.
To provide better opportunity and scope for
admission making, we like to share a different view in
respect of choice of disciplines by students at the time
of admission. In most of the cases after class 12 students
does not have an exact idea regarding appropriate
disciplines for them. In most of the time they are highly
influenced by their parents and others. In respect of us,
at the time of admission we should take admission of
students in respect of some groups like (CSE, ECE, EE
are in same group and CE, ME and production are in
another). So, after 1st year having all common subjects
for all groups, authority is responsible to segregate all
students in different disciplines as per their choice with
their marks in 1st year.
VII. CONCLUSIONS
Studies are made. Suggestions are given. Researches are
published. Hard reality is that after that everything is closed.
There is necessary for acumen desire for the policy makers to
seriously look into the field level researches for bringing an
all about progressive changes [25-26] in THE. The decisions
based on paper studies cannot bring any innovative,
productive and required change in the system.

2700
Comparative Statement of Population Vs Number of Universities in the World
600
500
400
300
200
Spain
Singapore
South Africa
Sweden
Russia
Srilanka
Pakisthan
Malaysi a
Maxico
number of Universities
Switzer land
United kingdom
USA
Population in crore
Netherland
Poland
Kenya
Korea
Irland
Italy
Japan
India
Israel
Egypt
Garmany
China
Denmark
Canada
Australia
Bangladesh
Brazil
100
Fig. 1 : A comparative study of population versus

number of universities in the world.
Fig 5 : A comparative study of Seat in Core Sector Engineering (CE, ME

& EE) and Service Sector Engineering (CSE + IT, ECE, BT)
800
Comparative Statement of P
700
opulation in crore
Vs Number o f
Universities Vs P opulation per University in the
Wo rld .
600
500
400
300
200
100
USA
United kingdom
Sweden
Switzer land
Singapor e
South Africa
Spain
Russi a
Srilanka
Poland
Pakisthan
Maxico
Number of universitie s
Netherland
Korea
Keny a
Malaysi a
Italy
Japan
India
Population in c rore
Irland
Israel
Garman y
Egypt
China
Denmark
Brazil
Canada
Australia
Bangladesh
Population in l ac per universit y
Fig. 6 : Comparative study of Institute offering the courses

and different central universities, IITs & NITs of India
Fig. 2 : A comparative statement of population versus number of

universities versus population per universities in the world
800
700
600
Comparative Statement of Population Vs

Educational Expenditute in 2010 in the World
500
400
300
200
Educational Expenditure in 100 cror
..
d.
nd
ite
r la
Sw
itz
e
US
Un
re
ric
po
ed
e
Af
h
So
ut
Sw
ain
Sp
Sin
ga
a
nk
ila
ia
ss
Ru
Sr
an
Pa
k is
th
ico
la n
lan
ax
er
Po
Ne
th
Population in crore
ia
ys
re
Ko
a la
ly
ny
Ita
pa
Ja
Ke
nd
ae
Irla
Is r
ia
In d
t
yp
an
rm
Ga
ark
Eg
da
De
in
nm
h
es
Br
az
Ba
ng
lad
Ch
na
ali
str
Au
Ca
il
100
Fig 7: Comparative study of population per seat

capacity in discipline wise in India.
Fig. 3 : A comparative study of population versus

educational expenditure in 2010 in the world.
16000000
14000000
Comparative statement of Population vs GDP vs Human

Development I ndex
12000000
Populatio
n in crore
10000000
GDP
8000000
6000000
Human
developm
ent Index
4000000
a
ric
Af
US
uth
So
nd
tze
r la
lan
Sw
i
Po
ain
Sp
re
ia
Ko
ss
pa
Ru
Ja
xic
ia
Ind
Ma
il
az
Br
nd
ali
Irla
str
Eg
yp
t
Au
Ch
ina
2000000
Fig. 4 : A comparative study of population in core versus GDP versus

human development index in the world.

Fig 8: Comparative study of population per seats in

various discipline State wise in India
countries throughout the World
% share in
1984-89
36.52
9.21
7.37
% share in
1990-95
35.82
9.24
8.67
Germany
France
6.22
5.17
7.42
5.88
19.3
14
USSR/
Russia
Canada
Italy
Australia
Netherlands
Spain
India
6.85
4.97
-27.45
4.66
2.69
2.27
2.01
1.21
2.22
4.77
3.49
2.4
2.4
2.08
1.94
2.36
29.74
5.73
19.4
71.9
-12.61
Country
USA
UK
Japan
Fig. 9: Comparative study of AIEEE Rank against University Score /

CM (10+2) average in 2011-12 at NIT, Arunachal pradesh for B.Tech in
Computer Science & Engineering.
Growth
-1.92
0.325
17.64
Table 1: Share to total publication [4]
Government
Private
Strength
Government
organizations are more
sustainable and long
standing. State funding
is essential component of
government establishment
Governmental
organizations are less
susceptible to closure.
In Governmental
organizations,
employees satisfaction
is usually high. Quality
is guaranteed up to
Governmental measured
level.
In private organization
flexibility is high as no
rigid rules and regulation
is applicable. Private
sectors are having
easy expandability
for capacity building.
Over equal private
sectors there is having
scope for international
collaboration. Productivity
is usually high than
Government organization.
Fear to not to work
and delivery in respect
of employees provides
higher outputs. Unity of
command is clearly one,
the owner. In private
sectors, scope of reward
and punishment is clear.
Weakness
Scope of political
interference and
opportunities is
foregone conclusion
in governmental
organizations Limited
state funding is cause of
growth There is a chance
of interference from
unions and associations.
Its having risk to closure.

Owners decision is
deciding factor that may
result in poor academics.
Private sector does not
have a defined quality
ensuring mechanism.
Private sectors are prone
to exploitations of the
cheap & qualified labors
abundantly available in
developing countries
Fig. 10 : Comparative study of AIEEE Rank against University Score/

PCM (10+2) average in 2010-11 at NIT, Arunachal pradesh for B.Tech in
Computer Science & Engineering.
Fig. 11: Comparative study of AIEEE Rank against University Score/

PCM (10+2) average in 2010-11 at NIT, Arunachal pradesh for B.Tech in
Electronics & communication Engineering.
Fig. 12 : Comparative study of Number of Novel Lauriate in different

Opportunity
Threats
Government is having
its own quality control
mechanism duly defined
Inputs (Students / Faculty
members) are of high
standard In Government
establishment procedures
are readily available for
governance of institute.
Good leaders are
readily available. Equal
opportunity to rich/
poor that helps merits to
prosper.
Wide competition among

different private sectors
may result in competitively
good product. Private
investors are often
industrialists for which
smooth and concrete
industrial interaction is
possible.
In Government
organizations, rigidity in
rules and regulations is
susceptible to No change
with time and no change
with environment.
The motive of private

organization is only profit.
This does not guarantee
quality and sustainability.
Private investments prefer
to run only low investment
discipline causing
imbalance. High fees in
private institutes do not
support merit, resulting
education becoming
reachable to rich only.
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[1]

G-8-UNESCO World forum: Education, Research and

Innovation: New Partnership for sustainable
Development, ICTP, Italy, 10-12 May,2007
[2]

C T Bhunia, Changes for Technical Education, Atlantic

Publishers & Distributors, New Delhi, 2008
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Fareed Zakaria, How long will America lead the

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Knowledge-Based Economy, IEEE Spectrum, May,

1999, pp 60-65.
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Few Gold Stars for Pre college Education, April, 1998,
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C T Bhunia, Technical Education: Some Thoughts,

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C T Bhunia, Balancing Quality and Quantity in Higher

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44, 2005, pp 15-16
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Bhunia, C T, Imbalances in Technical Higher

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University News, New Delhi, Nov1995, pp. 1-4.
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University News, New Delhi, Nov1995, pp. 1-4.
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University News, New Delhi, Jan2003, pp. 1-4.
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Education, University News, New Delhi, June2003,

pp. 6-12.
[15] C T Bhunia, Planning for Higher Technical Education

in Changed Scenario, University News, New Delhi

Vol 42. No 51. 2004, pp 1-9.
[16] C T Bhunia, More IITs: A Hope of Rising

(Communication), University News, Association of

Indian Universities, Vol 42, No 23, June2004, pp. 84-85.
[17]

C T Bhunia, A Timely Exercise (Communication on

Entrance Examination), University News, Association
of Indian Universities, New Delhi, Vol 43, No 21, May
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survey of Andre Beteilles discourse on universities in

the 21st Century, University News, Association of

Indian Universities, New Delhi, Vol 48(13), No 13,

March29-April 04, 2010 pp, 28-35.
[19]

C T Bhunia et al, Planning for ICT based education

in changed scenario to meet the global gaps and
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Association of Indian Universities, New Delhi, Vol
49(13), No 16, April 18-24, 2011 pp, 13-17.
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How, CSI Communication, Feb.91
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Training for the Information Age, Productivity, Vol

39, No 4,pp 579-587.
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(1999), A global snapshot of scientific trends,

UNESCO Courier, May, pp28-29.
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Resources Development, J Personnel Today, Jan-
March 1998,pp 43-47
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Communication, March2005 Mumbai, ppl7-21
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Innovation: New Partnership for sustainable

Development, ICTP, Italy, 10-12 May,2007
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[27] Ritz J M M Dr ir, Scenario for Higher Education,

2020, Keynote Address at OECD Ministerial Meeting,

June 27h ,2006Athens, Greece
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Scenarios for Higher Education, Ch 3.


IMBALANCE IN TECHNICAL EDUCATION-REGIONAL

Bikash Sah, Nupur, Santosh Shukla, Krishna Kumar
Students, B.Tech Course, Electrical and Electronics Engineering
National Institute of Technology, Arunachal Pradesh
Yupia, Papum Pare Dist.-791112
bikash10eee@gmail.com, nupur.eee@gmail.com, santosh574@gmail.com
Krishnakumareee10@gmail.com
ABSTRACT
A country stands on its intellectual population and for the
development of intellectuals; role of education is at the
highest priority. Further the role of education in facilitating
the economic progress has already been identified all over the
world. Our nation has made a noticeable progress in the field
of higher and technical education. This paper analyses the
imbalances created on the basis of region and its hard impact
on the economy and growth of our country. It also analyses
the impact on quality of education system introduced due to
regional imbalance and suggest some changes that can be
implemented to improve the present scenario.
Keywords : India, Economy, Technical education system,
UGC, Institutions, Regional Imbalance, Quality.
I. NTRODUCTION
The policy of LPG (Liberalization, privatization and
globalization) has changed the scenario of present context. It
has been found that the economic growth is directly influenced
by the quality of technical education that a country imparts.
Various sources like the World Bank and World Economics
Association have shown that higher education enrolment is a
leading indicator of economic growth. [1]
If the number of students enrolled and educated by
universities of a country increases rapidly, it can be found
that the country thrives in economic growth in the decade to
follow. This already has been proved in the case of countries
like Japan and Korea. [2]
Technology has become an important parameter that
determines the growth of the country (economically, socially
and politically). Imparting education to the citizens doesnt
actually mean the country is developing, but that is quality
whichtruly determines the worthiness of education imparted.
Consider for instance the context of globalization of
economy, underdeveloped and the developing countries need
to compete with the developed and technologically advanced
world that has technically sound human resourceand other
resourceto enhance their productivity. Time has proven the

importance of quality in technical education for developing
a country.
India, being a developing country needs to focus on its ways
of imparting technical education. There is a dire need of
an economy, created by intellectual capital and run by the
knowledge and wisdom. This intellectual capital will play
an important role in future enterprises and thus technical
education has become imperative for the country.
The rapid increases in establishment of institutions may
have introduced a greater compromise with the quality. An
imbalance has emerged in the technical education scenario.
This imbalance is not in a specific field but has spread out
like an epidemic in all the fields right from the opening of
an institution till its complete setup and healthy functioning.
It is said that India our country has been proceeding ahead
remarkably in the field of technical education for the last two
decades, but is it really true? And have we really been able to
overcome the shortcomings, challenges and able to reap the
opportunities successfully?
We can clearly find an imbalance on the basis of region,
quantity, ownership, course, intellect, physical resources and
training process in our country.
Technical education in India is imparted in three different
levels:
1. ITI(Industrial training Institute) also

asATI(Advanced Training Institute)
known
2. Polytechnics (Diploma institute)

3. B-Tech or higher college/university.
[3]
Theplans made by the governmentvirtually need
appreciation. For example the five year plans of University
Grants Commission (UGC), a statutory organisation set up
by Union Government, to look over universities and colleges
at higher education in India,but dont go deep into the ground
problems for finding solutions. We have a number of higher
and technical institutions in India but they are not distributed
in a uniform manner rather are concentrated in some of the

particular states or regions only. This give rise to one of the

greatest form of imbalance called as Regional Imbalance
which has been explained in the forthcoming paragraphs
with its impact in the Quality of education provided.
II. REGIONAL IMBALANCE

The most roaring form of imbalance in our country is
Regional Imbalance. LPG (Liberalization, Privatization,
and Globalization) are the causes for the introduction of this
imbalance.
Institutions were set-up but not in the productive manner.
Every investor looked at these establishments in their own
way and focussed mainly on the profit in running their
establishment. This led to a sudden appearance of huge
number of institutionsin populated areas of the country
like the central India and south India. A sense of awareness
came among the common people regarding the importance
of technical education. This privatization of educational
process couldnt fullybenefit some of the Indian states that
urgently needed to have technically sound population. Even
within the states, this imbalance had developed prominently.
The regions which demand privatization are more advanced
than the regions which gives importance to agriculture or
dont support LPG. [4]
Indian UGC fairly setup 5- Year plans which always says
Considerable challenges remain i.e. it fails to execute some
plans while the other countries dont set-up such ambitious
plans.
Maharashtra is considered as one of the most advanced state
in providing technical education. It has 44 universities, 470
engineering colleges and 182 polytechnic institutions. The
Maharashtra State Board of Technical Education handles all
the proceeding of every single technical college; on the other
hand we have our North-Eastern states which have scanty
technical institutes. Arunachal Pradesh for instancehas a
total number of 2 universities, two engineering college and
two polytechnic colleges. Higher and technical institutions
are in the ratio of 22:1, 235:1 and 91:2 respectively. An
unbelievable difference can be catered among not only these
two states but among other states as well. [5]
The imbalance is not only among the states but also within the
state itself. For state with larger area like Uttar Pradesh, majority
of the institutions are settled in areas of Noida, Allahabad,
Lucknow, Banaras and other urban areas. The rest parts of
the state lack the facility of proper higher education in their
footsteps. There are intra-state imbalances with Paretos Law of
misdistribution leading to vital few and ignored many regions
where these new colleges have emerged.
The imbalance has influenced other important topics as well

including the Quality, without which the aim to develop a
skilful and technically advanced India fails. The quality of
education imparted is based on various facilities we give,
like intellectuals, state of the art Laboratories etc. A small
example of an intellectual at base level is Lab-Technician.
The appointment of a lab technician in an institute is an
important activity. The technician should have the required
skills to guide his/her students to let them understand topics
and present as a practically feasible topic infront of the
student. The lack of motivation and commitment among the
intellectual is another negative prospect of this imbalance.
It has been found that more than 80% of the institutes
affiliated to AICTE are simple B-Tech with inadequate
academic performance. Lacks of good management by
the authority has diverted the students in a different way
instead of encouraging them to move towards Research and
Development(R&D). Foreign universities have a much higher
ratio of students pursuing higher education after B-Tech as
compared to India. The number of Ph.D. or M-Tech thesis
and research papers published by Indian universities is very
less as compared to other foreign universities. These allareas
are a matter of concern as per the qualitative expansion of the
Indian Technical Education.
With such a prevailing condition, still many investors
are continuing to invest. Education is being considered a
business by many people.
Another important point to be focussed is Are Indian
universities able to provide the education in a proper way? Is
it meant or accessible to the common masses?
We have IITs and IIMs as our premier institutes on which
we are proud, but these fail to impart education to masses.
These institutes cover less than 10% of the whole mass
pursuing higher education. Of these 42% only remain in India
and other go abroad for future prospects. A complete brain
drain is seen while other countries have taken various steps
to stop this.Only 10,000 out of 12 crore strong university age
population stand to support the country for its development.
This creates an absence of intellectual population in India.
Non availability of experienced faculty can be seen in most
of the institutesin India. If one compares the statistics of
institutes, he/she will find maximum new scholars who have
just completed their post-graduate or Ph.D. As per the data
collected from Uttar Pradesh (one of the states with highest
number of technical institutes) 80% of the faculty are fresh
graduates ofearly twenties and 10-15% is from past 60 years
mostly retired professors with an absence of middle cadre.[6]
The above quality situations are well known to every citizen
of the nation including our own selected representatives, to
whom we call our leaders.
Dr.Manmohan Singhs once quoted the following words:

Our university system is, in many parts, in a state of
disrepair...In almost half the districts in the country,
higher education enrolments are abysmally low, almost
two-third of our universities and 90 per cent of our colleges
are rated as below average on quality parameters... I am
concerned that in many states university appointments,
including that of vice-chancellors, have been politicised
and have become subject to caste and communal
considerations, there are complaints of favouritism and
corruption. [7]
A crystal clear imbalance is visible to all the citizens of
the nation. Imbalance is ruining the scenario all over. The
imbalance is ruining the present era of competition among
nations in all the fields.
On one hand government makes plan and introduces new
institution to satisfy the need of higher technical education
in India and on the other hand the government forgets the
remaining perspective affecting the quality of education
imparted. The present trend of information technology and
economics has reduced the whole world into a small village
called A Global Village. The communication gap has been
reduced everywhere. [8]
Swami Vivekananda, one of the greatest saints of India
once said I need 40 lions (youths) to transform Bharat to
a knowledge superpower. Our nation indeed has a real
potential to evolve as the knowledge superpower. Its time to
spread our potential in different fields rather than confining
to a particular field. The ultimate patience to wait for the
results of various plans have to be broken and every single
step moved forward should focus on the positive result and
the best should be only implemented.
Needs of globally expert and competent skilled people can
be seen everywhere. A standard education system should be
developed all over India to remove the imbalance andfocus
on quality. The quantity increases the number of technically
skilled citizens in a nation but they lack quality. On the whole
we will have a lot of unemployed people all around who
cant be allowed to work because of the lack of perfectness a
skilful person should have.
The programmes run by government of India for reducing
the regional imbalance by maintaining quality of education
provided should be made more effective. These programmes
shouldnot be limited to any particular university or any
institution; instead a common step should be taken by all the
working agencies in this field.
TEQIP (Technical education quality improvement

programme) run by the government of India should be
made more effective in all the institution of country. This
programme aim to enhance existing capabilities of the
institution to become dynamic, demand drives, quality
consciousness, efficient and forward looking responsive to
rapid economic and technological developments occurring
both at national and international levels. The most important
thing of all the institutes on the basis of priority and the
allotment of financial help called funds by the Indian
government. [9]
The All India council of Technical Education have taken the
following steps to reduce the imbalance:
1. Allowed a second shift of engineering colleges in

existing engineering colleges only in those States

where the number of seats available in engineering

colleges per lakh of population is less than all India
average.
2.

For a balanced growth of various streams of

education in Engineering & Technology, the Council
had adopted a policy to allow establishment of new
Engineering Institutions with at least three
conventional branches as a mandatory requirement
in the States where the number of seats available
in engineering colleges per lakh of population in
more than all India average, whereas in the States
where the number of seats available in engineering
colleges per lakh of population is less than the all
India average, no such restriction is applicable.
3.

The Council has permitted the possession of total

land area in three adjacent pieces specifically in
North Eastern States and hilly areas for setting up
new technical institutions. [10]
III. CONCLUSION
INTROSPECTION The standards of education must not
be limited to only a few number of institutions like IITs,
IIMs, NITs and some of the renowned institution rather a
measure of equality should be given to all the institution(let
it be technical or any other field). [11]
The politics must not be mixed with the education system.
A Common way out thinking should be introduced all over
the nation to maintain a balance and quality. This common
way is based on the Public Private Partnership concept. It is
understood that some of the place have advantage and they
attract more investors but what about the remaining places.
The remaining places can have some government aided

initiatives or Public Private Partnerships. The state can offer

packages to private academic investors for development of
model technical institutes in different district or regions. This
will improve and induce a healthy concept of competition
among all the institution and the wish of students to pursue
higher education from a well-established institution can be
met.
Before starting an institution, other demands should be
fulfilled like the required resources that need to be catered.
The approval from AICTE and other councils for recognition
of an institution should be done in general public perspective
of reducing the demand of good professional rather than a
selfish perspective or regional basis. This general public or
patriotic thinking will stop all those private investors to work
upon who consider education as a business.
The focus shouldnt be only in the organised sector but the
focus should spread over the unorganised sector as well.
The traditional education techniques should be incorporated
and evolved with the developing modern and technological
system.
There is a need to update and train the present faculties as
per the recent advancement i.e. more faculty development
programme should be conducted by government agencies in
co-operation with some private partnership.
The need to understand the importance of encompassing
government, public sector, private sector, research and
academic institution consistent with the industrial,
technological and economic future of our country.
Due to rapid growth of industries and economic growth,
technical education have been developing to its leaps and
bound in India but regional imbalance is still prevailing
everywhere. Recent development in different fields like
space, nuclear, computer and IT have given recognition all
over the world. As the technical education determines the
economic growth, thus its necessary to remove theregional
imbalance and improve the quality of education imparted.

REFERENCES
[1] Bhunia
C.T., Changes in Technical Education,

Atlantic publishers and distributers (P) ltd.
[2] Vrat, Prem, Impart Quality in Technical Education,

SME World, Dec 2010; Avera H WilliamThe

Economic Times.
[3] Prof Nayak D.K.,ProfPatilMohite T.V., Impact of
globalization & it revolution on technical
education.
[4]

Saha Samir, GhoshSamita,Engineering education

in India: Past, Present and Future, Propagation, A
journal of science Communication, Vol: 2, No: 2,
July, 2011
[5] http://apdhte.nic.in/colleges.htm
;http://www.
worldcolleges.info/Maharashtra/

MaharashtraCollege s.php
[6] Vrat, Prem, Role of Technical Education in
Emerging Indian Society: Opportunities and

Challenges RITES Journal, July 2009.
[7] PMs address at the 150th Anniversary
Function
of
UniversityofMumbai.
http://pmindia.nic.in/
speech/content.asp?id=555
[8] Dr. Pant R.M. Technical Education in North
Eastern India: Problems and prospects,IPEDR

vol.12 (2011) (2011).
[9] Govt. of India Project Implementation Plan on

TEQIP MHRD, August 2002.
[10] Press Information Bureau Technical Education

Imbalance in States, February 3, 2013.
[11] Govt. of India,Report of the working group on

technical education for the XII five year plan,

September 2011.
A COMPARATIVE STUDY OF FUNGAL DISEASES OF

FRENCH BEAN (PHASEOLUS VULGARIS.L)
IN ORGANIC AND CONVENTIONAL FARMING SYSTEM
G.K.N.Chhetry
H.C.Mangang
Department of Life Sciences Manipur University

,Canchipur ,Imphal,India,795003
Department of Life Sciences Manipur University

,Canchipur ,Imphal,India,795003
ABSTRACT
French bean is a favorite vegetable to most of the households
of the north east people including Manipur, where the crop
is grown mostly in most homestead gardens for home
consumption. Organic farming and conventional farming
are two main farming practices vying for their acceptance in
sustainable agriculture and feed the ever increasing human
population with limited land resources. Organic farming
is usually perceived as low yield but environment friendly
while conventional farming as more productive but with
huge input demand and hazardous environmental impact.
In developing countries where there is still lack of modern
agrochemicals, hence indigenous farmers relied on traditional
agricultural practices which are organic by default. North
east India is no exception to this and the organic mode of
farming is prevalent in most of the places particularly hills of
the region. Apart fromyield aspects, it is of interest to study
the diseaseaspects which is a serious concern in the organic
farming system. There are references about the effect of
soil amendments on disease development especially of soil
borne diseases in the organic fields, yet comparative details
of the disease parameters in the two farming modes have
not been reported from the region. As the disease parameters
are constrains to yield, estimation of disease parameters such
aspercent disease incidence (DI %), Percent disease Severity
(DS %), Area Under Disease Progress Curve (AUDPC), and
Apparent rate of infection (r) are considered important. As
such data pertaining to these parameters were obtained and
thepooled data was analyzed to test the null hypothesis that
there is no difference between the two treatments in disease
development .Study revealed that the application of Farm
Yard Manure ( FYM) , the most widely used manure in
organic farming system,reduced the AUDPC of four foliar
fungal diseases of French bean as compared to conventional
system where synthetic fertilizers were added. DI% of two
pathogen causing root rots and a fruit rot of French bean
wasalso foundrelatively lower in organic plots.Statistical
analysis rejected the null hypothesis in favour of alternate
hypothesis which means significant difference of disease
development of French bean in two different farming systems
.The difference may be attributed to organic amendments of soil:a sustainable mode of crop protection in organic farming system.
Keywords: organic farming, conventional farming, French bean,
AUDPC,infection rate, soil amendment, FYM, Manipur
I. NTRODUCTION
French bean is a popular vegetable recipe for people of north
east Indiaincluding Manipurwhere it is grown in most household
gardens as favorite vegetable almost throughout the year. String
less bean variety was preferred more compared to other varieties
in Manipur. This crop is grown mainly in the organic garden
environment for domestic consumption in the North east. In
contrast, cultivation of crops in commercial scale is mostly done
in non organic mode i.e. in conventional synthetic fertilizer based
farming. A thorough study of fungal disease development in the
organic farming system is expected to help in proper understanding
of the fungal pathology of bean and its management in the
organic farming system. Further, a comparative study between
the two modes of farming namely organic and conventional may
enable us in understanding the pros and cons of organic farming
system with respect to fungal disease development of this crop
in particular. This would enhance crop protection strategies in
organic environment. For this, field trials were conducted for three
consecutive years (2008-2011) in organic gardens where farmers
practice organic mode by tradition. Disease parameters were
recorded at weekly intervals and the pooled data were analyzed
statistically to test the hypothesis that the observed disease
parameters between the two farming systems were the same. The
disease parameters under study includes percent disease incidence
(DI %), Percent disease Severity (DS %), Area under disease
progress curve (AUDPC), and Apparent rate of infection (r)
II. MATERIALS AND METHODS

Seed procurement
Bean varieties commonly cultivated by the local people were
selected. Three varieties which were phenotypically distinct,

characterised by their different seed coat colours as black seed

coat (V1), brown seed coat(V2) and striated seed coat(V3).
They were procured from the local farmers displayed for sale
in the market. The three varieties selected were all pole type
produced from organic gardens. The physicalcharacteristics
of the three varieties is presented in table 1.
Field preparation
Field experiments were conducted at three place 25 km
from Imphal viz. Kakwa, Koirengei and Kanglatongbi.
Beans were sown in (2 X 2) m2 plots replicated three times
in each field. A spacing of (30 X 10) cm2 was maintained
as commonly practiced by the local traditional farmers. For
conventional farming mode, chemical fertilisers were added
at the recommended dose of 120Kg N, 60 Kg P2O5, and 40
Kg K2O (Bose et al, 2003). Half the nitrogen was applied as
basal dose and the remaining half as top dressing. In organic
farming mode farm yard manure (FYM) was applied @ 20
tonnes per hectare. Application of FYM was made during the
preparation of the field, a week prior to the sowing of seeds.
The experiment was carried out for three consecutive years
(2008-2010) during growing seasons (March-June). Fields
were prepared during the month of January and crops were
sown by the end of March every year. The seeds were sown
in randomised block design with three replications. Normal
agricultural practices were carried out as usual except the
dos and donts in organic farming system.
III. MEASUREMENT OF DISEASE.

Comparative study was done on diseases developed
naturally in bean gardens located at . The criteria for the
selection of these diseases were their natural occurrence
in bean gardens. The disease parameters studied include:
percent disease incidence (DI %), percent disease severity
(DS%), area under disease progress curve (AUDPC) as per
Shanerand Finney(1977) and Apparent rate of infection (r) in
accordance to the formula proposed by Van der Plank (1963).
In each plot thirty leaflets were chosen randomly with three
canopy levels namely top ,middle and bottom .The leaves
were then rated non destructively each weekin accordance
with the methodology proposed by Imhoffet al (1982), DS%
for alternaria leaf spot and bean rust,were calculated using
the disease rating scale as proposed by Godoyet al, (1996).
For Cercospora leaf spot, a scale slightly modified from the
angular leaf spot scale proposed by Claudeaet al, (1996)
and of powdery mildew the scale as proposed by Rezendeet
al(1999) was used.The study was carried out soon after the
occurrence of disease till the pods were ready for harvest. For
root rots only the disease incidence was worked out because
non-destructive disease sampling was followed throughout
the experiment and the plants showing wilt symptoms were
counted for calculating the disease incidence. The number
of infected pods was recorded for pod rot disease incidence.

The disease parameters were worked out as per the following
relations:
iii) AUDPC =
[( y
i 1
i +1
+ yi ) / 2][ xi +1 xi ]
Where,
yi and yi+1 are the severity in the i th and ( i+1)th observations
xi and xi+1 are the time (in weeks )in the ith and (i+1)th
observation
And n is the total no of observations.
Apparent rate of infection (r) is worked out as:
r=
2.3
t 2 t1
x2
x
log
log 1
1 x2
1 x1
Where
t2 -t1 is the time interval,
x1 and x2 are the disease severity
respectively.
in time t1 and t2
The data so obtained were pooled for three years and unpaired
t test was applied to test the statistical significance of the
differences of disease parameters for the two treatments
IV. RESULTS AND DISCUSSIONS

Several fungal diseases namely:Alternaria leaf spot,
Cercospora leaf spot, Powdery mildew, Bean Rust,
Rhizoctonia root rot, Sclerotium rot, Sclerotinia fruit rot
were found associated with fench bean in organic mode
(Table:2). Significant difference in disease parameters was
observed in the two farming methods (Tables 3-9). This led
to the rejection of the hypothesis that the two treatments
were similar. Lower disease parameters were observed in
the organic plots. The difference might be attributed to the
differential microbial activity due to the amendment of soil
with organic input. There were reports from all over the
world, indicating the affectof soil microorganisms against
soil borne fungal diseases. The present study revealed that
there is decrease in disease incidence of soil borne diseases
which corroborates the findings of Bulluck and Ristaino
(2002), who attributed the decrease in disease incidence
due to organic amendment as compared with conventional
synthetic fertiliser treatment. Similarly, Abbasiet al, (2002)
observeddecreasing disease incidence of anthracnose fruit
rot of tomato incompost amendedbean fields as compared
to conventional farms.
The results showed that brown variety (V2) has rated lower
disease parameters of Alternaria leaf spot in organic plot.
All the three varieties showed significant lower AUDPC of
Alternaria leaf spot in organic plots (table 3). This could be
explained by the slow disease growth rate during the earlier
period in organic plots as compared with that in conventional
plots. A lower AUDPC of Alternaria leaf spot in organic plots
would meanless requirement of agrochemicals for managing
Alternaria leaf spot in french bean.
Disease parameters of Cercospora leaf spot too were found
to be significantly different in the two treatments. Variety
V1 showed lower disease parameters in organic plot (table
4). This indicated the possibility of interaction of the variety
with organic treatments. The AUDPC of the other two
varieties the is lower in organic plot as presented in table 4.
Black variety (V1) had significant lower DI% of powdery
mildew in organic plots and all the varieties showed lower
AUDPC in organic plot (table 5).
In contrast, significant difference of DI%of rustwasnot
observed between the two treatments (table 6). However the
AUDPC, DS%, and r were found to be significantly lower
in the organic plot. This could be an indication of an indirect
effect of organic treatment on rust development.
Since these foliar pathogens are air borne soil amendment
might not have any impact on the inoculums potential of the
pathogen as shown by result of similar disease incidence in
the three varieties. The black variety showed lower DI% of
powdery mildew and Cercospora leaf spot in organic plots.
This indicated the interaction of organic treatment with the
black variety that helped in reducing disease development.
The trend of lower AUDPC, and DS% in organic plots
could be due to the activity of rhizosphere microorganisms
rendering systemic antifungal activity to the foliar diseases.
Similar systemic resistance due to organic soil amendments
has been proposed by Kloepperet al (1999).
DI% of Rhizoctonia rot and Sclerotiumrot,were found to
be lower in organic plots, (Tables 7& 8). Similar reports
of the author have been published (Chhetry and Mangang,
2011). Organic amendment would be an alternative for the
management ofR. solani asit is worldwide in distribution
including uncultivated soils, and mere exclusion and
eradication were usually not effective control methods
(Abawi G.S,1989). The DI% of Sclerotiniasclerotiumcausing
fruit rot was significantly reduced in organic plot (table
9).Jhaet al (2007) too had observed the decrease in disease
incidence of sclerotinia rot of french bean with organic
amendments. The sclerotia can survive in the soil for over
five years and sclerotia in the top 10 cm of soil germinate
after exposure to cool moist conditions (Elizabeth and Kathy
2008). So soil amendment in the top layers of the soil would

definitely hinder the germination of the sclerotia as revealed
by the study. Michael Danonet al (2009) found through
molecular profiling that sclerotia of S. rolfii possibly serve as
bait for mycoparasitic fungal populations. They were of the
opinion that a consortium of antagonistic microorganisms
found in compost mycoparacitise the sclerotia. Sharma et al
(1983) reported that application of nitrogen fertilisers like
ammonium sulphate increase the fungal population whereas
FYM and NPK application increases the population of fungi,
Bacteria and actinomycetes. Stone et al2003,reported the
positive effects of compost in reducing bean rot and foliar
disease.Joshi et al (2009) also observed the reduction of
soil borne and foliar disease of french bean with organic
treatments. Thus the application of organic manure
consistently lowers the AUDPC of fungal diseases on French
bean.
V. CONCLUSION
Comparative study of the organic and conventional
treatmentsfound that there are significant reduction in
AUDPC of foliar fungal pathogens of alternaria, cercospora,
rust and powdery mildew on French bean. There is also
decrease of root rots and fruit rot in organic plots. Thus lesser
fungal damage of French bean would be expected in the
organic farms as compared with conventional farms. Lesser
disease parameters in the organic plots would mean lower
agrochemicals requirement for disease management. The
rationale behind the lower disease parameters in the organic
field could be due to the microbial interactions or it might
be due to induced systemic resistance due to organic soil
amendments as reported by other workers. From the study it
could be said with 95% confidence that significant difference
exist between organic treatment and conventional treatment
in fungal disease development of French bean.
Table 1: Characteristics of French bean varieties studied
SL.
No.
variety
Characteristics
V1
Black seed coat, string less, pole type ,medium

growth
V2
Brown seed coat, string less, pole type

,medium growth
V3
Striated seed coat, string less, pole type

,medium growth
Table 2: Diseases of French bean studied.
Sl.
No.
Disease name
Pathogen
Affected
parts
studied

18.4
18.43
20.17
29.89
28.87
28.66
0.13
0.14
0.12
18.95
18.10
19.96
28.33
29.06
28.32
0.12
0.13
0.13
0.13
4.49*
5.92*
3.58*
11.92*
8.98*
0.71

4.92*
5.81*
Table 4: Effect of organic and conventional treatment

on cercospora leaf spot
10.10
9.96
22.93
24.35
24.60
0.37
66.10
5.00
8.33
4.32
19.59
22.20
22.73
0.32
0.35
0.39
66.44
7.37
8.93
6.43
21.04
23.01
23.64
0.34
0.36
0.42
*significant at p<0.05
V
3
V
1
V
2
0.41
AUDPC
24.01
24.59
23.63 23.78
24
0.13
24.35
0.12
0.1
0.06
8.31*
12.93*
3.16*
0.53
0.01
0.06
0.12
24.01
23.86 24.02
10.82*
0.06
0.1
0.07
0.09
0.12
24.45
23.11
23.54
10.89
0.06
0.1
0.09
20.56
20.67
20.49
9.13
8.8
0.06
0.11
0.09
20.45
20.34
21.01
8.52
7.14
8.43
9.48
10.11
9.41
0.07
0.1
0.1
0.06
0.08
0.07
21.01 20.23
20.56 21.12
20.34 20.12
9.4
9.16
9.12
V
2
0.47
V
2
V
1
0.35
V
1
V
3
0.11
11.56
10.82 10.02
3.12*
11.37
8.99
32.75 38.87
AUDPC
0.39
V
3
V
2
0.34
DS%
V
1
23.58
V
2
V
3
22.48
11.16
9.12
10.64
39.26
29.32 38.36
DS%
20.61
V
1
V
2
5.00
DI%
10.55
10.15
36.96
30.24
V
1
1.54
9.96
10.25
3.57*
43.26
32.64
34.18 35.26
year
DI%
8.37
V
3
7.14
37.16
40.18 40.11
1.17
40.36
30.37
V
3
9.96
V
2
63.14
35.33
37.84 37.84
1.61
33.27
V
2
70.08
V
1
63.37
42.17
V
1
68.89
V
3
61.08
V
2
64.45
38.7
39.81 38.57
Roots
pods
3.45*
Sclerotiumrolfsii
Sclerotiniasclerotium
65.48
Sclerotinia rot
Sclerotinia fruit
rot
68.97
64.64
roots
08
Rhizoctoniasolani
09
Rhizoctonia
root rot
66.70
Table 3: Effect of organic and conventional

treatment on Alternaria leaf spot.
10
08
leaves
09
Uromycesappendiculatus
10
Rust
year
4
Treatments
leaves
Organic
Erisiphepolygoni
09
mean
3
Powdery
mildew
Convent.
leaves
10
mean
t value
Cercosporacanescens
0.07
Cercospora leaf
spot
Treatments
0.09
0.09
0.08
0.13
V
1
0.11
0.13
0.09
0.09
0.10
0.13
V
3
0.13
AUDPC
0.13
0.13
0.12
0.13
0.12
25.12
V
2
0.12
25.67
25.89
25.56
28.36
26.46
V
1
27.95
25.98
25.77
26.07
29.35
25.34
V
3
28.97
25.07
25.57
25.33
27.09
V
2
17.54
DS%
28.00
18.26
18.47
18.09
20.01
16.45
V
1
19.69
16.66
17.07
16.73
18.24
18.67
DI%
17.62
18.48
19.98
19.04
20.13
60.01
V
3
18.31
63.00
55.76
59.59
59.76
V
2
55.31
60.11
Year
Treatments
leaves
08
58.04
57.70
0.76
41.24
50.54
50.63
72.11
60.13
08
V
1
65.54
55.26
59.38
58.26
09
10
Organic
57.63
08
mean
Alternaria alternate
Organic
72.46
70.04
3.29*
58.42
09
Convent.
Alternaria leaf
spot
mean
58.10
10
58.05
mean
0.13
t value
1
treatment on powdery mildew
r
V
3
Table 6: Effect of organic and conventional treatment on rust
V
3
0.44
0.47
Mean
0.40
conventional
0.44
0.40
0.37
0.33
0.37
0.36
0.39
0.31
0.35
26.71
27.45
24.83
26.33
26.05
32.40
27.69
28.71
24.22
26.26
23.73
24.71
7.13
10.0
4.32
7.15
8.80
10.13
8.51
9.15
7.13
10.0
5.34
7.47
60.85
71.26
62.84
64.98
64.86
70.00
61.03
65.30
63.22
71.02
66.09
64.02
08
09
10

treatment on rhizoctonia root rot
year
DI%
V1
V2
V3
08
19.72
25.41
24.80
09
21.00
26.50
24.30
10
20.31
26.23
25.03
20.34
26.05
24.71
08
22.34
27.00
26.17
09
23.03
29.02
25.23
10
23.56
29.36
26.63
mean
22.98
28.46
26.01
t value
5.15*
2.99*
2.79*
Organic
mean
chemical

treatment on sclerotiumrolfsii root rot
Treatments
Organic
year
DI%
V1
V2
V3
08
5.36
3.86
8.58
09
5.93
3.52
8.21
10
5.02
2.47
8.16
5.44
3.28
8.32
08
6.35
5.29
9.32
09
6.33
5.28
10.14
10
9.36
mean
conventional
6.74
4.38
mean
6.47
4.98
9.61
t value
3.49*
3.29*
4.33*
treatment on sclerotiniasclerotium fruit rot
Treatments
5.02
7.57
1.56
09
4.96
8.34
1.91
10
4.13
8.07
2.10
4.70
7.99
1.86
08
7.27
9.14
4.12
09
7.78
9.37
4.68
10
8.45
10.18
5.20
Mean
7.83
9.56
4.67
t value
7.01*
4.05*
8.03*
REFERENCES
Treatment
08
0.42
0.13
0.36
2.94*
2.82*
2.94*
0.30
0.28
0.06
0.39
0.20
t value
0.24
conventional
mean
Organic
Year
DI%
V1
V2
V3
[1]

Abbasi ,P.A. ,Al- Dahmani, F.Sahin,H.A.J.Hoitink,

and Miller,S.A., 2002,Effect of compost amendments
on disease severity and yeild of tomato in conventional
and organic production systems. Plant dis.86:156-161
[2]

Awawi G.S, Widmer T.C.,2000, Impact of soil health

management practices on soil borne pathogens,
nematodes and root diseases of vegetable crops. Appl.
Soil Ecol. 15,37-47.
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M.G.Som, 2003, French bean, In: Vegetable crops, 3rd

Edn, New Sarda press, pp 177-277.
[4]

Bulluck,L.R., and Ristaino,J.B. 2002, Effect of

synthetic and organic soil fertility amendments on
southern blight, soil microbial communities and yeild
of processing tomatoes. Phytopathol.92,181-189.
[5] Chhetry,G.K.N. and Mangang H.C.,2011,Effect

of soil amendments on soil borne pathogens of French

bean (Phaseolus vulgaris L.) in organic farming system

in Manipur. J. of Agri. Sci. and Tech. A 1, 68-72
[6] Elizabeth Minchinton and Kathy Pullman,

Knoxfield, 1996, published as informational notes by the

Department of Primary industries, State government

of Victoria in 2008
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Godoy C. V., Solange M .T. P. G. Carneiro, Marilene

T.
Iamauti,
MaristelaDallaPria,LilianAmorim,
R.D.Berger, A.Bergamin Filho, 1997, Diagramatic
scales for bean diseases: development and validation.
J. Plant Dis. prot. 104, 336-345
[8]

Imhoff.M.W.,Main.C.E.,and Leonard.K.J,1981,Effect
of temperature,dew point and age of leaves, spores
and source of pustles on germination of bean
urediospores, phytopathology 71,577-583
[9] Jha A.K., J.P. Upadhyay, H.C. Lal, 2007, Evaluation

of organic amendment against white mold of Phaseolus

vulgaris, J. Mycol. Plant. Pathol. 37, 141-142.
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Gupta, H.S. 2009, Suppressive effects of composts on

soil-borne and foliar diseases of french bean in the

field in western Indian Himalayas, Crop prot.

28, 608-615.
[11]

Kloepper, J.W. Rodriguez-kabana, G.W.Zehnder,

Murphy, E Sikora, C.Fernandez, 1999, Plant rootbacterial interactions in biological control of soil
borne diseases and potential extension to systemic and
foliar diseases.Australian Plant Pathol. 28,21-26
[12]

Genet. and Mol. Bio. 22, 233-236.
[14] Shaner, G and Finney, R.E, 1977, The effect of nitrogen

fertilization on the expression of slow mildew resistant

to knox wheat. Phytopathol. 67, 1051-1056
[15]

Sharma,N,.Srivastava,L. L. and Mishra,B.1983,Studies

on microbial changes in soil as a result of continuous
application of fertilizers, Farmyard manure and lime.
J. soc. of soil Sci., 31,202-206
[16] Stone.A.G.,Vallad, G.E. cooperband, L.R.Rotenberg,

D. Darby, H.M. James, R.V. Stevenson, W.R., and
Michael Danon, Yonachen and Yitzhak Hader, 2010,

Ascomycetes communities associated with the
suppression of Sclerotiumrolfsiiin compost, Fungal
Eco.3, 20-30.
Goodman, R.M, 2003. Effect of organic amendments
on soil borne and foliar diseasesin field grown snap
bean and cucumber. Plant dis, 87,1037-1042.
[13] Rezende V. F., Ramalho M. A. P.and Corte H. R,1999,

Genetic control of common bean (Phaseolus vulgaris)

resistance to powdery mildew (Erysiphepolygoni),

[17] Van der plank J.E 1963.Plant disease, Analysis of

epidemics, New York, USA, Academic press. pp 230-
253.
ARBUSCULAR MYCORRHIAL FUNGI ASSOCIATED

WITH THE RHIZOSPHERIC SOIL OF POTATO PLANT
(SOLANUM TUBEROSUM)
IN BARAK VALLEY OF SOUTH ASSAM, INDIA.
Sujata Bhattacharjee* and G.D.Sharma
Department of Life Science and Bioinformatics,
Assam University, Silchar.
*Corresponding author.
E-mail : bhattacharjee.sujata819@gmail.com
ABSTRACT
Arbuscular mycorrhizal fungi (AMF) are important
components of soil microorganisms colonizing about
90% of the plants on the earth occurring in all ecological
situations. The present investigation was carried out with
an attempt to study the occurrence of AM fungi in the
rhizospheric soil of potato plants (Solanum tuberosum), one
of the major agricultural winter crops. The results revealed
the occurrence of AM fungi in all the plants studied. Spore
population and the percentage of root colonization increased
with the increase in growth of the plants. Altogether 15 AM
fungal species belonging to four genera were isolated from
the rhizospheric soil of potato plants. The four genera were
Glomus, Acaulospora, Gigaspora and Scutellospora, among
which Glomus was the most dominant genus followed by
Acaulospora.
Key Words : Arbuscular mycorrhizal fungi, Glomus, spore
population, root colonization.
I. NTRODUCTION
Arbuscular mycorrhizal fungi (AMF) are important
components of soil microorganisms that establish symbiotic
association with roots of over 90% of the land plants
(Quilambo, 2000). AM fungi are known to improve the
nutrient status of the plants, increase the growth and
development, protect the plants against pathogen and confer
resistance to drought and salinity. Utilization of mycorrhizal
bioinoculants in the cultivation of agricultural, horticultural
and medicinal plants is of recent interest. Over past few
decades, AM fungi have gained significant importance in
agriculture, horticulture and forestry (Javot et al., 2007).
Over 60% of the global diversity of AM fungi is represented
in India indicating that there is still hidden wealth of AM
fungi in India (Monoharachary et al., 2010).

Potato is one of the major agricultural crops grown in most
parts of India including Barak valley of South Assam.
Therefore, there is a need to take close look into the nature
of the natural processes that can help to produce crop of
high yield and quality with more efficient use of nutrient
inputs, reduced need for pesticides. AM fungi have got all
the potentials to improve the plant growth. Therefore, an
attempt has been taken in the present experiment to study
the association of arbuscular mycorrhizal fungi in the
rhizospheric soil of potato plants.

The study was conducted in two different potato fields in
Cachar district, Barak valley, South Assam. The Barak valley
is situated in the Southern part of Assam, India, between 23
0 N and 24 0 N latitude and between 92 0 E and 93 0 E
longitudes. The State of Assam has six agro-climatic zones
and Barak valley is one of them. Geographically, the Barak
valley is bounded by N.C. Hills to the north, Mizoram to
the south, Manipur to the east and Tripura as well as the
Sylhet district of Bangladesh to the west. The samples
were collected from two different sites namely Sonabarighat
(Site-A) and Sonai (Site-B) of Cachar district. The site A
consisted of clay loam soil and the site B consisted of sandy
loam soil. The soil of both the fields was acidic throughout
sampling period.
Five plants were selected from each field. Potato is a winter
crop and the sampling started from the month of November
and continued upto February. The sample consisting of roots
and soils were collected from the rhizospheric region of the
plants using sterile polythene bags. AM spores were isolated
from each soil sample using wet sieving and decanting

techniques of Gerdemann and Nicolson (1963). AM spores

were counted under microscope. Spores were mounted in
Poly vinyl lacto phenol (PVL) on glass slides for microscopic
observation and were identified using the keys of Morton and
Benny (1990) and http://www.invam.caf.wvu.edu/. The roots
were washed several times in tap water and cut into pieces
of 1cm length. The roots were processed following Trypan
blue method (Philips and Hayman, 1970). Evaluation of root
colonization was done following grid line intersect method
(Giovannetti and Mosse, 1980). The root colonization was
calculated using the formula
Table 2 : Am Fungal Species Isolated From

The Rhizospheric Soil Of Site A And Site B
Serial
No.
AM Fungal Specis
Site A
Site B
Acaulospora
scrobiculata
Acaulospora specis
1
Acaulospora specis
2
Gigaspora gilmorie
Glomus
aggretgatum
Glomus coronatum
Glomus
fasciculatum
Glomus intradices
Glomus
microcarpum
III. RESULTS AND DISCUSSIONS
10
Glomus mosseae
The data on the soil physicochemical parameters, percent

root colonization and AM spore population are presented
in the table1 and distributions of AM fungal species are
presented in the table 2.
11
Glomus specis 1
12
Glomus specis 2
13
Glomus specis 3
14
Glomus specis 4
15
Scutellospora rubra
=
% Root Colonization
No.segments colonized with VAM

100
Total no.of segments observed
The soil samples were analyzed for different physical

properties. Soil pH was determined using electronic digital
pH meter. The soil moisture content was estimated following
oven dry technique (Allen, 1974). Spectrophotometric
method (Bray and Kurtz, 1945) was followed for estimation
of available phosphorus.
Spore population
(per 50 g soil)
Site B
55
90
100
110
135
80
Site A
48
57
65
%Root colonization
(mean of 5 plants)
Site B
35
Site A
70
45
11
33
52
65
10.5
10
9.0
40
Phosphorus (Kgha1)
Site A
Site B
9.5
9.5
11
12
Site B
Sandy loam
Clay loam
10
12
12
13
Site A
Soil Texture
Moisture content
(%)
Site B
Site A
14
11
12
13
pH
Site B
4.8
4.8
5.0
4.7
Site A
4.7
4.5
4.8
4.7
January
February
December
November
Sampling months
Table 1. Soil Physico-Chemical Parameters,

Root Colonization And Spore Population In Two Sites A And B.

The results revealed the association of AM fungi in the

roots and vicinity of potato plants in both sites. AM Spore
population and percent root colonization exhibited lowest
value in the seedling phase, gradually increased from
the seedling phase and attained maximum value at the
time of harvesting on the month of February. Percent root
colonization by AM fungi ranged from 33% to 65% in the site
A and from 35% to 70% in the site B. AM spore population
ranged from 50 to 110 (50-1g soil) in the site A and 54 to 125
in the site B. Altogether, 15 AM fungal species were isolated
from both the sites during sampling periods (table 2). Among
these, 13 species were common to both sites.
All the potato plants studied during sampling periods
harboured AM fungi. Arbuscular mycorrhizal fungi are
world wide in distribution and have been found associated
with numerous plant species including many economically
important plant species (Gerdemann, 1968). The results might
also indicated that the plants were actively interacting with
the soil to promote establishment of mycorrhizal symbiosis
for nutritional purposes (Hartmann et al., 2009).The two sites
exhibited slight variation in spore population, percent root
colonization and in the distribution of AM fungal species
which may be attributed to soil physicochemical parameters.
Variation in spore population during different sampling
months may also be due to the fact that different AM fungal

species sporulate during different times of the year (Mangan
et al., 2004). The highest degree of colonization of annual
crops during the harvesting period may have a possible
explanation of increasing the requirements of nutrients and
water at this stage (She et al., 2007).
Glomus was found dominant genus in the present study
comprising 67% of the total number of species. The
dominance of the genus Glomus over other genus may be
attributed to the fact that these are most wide spread fungi.
Daniell et al.( 2001) suggested that Glomus may have the
ability to recolonize roots from the mycelial fragments
rapidly. Under Indian situation it has been observed that
species representing the genus Glomus was dominant
(Monoharachary et al., 2010). The dominance of Glomus
over other genera in three rice fields of Barak valley has also
been reported (Bhattacharjee and Sharma, 2011).
REFERENCES
[1] Allen, S.E., 1974. Chemical analysis of ecological

materials. Blackwell scientific Publications, New
Delhi.
[2]

Bhattacharjee, S., and Sharma, G. D., 2011. The

Vesicular Arbuscular Mycorrhiza associated with
three cultivars of Rice (Oryza sativa L.). Indian J
Microbiol. 51(3): 377-383.
[3]

Daniell, T.J., Husband, R., Fitter, A.H., and Young,

J.P.W., 2001. Molecular diversity of arbuscular
mycorrhizal fungi colonizing arable crops. FEMS
Microbiol Ecol. 36:203-209.
[4] Hartmann, A., Schmid, M., van Tuinea, D., Berg,

G.,2009. Plant-driven selection of microbes. Plant

Soil. 321: 235-257.
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Javot, H., Pumplin, N., an Gerdemann, J.W., and

Nicolson, T. H., 1963. Spores of mycorrhizal
Endogone extracted from soil by wet sieving and
decanting. Transactions of the British Mycological
Society. 46:235-244.
[6]

Monoharachary, C., Kunwar, I.K., Tilak, K.V.B.R.,

and Adholeya. A., 2010. Arbuscular mycorrhizal
fungi- taxonomy, diversity, conservation and
multiplication. National Academy of Sciences, India.
Sec.-B, 80: 1-13.
[7]

Morton, J.B. and Benny, G.L., 1990. Revised

classification of arbuscular mycorrhizal fungi
(Zygomycetes): A new order, Glomales, two new
suborder Glomineae and Gigasporinae and two new
families Acaulosporaceae and Gigasporaceae with an
emendation of Glomaceae. Mycotaxon 37: 471-491.
[8]

Quilambo,O.A., 2000. Functioning of peanut (Arachis

hypogeal.) under nutrient deficiency and drought stress
in relation to symbiotic associations. Ph.D.thesis.
University of Groningen. ISBN 903671284X.
[9]

Gerdemann, J.W., and Nicolson, T. H., 1963. Spores

of mycorrhizal Endogone extracted from soil by
wet sieving and decanting. Transactions of the British
Mycological Society. 46:235-244.
[10] Gerdemann, J.W., 1968. Vesicular arbuscular

mycorrhiza and plant growth. Ann. Rev. Phytopathol.

6: 397-418.
[11] Giovannetti, M., and Mosse, B., 1980. An evaluation

of techniques for measuring vesicular arbuscular

mycorrhizal infection in roots. New Phytol. 84: 489-500.
[12]

Mangan, S. A.,Eom, A-H., Adler, G. H., Yavitt, J.

Herre, E. A., 2004. Diversity of arbuscular mycorrhizal
fungi across a fragmented forest in Panama: insular
spore communities differ from mainland communities.
Oecologia. 141: 687-700.
[13]

Phillips, J.M., and Hayman, D.J., 1970. Improved

procedures for clearing and staining parasitic and
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Mycological Society. 55: 158- 161.
[14]

Shi, Z.Y., Zhang, L.Y., Li, X.L.,Feng, G., Tian, C.Y.,

and Christie, P. 2007. Diversity of arbuscular
mycorrhizal fungi associated with desert ephemerals
in plant communities of Junggar Basin, north west
China. Applied soil ecology. 35: 10-20.


BIODIVERSITY AND CONSERVATION

STRATEGIES OF HOME GARDEN CROPS IN MANIPUR
A Premila1 and GKN Chhetry2
Department of Botany, Standard College, Imphal1,
Department of Life Sciences, Manipur University, Canchipur, Imphal2
Corresponding author E-mail: apremiladevi45@gmail.com
ABSTRACT
Home gardens in Manipur are organically managed gardens
for the cultivation of variety of seasonal vegetables and
other kitchen linked crops throughout the year by every
household in the hills and plains for sequential production
of vegetable crops. These traditionally managed varieties
of vegetable crops are organic manure based prepared
using produced using indigenous methods. Diversity of
vegetable crops in home gardens include range of annual and
perennial vegetables, oil yielding plants, common cereals
in low scale and some traditional millets, fruits, medicinal
plants, aromatic plants and other pest pathogen repellent
plants, spicy crops etc. for ready consumption in the
household. These crops are sequentially grown coinciding
to the respective season for each crop and manage through
traditional techniques using mulching, compost manuring
of domesticated animals and other which are ecofriendly.
Diversity of crops and their management strategies including
management of pest pathogen in the homestead garden as
well as in the storage are inventoried in length and discussed
in detail with special emphasis on Indigenous Knowledge
and Traditional Ecological Knowledge of organic home
gardeners of Manipur.
Keywords: Home garden crops, Indigenous Knowledge,
Traditional
Ecological
Knowledge,
Biodiversity
Conservation, etc.
I. NTRODUCTION
India, being an agricultural country where majority of the
rural people reserve certain percentage of their agricultural
land for the cultivation of variety of crops related to kitchen
use around their homes as home garden crops for perennial
source of vegetables. North east India inhabited by various
ethnic communities maintain unique vegetable gardens for
a perennial source of vegetables, pulses, spices, oil yielding
plants including location specific fruits such as pineapple,
pomegranate, papaya etc. besides maintaining far flung
jhum land crops in hills and fertile paddy field in valley.
Biodiversity being a hot topic, well researched, discussed

and documented by many in the state, region, country and
the world as a whole (Fernandes and Nair, 1986; Myers et.al.,
2000; Das and Das, 2005) but not much about the biodiversity
of home garden crops. Further, diversity of edible and pest
pathogen repellent crops maintained and preserved by every
household of rural masses reflecting their indigenous culture
and tradition represent significant component of agricultural
biodiversity of crops grown without interference from
modern chemicals including fertilizers, pesticides etc. in
the form of home garden crops. As such, humble attempt is
being made to document the diversity of home garden crops
and its conservation strategies followed by the indigenous
farmers in Manipur hills and valley in particular.

Multistage random sampling technique was followed
considering a block in a district and a village in a block is
selected and a sample of five villages from each block was
randomly selected in four valley districts namely Imphal East,
Imphal West, Thoubal and Bishnupur of Manipur. Monthly
survey was conducted to synchronize the availability of
crops to these selected villages and interacted with the home
gardeners as to the cultivation practices, organic maintenance
of home garden crops, inputs of homemade organic fertilizers,
sequence of crops grown followed by outputs of crops for use
from their gardens. Inventory of diversity of crops including
border crops of randomly selected home gardens of random
villages was listed in detail in order to reflect the diversity
of home garden crops and their conservation strategies of
indigenous people.
III. RESULT
As many as 28 vegetable crops meant for the consumption
of green vegetables were found in a typical home garden
maintained by home gardeners in Manipur valley (Table 1).
Vegetables belonging to Cucurbitaceae and Brassicaceae

were more followed by Solanaceae and Malvaceae and many

other families numbering as many as eight were found in
different seasons- Spring (March to May), Summer (June
to August), Autumn (September to November) and Winter
(December to February). Spring and summer seasons
contributed highest number (48 each) of plant species
whereas winter season listed lowest number (46 each) of
plant species.
Crop under pulses is also important home garden crops in
Manipur valley which are as many as ten under the family
Fabaceae. Of these, Phaseolus vulgaris, commonly called
French bean is grown throughout the year. A typical home
garden also found to have a number of oil yielding crops
which are as many as six belonging to five families. Spicy
crop is another important home garden crop of which Allium
ascalonium is an indigenous variety cultivated by home
gardeners for multiple uses throughout the year. As many
as sixteen spicy crops are found in a typical Meetei home
garden in the rural areas of Manipur valleys.
As the home garden crops are organically managed, certain
medicinal/ pest pathogen and insect repellent plant as many as
thirteen were found in the biodiversity of home garden crops.
Vitamin yielding plants such as fruits numbering eighteen
were found in a typical home garden which is usually grown
in the periphery of the garden. Plants of aesthetic value
which includes flowers of different varieties are also found
in backyard and surroundings of home garden. Interestingly,
indigenous home gardeners grow some crops as border crops
that include typical bamboo species, banana plants, etc.
The percentage contribution of these home garden crops
represented in a pi diagram (Fig. 1) showed maximum
contribution by vegetables (25.22%) followed by fruits
(16.21%), spicy crops (13.51%), medicinal plants (11.71%),
flowers (11.71%), pulses (9.01%), border plants (7.21%) and
least by oil yielding plants (5.4%) etc.
Indigenous farmers for that matter home gardener conserved
and preserved gene banks of home garden crops since
generations and managed the same in their indigenous way
in pure form. As these traditionally preserved home garden
seed banks are well adapted to natural way of farming i.e.
organic farming, indigenous home gardeners followed
specific conservation strategies of these crops by way of
organic methods only. As such, they are afraid of using
modern chemicals either as fertilizers for plant nutrients or
pesticides/ fungicides for protection of crops against pest
pathogens. Instead they conserved and managed their home
gardens through the use of homemade organic manures and
by growing pest pathogen repellent crops in the periphery
of the home gardens which not only repels the attack of pest
pathogens but also protects the crops from other domestic
animals. This unique strategy followed by organic home
P 46

Vol - I l No- I l January-June2013
gardeners are ecofriendly and sustainable for use at the

household level.
IV. DISCUSSION
Research on biodiversity related to home garden crops is
very much limited to few workers in the field. Only astray
information about the biodiversity of home garden crops is
available from this region. Das and Das, 2005 opined that
home garden are conservation site of large number of crops
and reported as many as 122 crops from a typical home garden
in a Barak valley of Assam whereas Chhetry and Belbahri,
2009 reported certain pest pathogen repellent home garden
crops managed by the people of North East India. These
two papers provided the benchmark information related to
the biodiversity and conservation strategies of home garden
crops in North East India. Interestingly, home garden crops
are managed organically using available plant resources
as mulching material, preparation of organic manures,
preparation of biopesticides, etc. which are ecofriendly
and ecologically sustainable practices. They make use
of available plant resources which act as pest pathogen
repellent for the temporary storage of home garden crops
free from insect pest and pathogen by growing a number
of pest pathogen and insect repellent medicinal plants. This
indigenous technique for the production of home garden
crop is mandatory for the home gardeners as they not only
afford costly modern chemicals but also afraid of losing the
traditional genetic materials due to application of chemicals.
Moreover, they are scared of health related diseases due
to the consumption of chemical used home garden crops
because they cannot afford the costly medicines if at all they
suffer from health related diseases due to chemical residues.
Consciousness about the importance of home garden crops
being realized by international communities primarily for
the reason that home garden crops are purely organic, healthy
and fresh vegetables for day to day consumption have been
emphasized in the paper by Fernandes and Nair, 1986 which
corroborates the findings in this paper.
V. ACKNOWLEDGEMENT
The first author is thankful to UGC, New Delhi for financial
assistance and to Principal, Standard College, Imphal for
laboratory facilities.
Table 1: Diversity of crops in a typical home garden in Manipur Valley.
Scientific/Botanical
name
Family name
Local name
Vegetables
1
Amaranthus spinosus
Amaranthaceae
Chengkruk
Amorphophallus
companulatus
Araceae
Haopaan
Benincasa hispida
Cucurbitaceae
Torbot
Brassica oleracea var.

botrytis
Brassicaceae
Kobi
Thamchetmanbi
Arachis hypogaea
Fabaceae
Leibaak Hawai

capitata
Brassicaceae
Kobi ful
Brassica campestris
Brassicaceae
Hanggaam
Glycine max
Fabaceae
Noong Hawai

gemmifera
Brassicaceae
Kobi Ukabi
Helianthus annus
Asteraceae
Numit Lei
Ricinus communis
Euphorbiaceae
Kege
Chenopodium album
Chenopodiaceae Monsaobi
Sesamum indicum
Labiatae
Thoiding
Colocasia esculenta
Araceae
Paan
Cucumis sativus
Cucurbitaceae
Thabi
10
Cucurbita pepo
Cucurbitaceae
Mairel
11
Daucus carota
Apiaceae
Gaajar
Allium cepa
Liliaceae
Tilhou
12
Dioscorea bulbifera
Dioscoreaceae
Lamhaaa
A. ascalonium
Liliaceae
13
Hibiscus cannabinus
Malvaceae
Sougri
Meitei Tilhou
macha
14
H. esculenthus
Malvaceae
Bhelendri
A. hookerii
Liliaceae
Maroinaapaakpi
15
H. sabdariffa
Malvaceae
Shilosougri
A. odorosum
Liliaceae
Maroinaakuppi
16
Ipomoea batatas
Convolvulaceae
Mangraa
A. sativum
Liliaceae
Chanam
17
Lagenaria siceraria
Cucurbitaceae
Khongdrum
Capsicum annum
Solanaceae
Morok
18
Luffa cylindrical
Cucurbitaceae
Sebot
Cinnamomum tamala
Lauraceae
Tejpaat
Solanaceae
Khamenasinba
Coriandrum sativum
Apiaceae
Phadigom
19
Lycopersicum
esculentum
20
Momordica
cochinchinensis
Cucurbitaceae
21
M. charantia
Cucurbitaceae
Curcuma cyminum
Apiaceae
Jeeraa
Kaarot
10
Curcuma domestica
Zingiberaceae
Yaingang
11
Eryngium foetidum
Asteraceae
Awaaphadigom
Kaarot Akhaabi
12
Houttuynia cordata
Saururaceae
Toningkhok
13
Ocimum americanum
Labiatae
Mayaangton
14
Trigonella foenum
graecum
Fabaceae
Methi
15
Xanthoxylum alatum
Rutaceae
Mukthroobi
16
Zingiber officinale
Zingiberaceae
Shing
22
Polygonum barbatum
Polygonaceae
Yellaang
23
P. chinense
Polygonaceae
Angom Yensil
24
Plumbago indica
Plumbaginaceae
Kengoi
Raphanus sativus
Brassicaceae
Hanggaam
Mulaa
26
Sechium edule
Cucurbitaceae
Daskush
27
Solanum melongena
Solanaceae
Khaamen
28
S. tuberosum
Solanaceae
Alu
25
Spicy crops
Medicinal /Pest pathogen & insect repellent plants

1
Pulses
Acorus calamus
Araceae
Okhidaak
Adhatoda vasica
Acanthaceae
Nongmaangkhaa
Azadirachta indica
Meliaceae
Neem
Cajanas cajan
Fabaceae
Mairongbi
Blumea balsamifera
Compositae
Langthrei
Cicer arietinum
Fabaceae
Chanaa
Datura stramonium
Solanaceae
Sagolhidaak
Dolichos biflorus
Fabaceae
Ngaakrijou
Maanbi
Leucas aspera
Labiatae
Mayaang
Lemboom
D. lablab
Fabaceae
Hawai Uree
Mentha arvensis
Labiatae
Nungshi Hidaak
Phaseolus calcaratus
Fabaceae
Chaakhawai
Meriandra strobilifera
Labiatae
Kaanghumaan
P. lunatus
Fabaceae
Kaalandri
M. bengalensis
Labiatae
Lomba
P. mungo
Fabaceae
Sagolhawai
10
Ocimum americanum
Labiatae
Tulsi Amuba
P. vulgaris
Fabaceae
Koli Hawai
11
O. gratissimum
Labiatae
Raamtulsi
Pisum sativum
Fabaceae
Hawai Tharaak
12
O. sanctum
Labiatae
Tulsi
10
Vicia faba
Fabaceae
Hawaimubi
Solanum indicum
Solanaceae
Leipung
Khaanga
Oil yielding crops
13
Fruits

P 47
Brucia javanica
Simaroubaceae
Heining
Carica papaya
Caricaceae
Awaathabi
Citrus lemon
Rutaceae
Champraa
C. maxima
Rutaceae
Nobaab
C. medica
Rutaceae
Heijaang
Elaeocarpus floribundus Elaeocarpaceaz
Chorphon
Eugenia janbolana
Myrtaceae
Jaam
Mangifera indica
Anacardiaceae
Heinou
Passiflora edulis
Passifloraceae
Sitaaphal
10
Phyllanthus acidu s
Euphorbiaceae
Gihori
11
P. emblica
Euphorbiaceae
Heikru
12
Prunus armeniaca
Rosaceae
Malhei
13
P. domestica
Rosaceae
Heikhaa
14
P. persica
Rosaceae
Choombrei
15
Psidium guajava
Myrtaceae
Pungtol
16
Punica granatum
Punicaceae
Kaphoi
17
Vitis vinifera
Vitaceae
Anggoor
18
Ziziphus auritiana
Rhamnaceae
Boroi
Home garden border crops

1
Adhatoda vasica
Acanthaceae
Nongmangkha
Arundo donax
Poaceae
Yenthou
Bamboosa tulda
Poaceae
Waa
Canna indica
Cannaceae
Laphurit
Manihot esculenta
Euphorbiaceae
U-Manggra
Morus australis
Moraceae
Kaabrangchaak
Musa paradisiacal
Mimosaceae
Laphu
Parkia roxburghii
Mimosaceae
Yongchaak
Fig. 1: Percentage contribution by different categories of crops
Flowers/ ornamental/ scenic plants

1
Callistemon lanceolatus
Myrtaceae
Liklilei
Chrysanthemum
coronarium
Compositae
Chandramukhi
Clitoria ternatea
Fabaceae
Aparajitaa
Gardenia florida
Rubiaceae
Kaboklei
Hedychium coronarium
Zingiberaceae
Takhellei
Angouba
H. marginatum
Zingiberaceae
Takhellei
Angangba
Hibiscus rosa chinensis
Malvaceae
Jubaakusum
Jasminum pubescens
Oleaceae
Kundo
Michelia champaca
Magnoliaceae
Leihao
10
Nerium indicum
Apocynaceae
Kabirei Angouba
N. oleander
Apocynaceae
Kabirei
Angangba
5
6
11
P 48
12
Rosa indica
Rosaceae
Aatorgulab
13
Tagetes erecta
Compositae
Sanaarei

VI. REFERENCES
[1]

Chhetry, G.K.N. and Belbahri, L. (2009). Indigenous

pest and disease management practices in traditional
farming systems in North East India- a review. J. of
Plant Breeding and Crop Science. 1(3): 28-38.
[2] Das, T. and Das, A.K. (2005) Inventorying plant

biodiversity in home gardens : A case study in Barak

Valley, Assam, North-East India. Curr. Sci. 98 : 155-163.
[3] Fernandes, E.C.M. and Nair, P.K.R. (1986). An

evaluation of the structure and function of tropical

home gardens. Agric. Syst. 21 : 279-310.
[4] Myers, N., Mittermeir, R.A., Mittermeier, C.G., da

Fonseca, G.A. and Kent, J. (2000). Biodiversity

hotspots for conservation priorities. Nature. 403:853-856.
METABOLIC PATHWAYS: A REVIEW

Daizy Deb
Rhythm Upadhyaya
Department of Information Technology

Assam University, Silchar,India
E-mail : daizydeb@rediffmail.com

Assam University, Silchar, India
E-mail : rhythmupadhyaya@ymail.com
ABSTRACT
of chemical reactions. Each metabolic pathway consists of

a series of biochemical reactions that are connected by their
intermediates: the products of one reaction are the substrates
for subsequent reactions, and so on. Metabolic pathways
are often considered to flow in one direction. Although all
chemical reactions are technically reversible, conditions in
the cell are often such that it is thermodynamically more
favorable for flux to flow in one direction of a reaction. For
example, one pathway may be responsible for the synthesis
of a particular amino acid, but the breakdown of that amino
acid may occur via a separate and distinct pathway. One
example of an exception to this rule is the metabolism of
glucose. Glycolysis results in the breakdown of glucose, but
several reactions in the glycolysis pathway are reversible and
participate in the re-synthesis of glucose (gluconeogenesis).
Metabolic regulation is the process by which all cellsfrom bacteria to humans-control the chemical processes
necessary for life. Metabolism is organized into complex,
step-dependent reactions called
Metabolic Pathways.
Metabolic pathways are an essential key to the systemic
behavior of biological cells. Metabolic pathways can be
viewed a process forming an intricate network of functional
and physical interactions between molecular species in the
cell. The amount of information available on such pathways
for different organisms is increasing very rapidly. This is
offering the possibility of performing various analyses on the
structure of the full network of pathways for one organism
as well as across different organisms, and has therefore
generated interest in developing databases for storing and
managing this information. This paper focuses on the various
aspects of Metabolic Pathways.
Index Terms : Metabolic Pathways, Systems Biology,
Bioinformatics, Gene Knockout, Wild Type ,Databases
I. NTRODUCTION
Metabolic Pathways are series of chemical reactions
occurring within a cell. The emergence and evolution of
metabolic pathways represented a crucial step in molecular
and cellular evolution In [1] the rst attempt to explain
in detail the origin of metabolic pathways was made by
Horowitz[1] , who based this on two pieces of work. The rst
was the primordial soup hypothesis and the second was the
one-to-one correspondence between genes and enzymes.
Horowitz suggested that biosynthetic enzymes had been
acquired via gene duplication that took place in the reverse
order found in current pathways. This idea, also known as the
Retrograde hypothesis, has intuitive appeal and states that if
the contemporary biosynthesis of compound A requires
the sequential transformations of precursors D, C and
B via the corresponding enzymes, the nal product A of
a given metabolic route was the rst compound used . In each
pathway [20], a principal chemical is modified by a series
Another major example of metabolic pathways include

Photosynthesis. It is a process used by plants and other
organisms to convert the light energy captured from the sun
into chemical energy that can be used to fuel the organisms
activities. Photosynthesis occurs in plants, algae, and many
species of bacteria, but not in archaea. Photosynthetic
organisms are called photoautotrophs, since they can create
their own food. The main equation is as follows:
Some more examples of metabolic pathways include

Phosphorylation, Krebs Cycle etc. Metabolic pathways
are often regulated by feedback inhibition Some metabolic
pathways flow in a cycle wherein each component of the

P 49
cycle is a substrate for the subsequent reaction in the cycle,

such as in the Krebs Cycle.
II. PATHWAY DATABASES

A pathway database is an effort to handle the current
knowledge of biochemical pathways and in addition can be
used for interpretation of sequence data. There are several
databases on metabolic pathways, such as KEGG (genes,
enzymes, metabolic reactions) , EMP (enzymes, pathways)
and WIT (metabolic pathway reconstruction), EcoCyc
(metabolic pathways, E.coli) and MetaCyc (metabolic
pathways of other organisms), aMAZE , CSNDB, PathDB,
UM-BBD, SHARKdb etc. The BIND database contains
information on interactions that take part in signal
transduction pathways. An analysis and comparison of
these databases can be found in [13] In most databases the
information is represented in a (simple) relational form. The
quality of the underlying relational data model is important
for the extraction of suitable information for analysing the
networks. Some Important Metabolic Pathway Databases are
discussed below.
2.1 KEGG (KYTO ENCYCLOPEDIA OF GENES AND
GENOMES):
It is a database [20]resource for understanding high-level
functions and utilities of the biological system, such as
the cell, the organism and the ecosystem, from molecularlevel information, especially large-scale molecular datasets
generated by genome sequencing and other high-throughput
experimental technologies . The KEGG resource (http://
www.genome.jp/kegg/) is a knowledge base of building
blocks in the genomic space (KEGG GENES), chemical
space (KEGG LIGAND), and reaction space (KEGG
PATHWAY).
III. TOOLS FOR METABOLIC PATHWAYS

Pathway tool is a comprehensive software environment that
supports construction of organism specific databases called
Pathway Genome Databases(PGDBS). In [12]Pathway
Tools functionality includes Prediction, editing, querying,
and visualization of metabolic pathways.Querying, editing,
and visualization of metabolic reactions and metabolites.
Generation of metabolic map diagram and of metabolic map
poster. Now, the following are some tools for metabolic
pathways:
3.1 RAHNUMA:
Hypergraph based tool for metabolic pathway prediction and
network comparision.Rahnuma for prediction and analysis of
metabolic pathways and comparison of metabolic networks.
Rahnuma represents metabolic networks as hypergraphs
and computes all possible pathways between two or more
metabolites. It provides an intuitive way to answer biological
questions focusing on differences between organisms or the
evolution of different species by allowing pathway-based
metabolic network comparisons at an organism as well as at
a phylogenetic level.
3.2ARCADIA:
It is a database [20] of nonredundant, experimentally

elucidated metabolic pathways.MetaCyc contains over
900 pathways from more than 900 different organisms.It is
curated from the scientific experimental literature. MetaCyc
pathways can be browsed from the web, via ontologies or
queried programmatically using Java or PERLwhen installed
locally( http://metacyc.org/).
A visualization tool for metabolic pathways.It has been

designed specifically to provide relevant visualization
options for metabolic pathways. Arcadia is a viewer, not
an editor this means a simpler interface, offering multiple
perspectives on the same data,with a focus on navigation.
As a light weight,standalone component, Arcadia is easy
to deploy and maintain. In order to ensure interoperability
with other lots, an ffort is made to support existing or
emerging standards such as SBML(Systen Biology Mark Up
Language) or SBGN(System Biology Graphical Notation).
2.3 ECOCYC:
3.2.1FEATURES OF ARCADIA:
2.2 METACYC:
This database [5] describes the genome and gene products

of Escherichia coli. The database describes 4391 genes of
E.coli, 695 enzymes encoded by a subset of these genes, 904
metabolic reactions that occur in E.coli, and the organization
P 50
of these reactions into 129 metabolic pathways. The

EcoCyc graphical user interface allows scientists to query
and explore the EcoCyc database using visualization tools
such as genomic-map browsers and automatic layouts of
metabolic pathways. EcoCyc has many references to the
primary literature, and is a (qualitative) computational model
of E.coli metabolism. EcoCyc is available at URL(http://
ecocyc.PangeaSystems.com/ecocyc/).

1. Enables
navigation
between
multiple

interconnected views of the same model.
2. Sorted lists of reactions and biochemical species.
3. Detailed properties of selected elements.

4. Graphic representations of the whole network.
5. Local Maps for groups of neighbouring molecules.
3.3 UTOPIA:
An open source, interoperable set of desktop tools for protein
analysis, built according to the model/view/controller pattern.
3.4 PW COMP:
In [7] A graph comparative metabolic pathway tool.Along
with the recent explosion of available genetic sequence
information for a variety of organisms, there has been
a similar increase in the information available related
to the functional roles of proteins in metabolism. Many
databases exist that provide rich sources of information for
the constituent genes and reactions in the metabolisms of
many organisms. This information has the potential to lead
to more insight into the functional mechanisms of cellular
metabolism. By developing a flexible method for comparing
metabolic processes among different organisms, new
insight into their functional mechanisms and evolutionary
relationships may be uncovered. PWComp provides an
interface for users to investigate the similarity between
metabolic pathways contained in the BioCyc database. It
implements the graph comparative algorithm described
by Heymans that computes a similarity score using the
similarity between nodes of the metabolic graph and the
structure of the nodes connections. PWComp consists of
three major components, each written in java: (i) A set of
data structures that contain information about the pathways
and their constituent components (ii) a computational engine
that executes the Heymans Algorithm, and (iii) a GUI that
allows the user to navigate the database of information and
the similarity measurements between pathways.
3.5 ELEMENTARY MODE ANALYSIS:
In [18] A useful metabolic pathway analysis tool for
characterizing cellular metabolism.Useful metabolic pathway
analysis tool to identify the structure of a metabolic network
that links the cellular phenotype to the corresponding
genotype.
3.6 KATSURA:
In [13] KEGG pathway analysis and expression analysis It
overlays microarray gene expression data, proteomics and
similar biological data onto metabolic pathways.
3.7 PATHWAY HUNTER TOOL:
In [15] Pathway hunter tool is a fast ,robust and user friendly

tool to analyse the shortest path analysis for one or more
organisms or can build virtual organisms(networks) using
eenzymes,using pathway hunter tool,the user can calculate
the average shortest path, average alternate paths and the top
hubs in the metabolic networks.
IV. SOME YEAR-WISE WORKS

1991: In [2] Yogurt and similar fermented milk products
have been very popular for a long time. yogurt can be used
legally only to designate the product resulting from milk
fermentation brought about exclusively with 2 thermophilic
lactic acid bacteria, Streptococcus and Lactobacillus, which
must be found alive in the final product of yogurt . We review
here recent data on some of the metabolic and biochemical
aspects of these starter bacteria in relation to yogurt
manufacture. Metabolic pathways of lactose, glucose and
galactose utilization. interaction between yogurt bacteria is
a good example of integrated metabolism in a mixed culture
of lactic acid bacteria, but our knowledge of stimulation is
still incomplete. Studies have led to a better understanding
of sorne metabolic and biochemical aspects of these bacteria
that control their growth, especially in mixed cultures. For
instance, lactose and galactose metabolism have been weil
studied at both the biochemical and molecular levels. the
characterization of inhibitory substances which may be
produced would be very useful (a)for a better understanding
of the relationship between the yogurt bacteria, and (b)
for their action on other micro-organisms associated with
yogurt bacteria for the manufacture of several fermented
milk products.Finally, progress in genetic studies should
contribute to better knowledge on the yogurt bacteria and
their growth and activity in milk.
1999: In [15] There have been recent advances in metabolic
flux analysis. In particular, the marriage of traditional flux
balancing with NMR isotopomer distribution analysis holds
great promise for the detailed quantification of physiology.
Nevertheless, flux analysis yields only static snap-shots
of metabolism. To robustly predict the time evolution
of metabolic networks, dynamic mathematical models,
especially those that contain a description of both gene
expression as well as enzyme activity, must be utilized.
When mechanistic control and regulatory information is not
available, heuristic-based methods, such as the cybernetic
framework, can be employed to describe the action of
these control mechanisms. In the high-information future,
as more biological information becomes available, such
heuristic-based approaches can be replaced by mechanistic
mass-action representations of physiology that stem directly
from genetic sequence.

P 51
2000: In [16] We have studied the metabolic behavior and

capabilities of E. coli MG1655 in silico and formulated
experiments that directly test the optimal growth of E.
coli. For the considered growth conditions, quantitative
predictions of the substrate and oxygen uptake rates,
byproduct secretion rates, and cellular growth rates were
obtained. Two metabolic fluxes corresponding to the
substrate uptake rate (acetate/succinate and oxygen uptake)
and the growth flux were chosen to define the threedimensional phenotype phase surface. Under the examined
growth conditions, the hypothesis that E. coli optimizes its
growth rate subject to systemic capacity and stoichiometric
constraints was consistent with the experimental data. Thus,
for the growth conditions considered, it was possible to
use an in silico metabolic reconstruction to quantitatively
interpret metabolic physiology.The in silico approach
utilized is a departure from traditional approaches to the
detailed modeling of physicochemical systems.
2001: In [9] The large volume of genome-scale data that
is being produced and made available in databases on the
World Wide Web is demanding the development of integrated
mathematical models of cellular processes. The analysis
of reconstructed metabolic networks as systems leads to
the development of an in silico or computer representation
of collections of cellular metabolic constituents, their
interactions and their integrated function as a whole. The
use of quantitative analysis methods to generate testable
hypotheses and drive experimentation at a whole-genome
level signals the advent of a systemic modeling approach to
cellular and molecular biology.
2004 : In [4] the post-genomic era, several profiling tools have
been developed to provide a more comprehensive picture of
tumour development and progression. The global analysis
of metabolites, such as by mass spectrometry and highresolution 1H nuclear magnetic resonance spectroscopy, can
be used to define the metabolic phenotype of cells, tissues or
organisms. These metabolomic approaches are providing
important information about tumorigenesis, revealing new
therapeutic targets and will be an important component of
automated diagnosis.
2002 : In [19] MOMA is an additional option, based
on a simple hypothesis about the response to metabolic
alterations. This approach seems especially relevant for
analyzing gene deletions, but its possible future extensions
could help understand metabolic networks for a wider range
of perturbations.
2005 : In[14] We introduced ROOM as a model for
predicting the steady-state behavior of metabolic networks in
response to gene knockouts and compared its accuracy with
FBA and MOMA. We find that MOMA provides accurate
P 52

predictions for transient growth rates, observed during the

early postperturbation state, whereas ROOM and FBA
more successfully predict final steady-state growth rates.
Consequently, both ROOM and FBA provide more accurate
lethality predictions. ROOM is shown to provide more
accurate flux predictions than FBA and MOMA for the final
metabolic steady state.Additional work is required to find
metrics that better approximate the complex adaptation of
the metabolic network after the knockout and to understand
their possible biological consequences.
2010 : In [17] Metabolic pathway analysis of the essential
proteins in Staphylococcus aureus done by KEGG Automatic
Annotation Server(KAAS). A result of comparative analysis
of the metabolic pathways of the host and pathogen by using
the Kyoto Encyclopedia of Genes and Genomes (KEGG)
pathway database reveals some pathways that are unique
to Staphylococcus aureus and are not present in the humans
like D-Alanine metabolism, Peptidoglycan biosynthesis,
Phosphotransferase system (PTS), Bacterial secretion system
and Two-component system . This small group of proteins is
required to be further verified for their role in Staphylococcus
aureus survival and virulence by mutagenesis study. Further
we analyze our essential enzymes of DEG database result
against the drug bank database, and we identified about 8
approved drug target and 24 small molecule drug target.
2008 : In [15] The method based on decomposition of a
stoichiometric matrix of metabolic pathways provides
us a wide variety of information for comprehending the
complex topology of metabolic pathways in a systematic
way . The MAPLE program we have developed is easy to
use and can be employed to derive all of the conservation
relationships for a given metabolic pathway automatically.
Furthermore it is able to compute conservation relationships
of any metabolic pathways which may include unlimited
steps and intermediate metabolites. There is certainly scope
for the application of modern computer algebra techniques
to analyze a complex metabolic system but at present it is
a largely unexploited field MAPLE as a computer algebra
system provides a powerful tool for analyzing such systems.
We hope that this program may make a partial contribution
in this field.
2012 : In [21] kinetic modelling of plant metabolic pathways as
a tool for analysing their control and regulation. An overview
of different modelling strategies is presented, starting with
those approaches that only require a knowledge of the
network stoichiometry; these are referred to as structural.
Flux-balance analysis, metabolic flux analysis using
isotope labelling, and elementary mode analysis are briefly
mentioned as three representative examples. The main focus
of this paper, however, is a discussion of kinetic modelling,
which requires, in addition to the stoichiometry, a knowledge
of the kinetic properties of the constituent pathway enzymes.

The different types of kinetic modelling analysis, namely
time-course simulation, steady-state analysis, and metabolic
control analysis, are explained in some detail. An overview
is presented of strategies for obtaining model parameters,
as well as software tools available for simulation of such
models. The kinetic modelling approach is exemplified with
discussion of three models from the general plant physiology
literature. With the aid of kinetic modelling it is possible to
perform a control analysis of a plant metabolic system, to
identify potential targets for biotechnological manipulation,
as well as to ascertain the regulatory importance of different
enzymes (including isoforms of the same enzyme) in a
pathway. Finally, a framework is presented for extending
metabolic models to the whole-plant scale by linking
biochemical reactions with diffusion and advective flow
through the phloem. Future challenges include explicit
modelling of subcellular compartments, as well as the
integration of kinetic models on the different levels of the
cellular and organizational hierarchy.
V. CONCLUSION
The management of biochemical reactions with enzymes
is an important part of cellular maintenance. Enzymatic
activity allows a cell to respond to changing environmental
demands and regulate its metabolic pathways, both of which
are essential to cell survival. Sometimes, human metabolism
is excessively slow or fast due to disease states and may
be treated medically. Some drugs or nutritional substances
can be said to boost metabolic rates by changing the rate
of pathways involved with carbohydrate or fat digestion.
In the course of molecular and cellular evolution different
mechanisms and different forces might have concurred
in the arisal of new metabolic abilities and shaping of
metabolic routes. Analysing these networks remains far
from straightforward owing to the nature of the databases,
which are often heterogeneous, incomplete or inconsistent.
Metabolic pathway analysis is hence a challenging problem
in systems biology and in bioinformatics.
VI. REFERENCES
[1]

Renato Fani, Marco Fondi ,Laboratory of Microbial

and Molecular Evolution, Department of Evolutionary
Biology, Via Romana , University of Florence, Italy,
Origin and evolution of metabolic pathways
Proceedings of the Physics of Life Reviews 6 (2009) 23-52.
[2] A Zourari *, JP Accolas, MJ Desmazeaud , Station de

Recherches Laitires, INRA, 78352 Jouy-en-Josas
Cedex, France Metabolism and biochemical
characteristics of yogurt bacteria. A review

proceedings of the Lait (1992) 72,1-34 Elsevier/
INRA,Review article
[3] Daniel I. BenjaminBenjamin F. Cravatt Daniel

K. Nomura, Global Profiling Strategies for Mapping
Dysregulated
Metabolic
Pathways
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2012 Elsevier Inc. All rights reserved. 10.1016/j.
cmet.2012.09.013
[4] Julian L. Griffin1 & John P. Shockcor2 Department of

Biochemistry, University of Cambridge,TennisCourt

Road, CB2 1GA, UK. Bruker Biospin, 15, Fortune
Drive, Billerica, Massachusetts 01821, USA.

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DAVID GILBERT AND SHOSHANA WODAK
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Unit de Conformation des Macromolcules
Biologiques. Universit Libre de Bruxelles.50 av.
F.D. Roosevelt. B-1050 Bruxelles. Belgium. School of
Crystallography. Birkbeck College, University
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Bosch, Schloss-Wolfsbrunnenweg 33, 69118
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Department,Universit catholique de Louvain Place

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of Glasgow 17 Lilybank Gardens,Glasgow G12 8QQ,

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Yildiz Technical University, Faculty of Arts
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ICTHYOFAUNAL DIVERSITY OF SIMEN RIVER IN ASSAM AND ARUNACHAL PRADESH, INDIA

Biplab Kumar Das 1*, Aloka Ghosh 2 and Devashish Kar
Research Scholar, Department of Life Science and Bioinformatics, Assam University, Silchar788011, Assam, India1, Student, Assam Agricultural University, Jorhat- 785013, Assam, India2,
Professor and Dean, School of Life Sciences, Assam University, Silchar-788011, Assam, India3
Corresponding Author. E-mail: biplabkumar1987@gmail.com
ABSTRACT
The unique topography of North-East India and watershed
pattern is an attractive field for Icthyological studies. This
region has already recognized as a global spot of freshwater
fish diversity. The present study on icthyofaunal diversity of
Simen River in Assam and Arunachal Pradesh was carried
out from January 2011 to December 2011. Simen River
lies in the middle of Dhemaji district. The river originates
in the West Siang district of Arunachal Pradesh, where it is
joined by Nanyel river in the left side and Jate, Juri and Igo
rivers along the right side, during its almost 30 km journey
downstream due southwest. Fish Diversity and physicochemical surveys have been conducted in river Simen of
Dhemaji district in Assam and Arunachal Pradesh. The
fishes are collected from the different parts of the river and
the collected fishes were identified. A total 72 different fishes
were collected under 47 genera; they are classified into 8
orders and 18 family.
Key words: Fish Diversity, Simen River, Buri Suti, Assam,
Arunachal Pradesh
I. NTRODUCTION
Fishes are one of the most abundant group among the
vertebrates, both in terms of number of species and
individuals. India is known for its rich aquatic biodiversity
specially the fish diversity. At the same time, the increased
population and environmental degradation have caused
damage to this biodiversity. This damage could be severe
and may result in loss of genetic diversity, populations and
eventually to the extinction of species. The North-East India
is one of the richest regions in the country in terms of water
bodies suitable for culture based fisheries. The North-East
India, its unique topography and watershed pattern are
attractive field for icthyological studies. This region has
already been recognized as a global spot of freshwater fish
diversity. However, structural characteristics of the lotic
environment are closely associated with the occurrence of
the fish species between the two columns is 4 mm (0.17
mm). Paragraph indentation is 3.5 mm (0.14 in).

Left- and right-justify your columns. Use tables and figures
to adjust column length. On the last page of your paper,
adjust the lengths of the columns so that they are equal. Use
automatic hyphenation and spell checking. Digitize or paste
down figures.
II. LOCATION OF STUDY SITE

River Simen is located at North Latitude 27o15 to 28o 00
and East Longitude 94o05 to 95o30. Simen River lies almost
in the middle of Dhemaji District. The river originates in the
west Siang district of Arunachal Pradesh, where it is joined by
Nanyel river in the left side and Jat, Juri and Igo rivers along
the right side, during its almost 30 km journey downstream
due southwest. The river Simen takes a southward turn at a
place 2 km north of Dipa Railway station where it combines
with Dipa or Sinyen River. Nikbum River then joins it along
its right side before it crosses the railway line. The river
then bifurcates into two streams - the main channel flows
southward and the other part turns towards east and enters
a marshy land after being divided into three parts. The main
Simen channel combines with Nonarijan after travelling 1.5
km further downstream and with Mirijan river after further 1
km downstream along its right side. Bokajan is a tributary of
Miri Noi. About 2.5 km. downstream of this confluence, the
Simen River combines with Pale River, which travels along
the southern margin of Pale village of Arunachal Pradesh,
near its debouching point. From this confluence, Simen
River flows further 5 km. downstream and again bifurcates
into two branches.
The fish diversity of different region was studied by a
numbers of authors and most of them have been conducted
in India and specially in the North Easter region.. Kar and
Sen 2007 worked on the systematic list and distribution of
fish biodiversity in Mizoram, Tripura, and Barak Drainages
in North- East India. Talwar and Jhingran 1991 represented
267 fish species belonging to 114 genera under 38 families
10 orders from the northeastern region. Nath and Dey
1997 recorded 131 species of fishes from the drainages in
P 55
Arunachal Pradesh. Jayaram 1999 and 2003 studied the

freshwater fishes of Indian region. Sen 2000 reported 806
ichthyospecies inhabiting the freshwaters of India. Kar et
al. has a huge contribution on the fish diversity, Kar et al.
2006 studied the fish diversity and conservation aspects
in an aquatic ecosystems in northeastern India, this work
is being done on the biggest freshwater tectonic lake Sone
(area 3458.12 ha. at LSL) in Assam, India. Biswas et al.
2008 studied fish diversity of Brahmaputra river in Assam;
they continue their work from 1987 to 2000. The diversity of
fishes from the upstream to downstream of the Subansiri river
described by Sharma et al. 2008; they found there 137 fish
species which of them are belonging to the different 7 types
of order. Binky and Kar 2011 studied on the icthyospecies
diversity in Karbhala wetland of Cachar district of Assam.
Das and Kar in 2011 studied the Spatial analysis, Habitat
mapping of Subansiri river in the winter season in Assam and
Arunachal Pradesh (India). They reported 48 fish species of
15 families under 7 different orders.
III. MATERIALS AND METHODS

Fish samples were collected through experimental fishing
using caste nets, gill nets, drag nets, triangular scoop nets
and a variety of traps and also by hooks and lines. Fish
species have been preserved at first in concentrated (100%)
formaldehyde in the field itself in a container and then in
30 % formalin in a glass container. In the laboratory the
fish species have been identified after standard literature by
following Jayaram (2010), Kar (2007).
resulting to loss of vegetation. The drying up of the river

will initiate human activities on the river. The existing fish
community comprising of terrestrial as well as aquatic and
other organism will face the problems of loss of habitat,
feeding sites and breeding grounds as a result of change of
vegetation pattern due to change of normal water regime of
the river.
Species richness in a region is governed by a number of
factors which operate at different spatial and temporal scales.
Biotic as well as abiotic factors act together in regulating
the local species richness. Stream fishes have been used
extensively to examine the relative influences of local and
regional factors on local species diversity. Regional diversity
is said to be more influenced by biogeography processes,
thus more recent works seem to emphasize to the importance
of scale in determining species diversity.
Stream fishes have been used extensively to examine the
relative influences of local and regional factors on local
species diversity. Regional diversity is said to be more
influenced by biogeography processes, thus more recent
works seem to emphasize to the importance of scale in
determining species diversity.
V. CONCLUSION
As far as fish diversity of the North-Eastern region is
concerned, no intensive collection could be done by anyone
due to several reasons including difficult terrain, inaccessible
locality, and poor communication facilities. Tributaries of the
Simen river particularly the hilly headwaters are inhabited
by specific fish fauna that need to be explored.
IV. RESULTS AND DISCUSSION

Water shows seasonal variation in color. It may be due to
the effluents of part time paddy fields and the ingredients of
rain water. For most cold water fish, the immune response
is severely inhibited below 12oC. Even when water
temperatures start to rise there is a time lag of a week or so
before the fish immune system starts to function effectively.
The details of fish species recorded from the present study
site are given in Table 1. The fish nomenclature is based on
Fishbase.org and Jayaram (2010). The present survey of river
Simen reveals the presence of 72 (seventy two) species of
fishes belonging to 8 (eight) orders, 118 (eighteen) families
and 47 (forty seven) genera. Cypriniformes dominates the
whole river and found in higher numbers and Beloniformes
and Tetradontiformes are found in less number.
The regular flow of water was diminished to a very minimum
level which causes the lowering of the ground water level
P 56

Table I: Physico- Chemical parameters of River Simen.
Sl.No
Parameters
Upstream
Downstream
Water Color
Clear or Pale
Green
Light Copper
Red
Water temperature 0C
25.7
26.5
pH
6.84
7.55
Dissolved Oxygen
(mg/L)
9.84
10.52
Free Carbon dioxide

(mg/L)
8.4
7.1
Conductivity ()
98.43
104.6
Total Alkalinity (ppm)
109
87.4
Table 1: List of Fish species of Simen River in Assam and Arunachal Pradesh
SL
NO
NAME OF FISHES
ORDER
FAMILY
Water Color
Clear or Pale
Green
Light Copper Red
Notopterus
notopterus
Osteoglossiformes
Notopteridae
Chitala chitala
Osteoglossiformes
Notopteridae
Amblypharyngodon
mola
Cypriniformes
Cyprinidae
Aspidopario jaya
Cypriniformes
Cyprinidae
Aspidapario morar
Cypriniformes
Cyprinidae
Barilius barila
Cypriniformes
Cyprinidae
Barilius barana
Cypriniformes
Cyprinidae
Bengala elenga
Cypriniformes
Cyprinidae
Brachydanio
aceticephala
Cypriniformes
Cyprinidae
10
Cirrhinus mrigala
Cypriniformes
Cyprinidae
11
Cirrhinus reba
Cypriniformes
Cyprinidae
12
Danio acquipinnatus
Cypriniformes
Cyprinidae
13
Danio dangila
Cypriniformes
Cyprinidae
14
Devario devario
Cypriniformes
Cyprinidae
15
Labeo bata
Cypriniformes
Cyprinidae
16
Labeo calbasu
Cypriniformes
39
Hemibagrus monoda
Siluriformes
Bagridae
40
Mystus bleekari
Siluriformes
Bagridae
41
Mystus tengara
Siluriformes
Bagridae
42
Mystus vittatus
Siluriformes
Bagridae
43
Rita rita
Siluriformes
Bagridae
44
Sperata aor
Siluriformes
Bagridae
45
Batasio tengana
Siluriformes
Bagridae
46
Ompok bimaculatus
Siluriformes
Siluridae
47
Ompok pabda
Siluriformes
Siluridae
48
Wallogo attu
Siluriformes
Siluridae
49
Ailia coila
Siluriformes
Schilbeidae
50
Eutropiichthys vacha
Siluriformes
Schilbeidae
51
Pseudeutropius
atherinodes
Siluriformes
Schilbeidae
52
Silonia silondia
Siluriformes
Schilbeidae
53
Amblyceps mangois
Siluriformes
Amblycipitidae
54
Erethistes pussilis
Siluriformes
Sisoridae
55
Gangata cenia
Siluriformes
Sisoridae
Cyprinidae
56
Heteropneustes
fossilis
Siluriformes
Heteroneustidae
57
Monopterus cuchia
Siluriformes
Synbrachidae
17
Labeo gonius
Cypriniformes
Cyprinidae
18
Labeo pangusia
Cypriniformes
Cyprinidae
58
Chanda nama
Perciformes
Channidae
19
Labeo rohita
Cypriniformes
Cyprinidae
59
Channa gachua
Perciformes
Channidae
20
Osteobroma cotio
cotio
Cypriniformes
Cyprinidae
60
Channa punctate
Perciformes
Channidae
21
Puntius chola
Cypriniformes
Cyprinidae
22
Puntius sophore
Cypriniformes
Cyprinidae
23
Puntius ticto ticto
Cypriniformes
Cyprinidae
24
Puntius conchonius
Cypriniformes
Cyprinidae
25
Puntius sarana sarana
Cypriniformes
Cyprinidae
26
Puntius gelius
Cypriniformes
Cyprinidae
27
Puntius rasbora
Cypriniformes
Cyprinidae
28
Salmphasia bacaita
Cypriniformes
Cyprinidae
29
Semipolotus
semipolotus
Cypriniformes
Cyprinidae
61
Channa stewartii
Perciformes
Channidae
62
Channa striata
Perciformes
Channidae
63
Polyacanthus
labiosus
Perciformes
Belonidae
64
Polyacanthus
fasciatus
Perciformes
Belonidae
65
Nandus nandus
Perciformes
Nandidae
66
Badis badis
Perciformes
Nanidae
67
Glossogobius giuris
Perciformes
Gobidae
68
Tetradon cutcutia
Perciformes
Tetradontidae
69
Xenentodon cancilla
Beloniformes
Belonidae
70
Mastacembelus
pancalus
Synbranchiformes
Mastacembelidae
30
Tor progenies
Cypriniformes
Cyprinidae
31
Tor putitora
Cypriniformes
Cyprinidae
32
Tor tor
Cypriniformes
Cyprinidae
71
Synbranchiformes
Mastacembelidae
33
Acanthocobitis botia
Cypriniformes
Balitoridae
Mastacembelus
armatus
72
Macrognatus aral
Synbranchiformes
Mastacembelidae
34
Acanthocobitis
kempi
Cypriniformes
Balitoridae
35
Botia Dario
Cypriniformes
Cobitidae
36
Botia rostrata
Cypriniformes
Cobitidae
37
Lepidocehlichthys
berdmorrei
Cypriniformes
Cobitidae
38
Lepidocephalus
guntea
Cypriniformes
Cobitidae
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RECENT ADVANCEMENT IN PAPAYA

CULTIVATION AND BREEDING
Aditi Chakraborty and Dr. S. K. Sarkar
Department of Fruits and Orchard Management, Faculty of Horticulture
Bidhan Chandra KrishiViswavidyalaya,Mohanpur, Nadia, W.B. Pin: 741252
ABSTRACT
Papaya is grown throughout the country covering an area
of 1,06,000 ha with productivity of 39.6 M/HA. Andhra
Pradesh is the largest producer state for papaya and Tamil
Nadu has the highest productivity. Superior genotypes
released in our country are CO-1, CO-2, CO-3, CO-4, CO5, CO-6, CO-7, Pusa Majesty, Pusa Dwarf, PusaNanha,
Pusa Delicious, Coorg Honey Dew and Pink Flesh Sweet.
Papaya is generally propagated from seeds but now a days
planting materials through cuttings, budding, grafting and
micro propagation are being adopted. The sex of individual
plants cannot be determine until flowering initiates which
normally occurs six months or more after seed germination.
Morphological or biochemical markers are not capable for
predicting sex type but molecular markers based on PCR
approaches determine the sex at early stage. Irrigation along
with fertilizer application (fertigation) is beneficial due to
better water and fertilizer use efficiency. This review reveals
that an exhaustive research work has been done on papaya.
However, gynodioecious and PRSV resistance variety
suitable for humid subtropical climate are not available.
Research with regard to varieties with homozygous type and
disease tolerance, uniform supply of fruits throughout the
year call for the top priority
I. NTRODUCTION
Papaya (Carica papaya, Caricaceae) is a popular fruit native
to tropical America, usually grown for its small to large
melon-like fruit. It is an herbaceous perennial, bearing fruit
continuously at the leaf axils spirally arranged along the
single erect trunk. Though native to warm tropics, papaya
has adopted into tropical and subtropical regions of the
country, from sea level to elevation 1000 m above mean sea
level. Temperature is most important climatic factors which
determine the success of papaya cultivation. It is highly
sensitive to frost and night temperature below 12 to 140C
for several hrs. According to 2010-2011 estimates, papaya is
grown in 1,06,000 ha with an annual production of 41,96,000
metric tonnes with the productivity of 39.6 metric tonnes
per hectare (Anon., 2011). Papaya is widely cultivated in

Karnataka, Uttar Pradesh, Assam, Gujarat, Maharashtra,
Bihar, Tamil Nadu, Andhra Pradesh, Madhya Pradesh. In
West Bengal, Midnapur (both), 24-parganas (both), Hoogly,
Nadia and Murshidabad district have major concentration.
II. PROPAGATION
Seed:
Papaya is propagated through seeds in commercial
cultivation. Viable seeds germinate after 2 weeks in polybags
and are ready to transplant at the 8-12 leaf stage after about
6 weeks (Chan et. al. 1991). The seeds are non-recalcitrant
and can be dried to moisture levels of 9 to 12% for long term
storage. Removal of the sarcotesta and soaking in gibberellic
acid promotes germination.
Cutting:
Large, leafy, lateral shoots that developed after winter
were used for cuttings, for rooting under intermittent
mist. Cytokinin and gibberelic acid mixture were used for
proliferation of lateral shoots. Vegetatively propagated plants
gives flowers 1-3 months earlier and are 30 cm lower bearing
than seedling papaya (Janick and Paull 2006).
Budding and Grafting:
Patch budding in vigorously growing seedling during June August was found to be most successful (Chadha, 1992).The
seedlings are ready for grafting when they have reached a
height of 8-10cm with 4-5 leaves. Seed sownin November December produces seedlings ready for grafting in February
- March, when the temperature is over 150C. The grafted
seedling should be grown under protection in a film shed
and kept at 20-300C. Yean et. al. (2005) produced thegrafted
papaya seedling on Suaizhonghong 8 and Hongling root
stock.
III. CULTIVATIONPRACTICES
Spacing:
A closer spacing of 1.33 x 1.33 m (5609 plants/ha) was
found to be optimum under Bangalore conditions for Coorg

P 59
Honey Dew papaya. Subsequently, based on the economic

consideration, the spacing of 2.1 x 2.1 m (3968 plants) was
found to be optimum. The spacing of 1.4 x 1.4 m or 1.4 x 1.6
m is reported to be the best suited for papaya cultivar Pusa
Delicious under subtropical conditions of Bihar while the
spacing 1.6 x 1.6 m recorded highest yield of fruits as well as
papain in Tamil Nadu (Anonymous, 1989).
Nutrition:
From uptake studies, requirement of N, P and K was
estimated to be 140:40:200 g per plant per year. Mature
petiole (6th leaf from the top) has been recommended for
nutritional diagnosis and the best time being at flowering
(Sanyal et. al., 1990). The optimum concentration of NPK
in petiole was found to be 1.52% N, 0.142% P and 4.42%
K. Micronutrients have the effects on sex expression,
fruit yield and papain yield. Among the micro nutrients,
B deficiency has great influence on growth reduction and
root development; B deficient plants also develop bunchy
top and bumpy fruits and latex exudation.Application
of 0.5% Borax and 0.25% Zinc Sulphate produced highest
yield (93.00 t/ ha) in cv. Ranchi in W.B. Beneficial effect of
mycorrhiza in papaya has been observed and saving of 25%
of recommended P was observed when mixed vasicular and
arbuscularmycorrhiza (Glomusmoseae + Glomusfaciculatum
+ Gigaspore margarita) were added with fertilizer.
IRRIGATION AND FARTIGATION:
Papaya is shallow rooted crop and highly sensitive to
fluctuations in soil moisture. Fertigation through drip
irrigation facilitates precise application of water soluble
fertilizers near the plant root zone result in greater uptake
and nutrient use efficiency. High yield could be achieved
with even 50% reduction in recommended fertilizer dose,
provided liquid fertilizer were used through drip. Application
of 10 lit of H2O per day +13.5 kg Urea and 10.5 gm of MOP
per week through fertigation and soil application of super
phosphate 278g per plant in bimonthly intervals improved
growth, yield and quality characteristics (Jeyakumar et. al.
2001). Over head irrigation may be least suitable, since leaf
diseases may be increase (Watson, 1997).
INTERCROPPING:
In North and Eastern regions, winter vegetables are grown
in juvenile stage. No intercrops are taken once plants start
fruiting. It is advisable to advisable to avoid growing of
solanaceous and cucurbitaceous crops which results as
nematode host (Chadha, 1992). Tomato as intercrop with
papaya cv 9-1(D), with 25% increased fertilizer level and
2.1x2.1m spacing, recorded highest yield (170.36 and 99.77
kg/tree) (Kumar et. at. 2000).
GROWTH REGULATORS IN PAPAYA:
The effects of growth regulators was reported in papaya on
P 60

seed germination, seedling vigor, flowering, fruit drop, sex

expression, fruit and seed set, fruit yield, quality of fruit and
papain.The plants treated with GA3, TIBA and ethrel were
found to be more effective in reducing the number of seeds
per fruit. TSS and total sugar and papain were highest when
treated with GA3 (50 ppm) and MH (200 ppm).The height
number of fruits/plant (42.0) and yield of fruits (1171 q/ha)
were observed from MH at 600 mg/lit. cv. Solo harvested at
pre-climacteric period and treated with GA+2-4-D resulted
in faster ripening rate.
Harvesting and Post Harvesting:
The tree ripened fruits were superior over room ripened
fruits with regards to increased pulp proportion, pulp: peel
ratio, dry matter, alcohol, TSS, total sugar, Vit A and soluble
amino acid content. Post harvest treatment of fruits with
silver nitrate or cobalt chloride extends the shelf life without
affecting the palatability. Shelf life of fruit is also extended
by storing at 130C with 1.0 to 1.5% oxygen or at 10%
CO2. Waxing of fruit and storage under low pressure (LP)
has also been found in reducing the disease incidence and
increasing the shelf life of papaya (Chadha, 1992).Feitosa et
al., (2005) reported that matured fruits irradiated by rays
(0.2 and 1.0 K Gy), provided greater firmness and vitamin C
than control.They also reported that shelf life, firmness and
other fruit quality parameters like TSS and Vitamin C were
more by vacuum packing in 150, 200 & 400 gauge thickness
polythene bag.
IV. ADVANTAGE IN PEST AND

DISEASE MANAGEMENT
Two nematodes, the root knot and reniform nematode
are the major problems (Janick and Paull, 2006). Use of
halogenated soil fumigants along with clean cultivation and
crop rotation may control the problem. Carbofuran 2 kg/ha
is most effective in checking the population. Pusa Majesty
is resistant to root knot nematode and can be grown in the
nematode prone region. Aphids attack increases if weed
growth is not controlled.
Virus disease is the major limiting factor in the cultivation of
papaya. Three types of virus viz. Mosaic, Distortion Ring Spot
and Leaf curl are prevalent in different parts of the country
except some Southern region of India. Among the Ring Spot
virus diseases the most destructive disease is Papaya Ring
Spot Virus (Manshardt, 1992), a definitive poty virus species
in Potyviridae (Shukla et al., 1994). PRSV grouped into two
types -viz. PRSV-P which infects both papaya and cucurbits
and PRSV-W that infects only cucurbits but not papaya
(Gonsalves, 1998). The PRSV incidence causing yield loss
up to 70% (Verma and Prasad, 1986). Most of the commercial
varieties grown in India are susceptible to this virus. The
genetically modified varieties Rainbow transformed with

virus coat protein gene have shown excellent resistance to
the disease in Hawaii. Cultivation of papaya 100C above and
below the ambient temperature i.e. 26-310C acceleratesthe
PRSV infestation due to the RNA silencing mechanism in
plant (Mangraithia et. al. 2009).Phytophthorapalmivora
commonly causes collar and root rot and sometimes stem
canker and fruit rot. Breeding and selection in Hawaii have
released in the development of Waimanalo with higher
tolerance to Phytophthora root rot (Nakasone and Aragaki,
1973).
Erwiniasp is economically significant in Carabian and
Venezuela than PRSV. To control Erwinia in the Vergin
Islands, Webb (1985) recommended resistant cultivars and
barrier crops that did not support the pathogen, as bactericides
and antibiotics were not effective. In the Northern Mariana
Island, the disease spread by the Giant African snail
Achatinafulica.
papaya. At Pune, the dose 40 Kr was found lethal and no

useful mutant was obtained. At Regional station, Pusa,
50 Kr was lethal and at 10 and 15 Kr doses of irradiation,
conspicuous changes were noted. Through sib mating and
selection in M1, M2, M3, M4 and M5 generation a dwarf
plant characterized by reduction in height (106 cm) compared
to parent population (218 cm) was selected. The selection
is highly dwarf and suitable for high density planting, this
selection is released as PusaNanha (Ram, 1984).
At Bangalore, hybrid progeny between the cross of C.
papaya and C. cauliflora were found to tolerant to PRSV.
Caricacandamarcensis, found in Nilgiri hills, produce small
fruits having poor edible quality, and is consider to be highly
resistant to frost (Anonymous, 1987).
In Malaysia, 2 hybrids have been evolved namely Eksotika
and Tainung No.5, which has tolerance to PRSV, and later
generations have high levels of field tolerance and are under
continuing selection.
V. CROP IMPROVEMENT:
MOLECULAR APPROACH:
To determine variability among papaya varieties and
the degree for relatedness of some cultivars, Stiles et. al.,
(1993) used RAPD molecular techniques (With 11 primers
amplifying 102 distinct fragments). The comparison among
10 varieties from Malaysia, Mariana Islands, Hawaii and
Florida showed their relatedness was c. 70% and most related
cultivars at c. 95%.
VARIETAL IMPROVEMENT:
Of the 48 species known to Caricacea genus, Carica papaya
is the only grown for edible fruits. Several varieties of papaya
have been developed at different centers in the country. Work
on papaya breeding at TNAU, Coimbatore has resulted in
release of 6 coultivars. Four of them, namely, CO1, CO2,
CO5 and CO6 are inbred selections. CO1 is also selections
from Ranchi variety (Ram, 1984). Singh (1988) also recorded
more than 40 types in Ranchi variety form and suggested for
selection and purification of ideotypes.
Seleciton followed by inbreeding has been widely utilized
for improvement of cultivars and inbreeding depression,
unlike other cross pollinated crops is not observed. As a
result of inbreeding and selection for 8 generations during
1966 - 1982, vigorous and uniform Pusa lines, namely,
Pusa Delicious, Pusa Majesty, Pusa Giant, Pusa Dwarf were
selected.Hybridization to incorporate the desired traits has
also been attempted at TNAU, Coimbatore and IIHR in
Bangalore. CO3 developed from CO3 x Sunrise Solo and
CO4 from CO1 x Washington are superior to the parents for
fruit yield and quality. Recently, CP81 developed from the
crosses of CP75 (Pusa Delicious x CO2) x Coorg Honey
Dew is gynodioecious with high TSS (16.1) and red flesh
colour of the fruit (Anonymous, 1991). At IIHR, Bangalore,
2 gynodioecious hybrids, viz. 39 and 54 developed form the
crosses of Sunrise Solo x Pink Flesh Sweet and Waimanalo
x Pink Flesh Sweet, have been found promising for
medium size fruit with TSS (14.50B) and better Shelf life
(Anonymous, 1991).
Polyploidy has received considerable attention in papaya
breeding programme. To obtain better quality of breeding
materials, seeds are treated with colchicines. Mutation
breeding using gamma irradiation has been attempted in
Field testing in Australia has been authorized for papaya

transformed with genes (Capacs 1 and Capacs 2) that alter
expression of ACC synthatase and ethylene expression gene
(ETRI) (OGTR, 2003).
A transgenic papaya developed in Mexico that over expresses
a citrate synthase gene from Pseudomonas aeruginosa.
Genes identified in papaya include some whose expression
might be employed to modify various agronomic traits or
enhance industrial production. Identified sequence (NCBI,
2001) include those affecting the following (Table - 1):
TABLE- 1: SELECTED PAPAYA GENES FOR
WHICH SEQUENCE INFORMATION IS AVAILABLE
Industrial / Agronomic
Product
Carbohydrate
Metabolism
A male-specific SCAR
marker
Sucrose synthase
Arginine
decarboxylase
(ADC)
Chymopapain
Cell wall invertase
ATP synthase
Papain
-galactosidase
Membrane channel
proteins
Metallothionein-like
protein
-Galactosidase
Glutamine
cyclotransferase
Others

P 61
1-aminocyclopropane1-carboxylic acid
(ACC) synthase
Xyloglucanendorans
glycosylase
Ethylene receptor
Pectinesterase
Caricain
(proteinase omega)
cysteine protease
cysteine protease
inhibitor
Cu/Zn superoxide
dismutase
maturase K
Source: NCBI, 2001.
Large numbers of viral genes have been sequenced, including

coat proteins of numerous PRSV biotypes from different
location, a replicase, m-RNA products of the virus and an
RNA polymerase gene (NIb). The whole PRSV and Pap
MV genomes have been sequenced. Other genes indentified
include two genes from PLDMV - an NIb gene and a coat
protein (capsid protein) gene, a gene from the phytoplasma
that causes papaya dieback (tuf) disease, the succinate
dehydrogenase gene from the rickettsial bacteria that may
cause papaya bunchy top disease; and an ileu t-RNA (OECD,
2005).
An approach that produces an untranslatable product, which
may result in an RNA-mediated immunity to PRSV, has been
successful in protecting Australia cultivars (Lines et. al.,
2002) and Florida cultivars (Davis and Ying, 2002).
FUTURE THRUSTS
Papaya has shifted from homestead garden to commercial
plantation in the last decade, owing to increased demand of
fresh fruits, processed products and papain production, added
with improved cultivars, production technology. Considering
the progress make and future needs, the following major
thrust are indentified.
Exploration, conservation and characterization of genetic
variability for use in improvement programme.
Breeding varieties resistant to Papaya Ring Spot Virus and
varieties suited in subtropical region.
Development of cost effective cropping system sustainable
and friendly to environment.
Development of integrated pest and disease management for
sustainable production.
VI. CONCLUSIONS
There has been substantial increase in production and
productivity of papaya owing to development of high
yielding cultivars, production technology and effective
management strategies for pest and diseases. Through
suitable strengthening of available infrastructure, research
on papaya intensified to achieve high productivity. To
enhance the export of papain and processed papaya products,
concerted efforts are required to be made.
P 62

VII. BIBLIOGRAPHY
[1] Anonymous (2011). Fruits. Indian Horticulture

Database. National Horticulture Board, Ministry of

Agriculture, Govt. of India, Gurgaon. pp. 100-103.
[2] Chan, Y.K. (19910. Treatment, Storage and

germination of papaya seed. Tcknol. Buah_

buahanMARDi 3, 17-21.
[3]

Janick, J. and Paull, R. E. (20060. The encyclopedia of

fruits and Nuts pp 237-247.
[4] Chadha. K.L. (1992). Scenario of papaya production

and utilization in India. Indian J. Hort. 49: 97-119.
[5] Yean-Yaolin, Li, W. and Song, Q. (2005). Grafting

techniques for papaw seedlings in vitro and

management of transplantation South China Fruits 4: 41-42.
[6] Anonymous, (1989). Research Report. AICRP on

Tropical Fruits, IIHR, Bangalore, pp. 542
[7]

Sanyal, D., Ghanti, P. and Mitra, S.K. (1990). Indian J.

Hort., 47: 318-22.
[8]

Watson, B. (1997). Agronomy/ Agroclimatology

notes for the production of papaya. Soil and crop
Evaluation prohect Ministry of Agriculture, Fotests,
Fisheries and Meteorology, Australia.
[9] Jeya Kumar, P., Kumar, N., SoorianthaSundarm, K.

(2001). Fetigarion studies in papaya (Carica papaya

L.) Siuth Indian Hort. 49 (Special): 71-75.
[10]

Kumar, S. Swaminathan, V. and Sathiamoorthy, S.(

2000). Effect of spacing, nutition and intercrops
on yield and quality of papay (Carica papaya L.). Res.
On Crops. 1(1): 58-62.
[11]

Feitosa, H. de. O., cone glian, R.C.C., Castricini, A.,

and Vital, H. de. C. (2005). Effect of the gamma
radiation and plant regulator in the physiology
postharvest of papaya fruit. Revista-University dadeRural-Serie-Ciencias-da-Vida. 25(1): 6-11.
[12]

Manshardt, R.M. (1992). Papaya. In: Biotechnology in

Agriculture No. 8 Biotechnology of perennial fruit
crops, F. A. Hammerschlag and Litz (eds), CABI,
Wallingford Oxon., pp. 489-511.
[13] Shukla, D.D., Ward, C.W. and Brunt, A.A. (1994). The

Potyviridae. Wallingford, UK: CAB International.
[14] Verma, H.N. and Prasad, V. (1986). Virus disease in

papaya (Carica papaya L.). In: Review of tropical
pathology, vol.(ii):Fruit diseases. Today and

Tomorrows Printers and Publishers, New Delhi, pp.
311-327.
[15] Gonsalves, D. (1998). Control of Papaya ring spot

virus in papaya: A case study. Ann. Rev. Phytopathol,36:
415-437.
[16] Mangrauthia, S.K., Shakya, V.P.S., Hain, R.K. and

Shelly, P. (2009). Ambient temperature perception in

papaya for Papaya ringspot virus interaction.
[17]

Nakasone, H.Y. and Aragaki, M. (1973). Tolerance to

Phytophthora fruit and root rot in Carica papaya. 2
Proc. Of the Tropical Region American Soc. For Hort.
Sci. 17: 176 - 185.
[18] Webb, R.R. (1985). Epidemiology and control of

bacterial canker of papaya caused by an Erwinia sp.

On St. Croix, U.S. Virgin Islands. Plnat Disease 69:

305 - 309.
[19] Ram, M. (1984). Promising varieties of papaya. In:

Proc. Papaya and papain production seminar,

Coimbatore, India 26-27 March. pp. 37-39.
[20] Singh, H.R. (1988). In National Convention on

strategies of horticultural development for tribal

region, Ranchi, pp. 8
[21] Anonymous, (1991) research report. AICRP on

Tropical Fruit, IIHR, Bangalore. pp. 454.
[22] Anonymous, (1987). Rresearch Report AIARP on

Tropical Rruits. IIHR, Bangalore. pp. 450
[23]

Stiles, H.I., Lemme, C., Sondur, M.B. and Manshardt,

R.(1993). Using Randomly amplified polymorphic
DNA for evaluating relationships among papaya
cultivars. Theor. Appl. Genetics 85: 697 - 701.
[24] OGTR (2003). Risk Assessment and Risk Management

Plan. Application for License for Dealings Involving

an Intentional Release into the Environment. DIR

026/2006. June 2003. Office of the Gene Technology

Regulator, Government of Australia. http://www.ogtr.
gob.au/ir/dir026.htm
[25] NCBI (2001). NCBI Gen Bank (nucleotide database).
http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov
[26] Organiastion of Economic co-operation and

Development (OECD), paris. Consensus document on

the biology of papaya (Carica papaya). 2005(16). Pp
5-64. http://www.oecd.org/ehs/
[27] Lines, R.E., Persley, D., Dale, J.L., Drew, R and
Bateson, M.F. (2002). Genetically engineered

immunity to papaya ringspot virus in Australian

cultivars. Molec. Breed. 10: 119 - 129.
[28] Davis, M.J., and Z. Ying. (2002). Development

of transgenic ringspot virus resistant papaya for

Florida. Phytopathology 92 (6, Suppl.): S 18.

P 63
P 64

TRADITIONAL ORGANIC PRACTICES WITH

TRADITIONAL INPUTS FARMING FOR THE
CULTIVATION OF FRENCH BEAN IN MANIPUR
G.K.N.Chhetry and H.C.Mangang
Department of Life Sciences, Manipur University,
Canchipur, Imphal- 795003.
ABSTRACT
Traditional farming practices are an important source of
knowledge for sustainable agriculture being practiced by
diverse communities of the region and are much akin to
the modern organic farming system. Hence a study of the
various farming practices of the farming communities and
their documentation assumed significance to safeguard the
rich heritage of the traditional farmers for the sustainability
of organic crop production system. Home garden is one such
agricultural system maintained organically for a perennial
source of vegetables. It has been observed that most of
the farming practices of the marginal farmers in the home
gardens were organic in nature. Utilization of all sorts of
organic litters produced in the farms and households either
as composted or partially composted form were organic
sources of manures. Decrease trend of organic home garden
in sizes of house holdings for home gardens was found due
to the urbanization process. Organic manures produced
in the households and farms were sufficient for the small
landholdings and for the growth of less fertiliser intensive
crop like french bean. Recycling of organic waste of kitchen
and farm yard in the organic management of french bean
crop and documentation of traditional practices are the key
issue of this paper.
I. NTRODUCTION
Organic farming system is a system where different
components directly or indirectly influence the production
system without the synthetic chemical components as used
in modern agriculture. In other words, organic farming
system is free from all kinds of synthetic chemicals viz.
hormones, genetically modified crops etc. Organic farming
is in fact a kind of natural farming system evolved by the
indigenous farming communities since time immemorial
and still in practice in different parts of the world mostly
in the developing countries where modern high tech
farming facilities are either not accessible or rejected by the
indigenous communities in view of its hazardous effect on
environment and loss of genetic diversity of traditional crops.

In India before the launch of green revolution to enhance
the agricultural output in order to cope with the population
explosion, organic farming system was the only option for
the production of crops for healthy life style of the people.
Influence of green revolution was limited to plain and high
tech assessable agricultural land only and therefore far flung
hill areas of the country could not become beneficiary of the
green revolution, either due to inaccessibility of the same.
Farming communities of the North Eastern region
of India prefer to follow the traditional organic farming
system as they have been doing since generation in the form
of Jhum cultivation and organic home gardening. As such
traditional farming systems and its practices is still prevailing
in remote areas particularly in the hill states as for example,
in the North Eastern states of India where more than 150
ethnic groups are practicing organic farming system with
slight variations in location specific organic farming systems.
Balasubramanian (2006) advocated the need to safeguard the
traditional practices to prevent from the clutches of western
influence. Rationale of the Indigenous knowledge and their
documentation in part was carried out by Pulmate and Babu
(1993) ,Chhetry and Belbahri (2009) in Manipur. However,
the basic information of the system such as organic farms
and its types regarding its house holding size, preparation of
organic manures and their application procedures in respect
of crop like french bean in particular followed by different
ethnic communities have not been fully documented either
by traditional communities or by scientific communities in
this part of the country where french bean is mostly grown as
home garden crop for domestic consumption. Importance of
documentation of different components of organic farming
system in view of the reducing trend of practicing organic
farming system by the indigenous farming community due
to heavy influence of modern agriculture for the greed of
bumper production to meet the food requirement of growing
population is tremendrous. As such extensive survey work
both location specific site and roaming site concerning
hills and plains of Manipur was carried out to assess the
organic practices followed by indigenous farmers for the

P 65
production of organic french bean specially in home gardens

with the specific objective of documentation of different
components of organic farming system. In order to achieve
this objective sampling techniques have been carried out and
relevant information were obtained through frequent survey,
questionnaires, field observations/visits and fixed location
experiments.
terraced fields and organic home garden. Other 10% of

organic land arable land is covered by certified, under
conversion and traditional (Fig:3). There are various sources
of organic manures which are either used as raw or applied
after processing in a traditional manner, depending on the
availability of the organic sources as is presented in table 3
and figure 2. Of these organic sources cowdung and FYM
based manures are common.
As the valley based home gardens sizes are small ranging

from few square meters to about 500 square meters (Table
2), uses of different types of organic manure are sufficient to
meet the growth requirements of French bean. Organic home
garden farmers make judicious use of these manures as per
the requirements of crop because most of farmers possessed
organic farming level knowledge. Some of them are trained
in organic farming and even illiterate farmers make use of
their traditional knowledge judiciously in the application of
manures (Table 1). Further, traditional knowledge possessed
by them are so rich that their traditional knowledge is at par
with the guide lines of organic farming system.
A multi-stage sampling technique was followed for the

survey. The stages of the sampling plan were Districts, SubDivisions and Villages. . Four valley districts of Manipur
viz. Imphal east, Imphal west, Thoubal and Bishnupur and
five hill districts namely Senapati, Chandel, Churachandpur,
Tamenglong and Ukhrul were considered at the first stage
and their respective sub-divisions namely Sawombung,
Kangchup/Lamsang, Kakching, Oinam etc under valley
and Kangpokpi, chandel, Churachandpur, Nungba etc. as
second stage followed by villages under each sub-division
as third stage for roaming survey. The fixed location based
survey sample village include Sarouthel of Sawombung
Sub-Division in Imphal east district, Kakwa under Wangoi
Sub-Division in Imphal west, Kiyamgei under Porompat
Sub-Division in Imphal west district, Kanglatombi under
Lamsang Sub-Division in Imphal west, Lilong under Lilong
Sub-Division in Thoubal district and Lower Toribari
Nepali village in Kangpokpi Sadar Hills Sub-Division
under Senapati district. Ten households in each village
were randomly selected for obtaining relevant informations
from the progressive organic farmers as per the pre designed
questionnaires through personal visits coinciding the sowing
season of french bean. Villages with ease of accessibility and
located near the main road were chosen as sample village for
the survey.
III. RESULTS AND DISCUSSION

Roaming survey of organic farming system in the hills
and plains revealed that organic farms in Manipur may
be classified into four categories viz:- Certified, Under
conversion, traditional(cropland is replenished through
the application of organic manures like cowdung, FYM
etc.) and organic by default(those land where cropping
is practiced with the availability of natural organic matter
without the application of either row or processed manures
as shown in Fig:2. Of these, certified and under conversion
types are found in some pockets of valley areas only
whereas traditionally managed organic farms are limited to
hill areas only. Organic home gardens are common both in
the hills and plains. 90% of arable arable crop land in hill
are natural organic fields such as slash and burn agriculture,
P 66

Variation in farms and management of organic garden by

different ethnic groups were observed in hill areas. Farm
sizes in hills were larger as compared to valley area (Table:3).
Nepali community residing in Kalapahar, Kangpokpi,
Toribari and other neighboring areas under Sadar Hill areas
of Manipur make use of open field semi compost cow dung
of previous year as potential manure which are scattered
uniformly in the dry land field including terrace paddy field
around their homestead land before the onset of monsoon and
preparation of land for the cultivation of organic crops. The
fields are prepared before the onset of the monsoon where
french bean seed is sown without making ridges and furrows.
As they tend large flocks of cows, sheep and goats in their
homestead land, dung of these animals are sufficient to meet
the organic manure requirements for French bean and other
crops. Sizes of the organic land holdings of this community
are relatively large as far as home stead managed organic
field is concerned. This is basically for two reasons. First the
lives in rural areas away from market and they depend on
organic agriculture products. S
econdly, they generate
large quantities of domesticated animals based dung annually
They usually grow both the pole and the dwarf varieties of
french bean not only for meeting the protein requirement in
their diets but the hardy pods coverings when mixed with
urine ingredients can be used on fodder for cattle.
The Naga community on the other hand managed the home
garden in closed fencing where source of manures are mostly
pig dung (partially composted), cow/buffalo dung and ashes
of crop debris. Land prepared by them was in the form of
ridges and furrows and consist of french bean seeds sown in
each soil hole/pit was 3 to 4 keeping plant to plant distance
60 cm apart. They usually grow the pole type of french bean
Illiterate
VIII
XII
Graduate
Below
30years
above
average
above
average
average
low
30-50years
low
high
high
average
Above 50
years
high
average
low
low
Kakwa (Imphal west)
Litan (Chandel)
Hundung (Ukhrul)
Lamka (Churachandpur)
Lairouching (Senapati)
Lower Toribari Nepali Village
(Tamenglong)
Kyamgei (Imphal west)
Kanglatongbi (Imphal west)
Sarouthel (Imphal east)
Moirang (Bishnupur)
Lilong (Thoubal)
0
-100
100
-200
Locality and households
200
-300
Organic Farms size (in square

meters)
Table 2 : Farms size owned by households for cultivating

french bean in organic home garden( in hills &valley)
300
-400
Documentation of the traditional knowledge in organic

agricultural farming system is imperative to make them
aware of the practices for the present generation in order to
safeguard the rich heritage of the local people. Validation
of the traditional practices and techniques have been made
by scientific communities (Sridevi and Subhashini, 2006,
Ranganathan and Kumar, 2006, ICAR, 2002, 2003, 2004).
There has been extensive documentation of the indigenous
practices in the entire world for its study unfurls many
potential indigenous techniques for food security, production
and diseases management (Mane and Sutaria, 1993,Thurston,
1998, Nene,2006, Abiola et al, 2011). Online accessibility
of documented traditional storage practices for the benefit,
feasible and applicable to farmers have been made available
(Bothe, no date). Traditional organic practices are mostly
found in under developed and developing countries as in
Nepal and far flung areas of developed countries.Works on
traditional knowledge in relation to organic agriculture have
been documented by Jeeva et al (2006). Documentation
of indigenous practices in the North East India in a
comprehensive form have been done (Chhetry and Belbahri,
2009). The findings of the present study certainly add to
the pre-existing documentation of traditional knowledge
by this and other workers in organic agriculture. The
traditional mode of organic agriculture is still relevant in the
rural farming communities in order to meet their domestic
consumption and sustainable healthy life style.
Standards of literacy
Age group
of farmers
400
-500
To increase the quantities of organic manure Kuki tribe

prepare home garden with loose fencing where pig dung and
buffalo dung are the only organic source for the growth of
french bean for these animals least destroy the home garden.
They intercrop French bean with other vegetable crops and
they grow both the dwarf and pole variety of French bean.
In contrast, organic home gardens in the valley areas are
manage with care where french bean along with other kitchen
related vegetables are grown in their small land holding size
using different manures both processed/semi processed or
raw (Table 4). Home garden soil is well prepared in the
form of furrows and ridges where they grow local French
bean varieties both pole and dwarf types as dominant crops
to meet domestic use. A brief description of the practices
practiced by the farmers of Manipur in the cultivation of
french bean have been summarized (tables4,5and 6).
Table 1: Basic information of organic farmers

(Age and educational qualifications)
500
-above
with bamboo stake to support the vigorous growth and bunch

formation of french bean pods. They mixed cow dung with
paddy husks and dried for sometimes in open field before
application in the field. This traditional practice enhance the
soil qualities.
Table 3 : Sources of organic manures used

in organic garden for the cultivation of frenchbean
Basic source
of organic
manure
Plant
Organic
manures/soil
amendments
(partially
composted/
raw)
No. of
households
Usage (%)
Forest litter
54
45.00
Floating
Phytomat
67
55.83
Garden litter
96
80.00
Kitchen waste
84
70.00
Paddy husk
113
94.17
Saw dust
57
47.50

P 67
Animal
Others
Processed
manure
Cow dung
102
85.00
Goat & sheep

litter
42
35.00
Poultry litter
97
80.83
Pig litter
43
35.83
Wood/ crop
debris ash
114
95.00
Pond/ lake
bottom mud
45
37.50
Compost,FYM
19
15.83
Vermicompost
14
11.67
Table 4: Traditional usage of various types of

organic manures and its scientific rationale.
Type of Organic
manure/soil
amendment
Cow dung based

compost is regarded
as a good source of
nutrients for the plants
due to enhancing
effect of microbial
activities in the soil.
b)fresh but applied

with restriction.
It act as a sort of
mulch when mixed
with paddy straw
and fodder remains
and applied on crops
which require high
humidity.
Mulching has value

but the application
of fresh cow dung
manure would not
give direct manorial
effect to the plant
immediately but at
latter stage.
c)dried cow dung to

provide a source of
slow releasing organic
matter to the soil
during monsoon. Also
it acts as a source of
mulch and enhances
soil aeration.
Mulching effect in
addition to addition of
organic matter to the
soil in the long run
on the onset of rainy
season.
Poultry litter
The dry litter from

the coop is applied as
basal dose near the
crop plants to increase
fertility of the soil in
addition to repelling
effect on certain
insect pest.
Poultry litter is a good

source of nutrient for
the crop as it releases
nutrient slowly and
remain effective for
two or three cropping
seasons.
Pig litter
Dry and decomposed

pig litter used as
manure in order to
increase the nutrient
status of the soil.
Pig manure has high

nutrient value and its
use is encouraging in
french bean.
Saw dust and paddy

husk
Husk and saw dust

are applied during
the preparation
of the fields to
increase the soil
physical characters
and enhance soil
porosity, soil aeration
and prevents water
logging.
The addition of
organic matter in the
soil would increase
physical and chemical
properties of the soil
as it got decomposed
slowly making
nutrients available to
plants specially french
bean.
Compost from
floating phytomat
(phumdi in Manipuri
dialect)
Decomposed plant
materials in ponds
and lakes over the
year are harvested and
placed in a heap for
further decomposition
and readily applied in
the soil to enhances
the organic status of
the soil.
Bottom mud of
water bodies is full
of nutrients due to
decomposition and
sedimentation of
organic matter.
Cow dung
Figure 2 :Tree diagram showing types of organic land in Manipur
P 68

Scientific rationale
attached with the
traditional organic
practices
a)partially composted
for deposition in a
pit or dump in a heap
for a year and then
applied to the fields.
Most widely used
form of manure in
organic home garden.
Objective is to
increase soil fertility
and soil properties.
Figure 1: Types of organic manures for soil amendment used

by the farm households (in hills and valleys in Manipur)
Figure 3 : Pie chart presenting the proportion of types

of organic land in Manipur
Mode of preparation/
application /practice
reocedures
Garden litter
generated
The garden litter/crop

debris is allowed to
decompose in heap in
borders of garden and
the undecomposed
parts are burnt.
Ash so produced
are applied over the
fields to increase soil
physical and chemical
properties in terms of
organic component of
the soil.
It acts as a sort of
soil amendment and
increase the soil
physical properties
like easy soil
leavening and water
holding capacity and
increase soil nutrients.
Organic kitchen waste
Organic kitchen
waste dumped in
a pit developed
and deloped into a
compost material
in course of time.
The fully composted
materials dug from
the pit and dried in
the sunshine and latter
applied to the fields.
Ash from household
kitchen were also
added to the pit to
enhance the quality
and to enhance the
fertility of the soil
through rich source of
kitchen waste.
The kitchen waste

dumping pits in
course of time
are colonized by
earthworms that
makes the compost
so developed from
the pit to have
characteristics of
vermicompost which
become a good source
of organic nutrients to
french bean.
Litter from the forest

floor are collected
and used in compost
and preparation
along with FYM in
a pit or are directly
applied around crops
to act as a source of
mulch nutrient. This
enhances growth of
the plants as forest
litters are generally
rich in nutrients.
The partially
composted litter
directly act as a
good source of
organic manure for
the plants and soil
around as it colonize
diverse group of
microorganisms for
regulating nutrients to
the crop.
Farmers apply the

ash produced in the
kitchen or burning of
crop debris in fields
Also they apply ash
to the plants infected
with diseases and
aphids on vegetables.
This practice make
quick availability of
nutrients to plants so
as to have luxurious
plant stand and also
to ward off and repel
insects and pests from
the crop plants
Ash is a good
source of nutrient i.e
potassium in plants.
Hence application of
ash would definitely
increase the fertility
of the soil. Again
he alkaline nature
of the ash might
inhibit/ repel the
insects. Further the
application of ash
increase the soil
properties like easy
leavening, good
plant growth etc. The
application of the
ash on affected crop
plants decreases the
spread of insects and
the attack of fungal
diseases lessions.
Forest litter
Wood and crop debris

fire ash
Mud from the pond/

lake are applied as
a base material in
planting french bean.
They are also applied
nearby the emerging
seedlings to enhance
soil property as
such application in
keeping the plants
cool and increases
the establishment
of the emerging
seedlings.
Pond/lake bottom
mud
Since the mud was

fine mixture of clay,
sand and organic
matters, it acts as a
sort of material for
water and nutrient
retention. As such, it
has a mulching effect
on plants besides
providing nutrients to
the plants.
Table 5:-Pre-sowing traditional methods for cultivation

of french bean in areas organic by default
attached with the
methods.
Presowing methods
Mode of operation
a)selection of seasons
Season prior to
the rainy season
has been selected,
which are marked by
religious rituals like,
panchami,lui-ngai-ni,
gudui-ngai , luira,
yarra, mangkhap in
Manipur for invoking
blessings and
ensuring rainy season
for the successful
establishment of the
plants
Land organic
by default are
generally rain fed,
determination of seed
sowing time prior
to the rainy season
has value for the
success of the crop
and seed sowing
festivities marked
the involvement of
community.
b)soil drying and

pulverization
Small land holders

first plough the soil
into chunks, dried and
then pulverized in the
next round to make
the soil fully dry that
kills exposed soil
inhabiting pests
The dryness of the

soil help in reducing
the disease inoculums
potential load in the
soil besides enhancing
the aeration of the
soil and microbial
activities.
Field designs-Ridges
and furrows
Plants are often

planted in discrete
furrows/grooves
during drier periods
while during rainy
periods the seeds are
sown in ridges for
water retention in the
furrows is more near
the roots this saves
the need of water
scarcity while sowing
seeds in ridges solves
the problem of water
logging near the roots.
Furrows facilitates
channeling excess
water to enable
optimum utilization
of available water
resources by plants
Ridges sowing
avoid water logging
near the roots
creating conducive
environment for
french bean.

P 69
Table 6:-Certain traditional techniques and practices followed by indigenous

farmers for the cultivation of french bean in organic farming system.
Traditional
Techniques and
practices
Application
procedures and
practices
attached to the
indigenous technique.
Sun screen for plants
Farmers often provide

shades to newly
planted plants for
which short strips
of banana sheath are
erected near the plants
that provide shade
and cooling effect to
the new plants.
This is a very
convenient and
sustainable technique
developed by farmers
for protecting the
seedlings from direct
exposure to sunlight
during the daytime.
The fields and crops

were managed as
a living object for
which due care have
been taken to have
healthy plants. The
crops are weeded
in regular intervals
till harvest in order
to maintain clean
sanitary environment
in the fields and
prevent diversion of
soil nutrients to the
weeds and avoid pest
and pathogens.
Timely intervention
constant vigil,
sanitary measures
and clean cultivation
prevents the crop
from pest and
diseases.
Healthy crops with

the best seed pods are
harvested and saved
for the next season.
Often seed pods with
the best physical
characteristics stored
over smoke access for
use in the season to
have healthy crops.
The selection of the

best seeds from the
healthy crops is a
technique for breeding
better seeds. Hence
the technique of
saving the best seed
pod collected from
the previous season
for use in the next
season is scientifically
justified.
Crops harvested are

generally exposed
to the sun in special
bamboo mats called
phoura in manipuri
dialect. The crops
are turned over and
over again till the
crops are fully dry
before storage. This
technique reduce
moisture and prevent
the crops from
damage by insects,
microorganisms and
pathogens during
storage.
Drying of the seeds

reduces the moisture
level of the seeds
thereby creates
an unfavorable
environment for
the growth of
microorganisms.
Plant health
management
strategies
Seed selection
technique
Sun drying
P 70

Proper drying
reduces the chance
of infection of
the seeds as most
microorganisms could
strive in conditions
of high humidity. The
dryness would create
an environment non
conducive to the pest
and pathogens.
Bean seed storage

Practices
Pods are allowed

to mature while
in the plants and
harvested during
sunshine dry season
only. Collected pods
are then dried in the
sun till the pods and
seeds get separated.
Well separated seeds
are store in bamboo
baskets and placed
near the kitchen
where it is warm and
airy. This process
enables attainment of
maximum maturity
of the seeds for a
successful next crop.
The separation of the
pods and the seeds
are allowed naturally
to attain maximum
maturity. They believe
that the immature
seeds do not grow
in the next season.
Drying reduce the
damage of beans due
to pest and pathogens.
Storage of harvested
crop over the
furnace/kitchen.
Crops with low water

contents are stored
over the furnace,
seven to eight feet
from the ground
enough to get the
heat and smoke. The
seed materials are
placed on a bamboo
platform known as
sagai in Manipuri
dialect to save the
crop materials from
infestation of pest and
pathogens and helps
prevent crop loss.
The basic underlying

idea is that the
heat and smoke
would hinder the
establishment of pest
and pathogens in the
crop. The application
of constant heat and
smoke in each days
ensures safe storage
of the materials
Traditional faiths and

religious beliefs
On the day of
cheiraoba (new
year in Manipuri
calendar) a mixture
of turmeric, charcoal
and rice are spread
in the field with the
solemn prayer to
ward of disease and
pest from the fields.
Framers believed that
the application would
help in reducing
disease and pest in the
coming season
Turmeric as such
possess good
antimicrobial activity
is known to them that
have direct influence
on the microbial
activity of the soil.
Thus clear scientific
rationale to their
traditional practices.
REFERENCES
[1]

Abiola Abioye,Yetunde Zaid,Halima S. Egberongbe,

2011, Documenting and Disseminating Agricultural
Indigenous Knowledge For Sustainable Food Security:
The Efforts of Agricultural Research Libraries in
Nigeria, http://conference.ifla.org/ifla77
[2]

Balasubramanian, A.V.,2006, Is there an Indian Way of

Doing Science? In: Traditional Knowledge system of
India and Sri Lanka, Balasubramanian and Nirmala
Devi (eds.) pp. 183-192.
[3] Chhetry G.K.N. and Belbahri, Lassaad 2009,

Indigenous pest and disease management practices in

traditional farming systems in North east India: A

review, Journal of plant breeding and crop science
1(3)28-38
[4]

ICAR,Inventory of Indigenous Technical Knowledge

in Agriculture, Document 1 (2002), Document 2
(2003), Supplement 1 to Document 2 (2003),
Supplement 2 to Document 2 (2004), Document 3
(2004), Document 4 (2004), Document 5 9 2004).
Indian Council of Agricultural Research, New Delhi.
[5] IIRR,1996, Recording and Using Indigenous

Knowledge: A manual. International Institute of Rural

Reconstruction, Silang, Cavite, Philippines
[6] Jeeva S.R.D.N., Laloo R.C. and Mishra, B.P.2006,

Traditional agricultural practices in Meghalaya, North

East India ,Indian Journal of Traditional Knowledge,
5(1)7-18
[7]

Mane, P.M. and Sutaria, 1993, Study and documentation

of Indigeneous knowledge/ traditional agricultural
practices of the tribal farmers. Paper presented at
national seminar on Indigenous Technologies for
sustainable Agriculture.New delhi,March 23-25
[8]

Nene. Y.L.,2006, Utilizing traditional knowledge

systems of India and Srilanka. In: Traditional
Knowledge system of India and Sri Lanka,
Balasubramanian and Nirmala Devi (eds.) pp 32-38
[9]

Pulmate, L and Babu, A.R. 1993, A seasoned exposition

of the traditional farm practices under use by the
farmers of Shifting and settled cultivation system
in Manipur. Paper presented at the national seminar
on indigenous technologies for sustainable agriculture,
New Delhi, March 23-25.
[10]
Ranganathan
T.T.
and
Kumar
S.A.,2006,
Documentation and validation of traditional

Agricultural practices.In: Traditional Knowledge

system of India and Sri Lanka, Balasubramanian and

Nirmala Devi (eds.) 40-61
[11] Sridevi R and Subhashini S. 2006, Traditional

agricultural practices for crop testing -Testing and

Validation. In: Traditional Knowledge system of India

and Sri Lanka, Balasubramanian and Nirmala Devi

(eds.) pp 62-67.
[12] Thurston, H.D.,1998, Traditional practices for plant

disease management in traditional farming systems,

http://www.tropag-fieldtrip.cornell.edu/tradag/default.html.

P 71
P 72

INDUCED BREEDING OF EEL-LOACH

PANGIO PANGIA, (HAMILTON 1822)
KH. GEETAKUMARI1, CH. BASUDHA2 & N. PRAKASH3
ICAR, Research Complex for NEH Region Manipur Centre, Lamphelpat
Imphal-795004, Manipur, India.
E-mail : 1geetameme@gmail.com, 2devibasu@yahoo.com
ABSTRACT
The eel-loach Pangio pangia is a fish associated with the
culture of Meitei community in Manipur. The preparation of
the fish is fed to the newly married couple on the wedding
night. The belief is that it makes the couple inseparable in
life. The eel-loach are bottom feeders, omnivorous in nature,
they eat worms and insect larvae. They inhabit in the fine
bottom mud of its native creeks and lakes. In aquaria they
are fed with small live, frozen foods, and pelleted feeds.
They are shade lovers, peaceful and shy schooling fish. They
usually hide themselves in PVC pipes or any hiding places
like rocks, stones, etc. So, a soft sandy substrate is provided
with lots of shady hiding places. Both males and females of
Pangio pangia mature simultaneously. Mature females are
probably noticeably plumber when loaded with eggs as seen
with other Pangio species. They also prefer water quality
having pH 7.50.2; dissolved oxygen, 6.02.0 ppm. Induced
spawning of eel-loach Pangio pangia was successfully
carried out using Wova-FH. The study reveals that the
hormone inductions at the rate of 0.7ml/kg body weight of
the breeders yields a potential fry stock. Hatching occurred
within 3 hours after fertilization at water temperature 25-28
C. The percentage of hatching rate varied from 85-90%.
The yolk sac was absorbed on the second day of hatching.
The outcome of this study can be effectively used for the
captive breeding and conservation of the eel-loach, Pangio
pangia.
Keywords : Induced breeding, Wova-FH, eel-loach, Pangio
pangia
I. NTRODUCTION
Science is a socio-cultural activity that is highly disciplined
The eel-loach Pangio pangia (Hamilton 1822) is a fish
associated with the culture of Meitei community in Manipur.
The preparation of the fish is fed to the newly married couple
on the wedding night. The belief is that it makes the couple
inseparable in life (Vishwanath, 2000). These loaches are
also commonly collected and exported as aquarium fishes
(Kottelat and Lim, 1993). Recently Pangio pangia has
undergone a drastic decline and is presently found missing.

Perhaps it is due to loss of habitat, indiscriminate fishing,
introduction of exotic species, water pollution, etc. therefore
proper management initiatives of this species should be taken
to conserve this fish. The knowledge on the proper breeding
technique is one of them. Scanning of literature indicates
that no thorough research have been done on the induced
breeding of Pangio pangia.
Fish breeding is a convenient tool of environment and aquatic
biology, education and self employment. It is a challenge
that aquarist may find attractive. The primary concern of fish
breeding is to produce the maximum number of the highest
quality seeds and fingerlings from the available brood stock.
Due to non-availability of seeds in natural waters and
difficulty in artificial breeding of this fish, not much could
be achieved towards commercialization of the species or
conservation. Keeping this in view, it is now most important
to conserve the species in a sustainable manner. The objective
of this study was to breed Pangio pangia successfully
under controlled conditions using Wova-FH and discuss its
implications on the conservation of wild populations.

Brood stock development
Pangio pangia fries were collected from Khumbong, Manipur
during October, 2011. The fish fries were transported in
oxygenated bags and stocked in FRP tanks of 3-ton water
capacity with water recirculation system at ICAR, Campus.
The fishes were fed with live feeds (daphnia, Cyclops)
formulated diet.
Breeding experiment
The eel-loach earmarked for this study has been segregated
from the common lot of fishes maintained at aquaria of
ICAR-Research Centre, Imphal during May 2012. The male
fish weighing 2.5g and female being 1.7g have been selected
for the study. The males and female have been maintained
separately and fed with live feed (Daphnia, Cyclops) and
prepared feed containing protein density 50% for 10 days.
Breeding is done in the evening 4 pm in 2:1 ratio, two males
P 73
and one female. A utility tray of (360310130) mm with

a water depth of 8cm. Water quality of the spawning tray
was analyzed by using water testing kits. The breeding trays
were maintained with the following parameters-temperature,
253.0C; pH, 7.50.2; dissolved oxygen, 6.02.0 ppm. A
mild current is operated using an aerator.
The intramuscular injection of Wova-FH is given on the
dorsal muscles above the lateral line near the dorsal fin.
Three sets of brood stocks were selected at the ratio of 1:2
(female: male). Three different doses of Wova-FH i.e. 0.5ml,
0.7ml and 0.9ml/kg body weight were given to each set.
After the injection, the breeding sets were released in the
three utility trays.
Spawning occur after 21hrs of injection. After spawning,
effective fecundity of each female was determined by
randomly taking representative samples of eggs in a 10 ml
graduated measuring cylinder from the total eggs in 1ml was
counted and multiplied with total volume of egg released.
The fertilization rate of egg was determined by randomly
taking a sample of approx. 50 eggs.
EGG
Fertilized eggs were slight yellowish in colour, spherical,
translucent and demersal measuring to 0.6-0.7 mm in
diameter. Unfertilized eggs were paler and opaque. Within
1 hours twitching movement of the embryo was observed.
Hatching was preceded by movement of the larvae inside the
egg shell. Fertilized eggs were hatched out after 3 hours of
fertilization. The hatchlings were yellowish in colour.
The newly hatched larvae measure 0.7- 1.5 mm long. The
young ones did not take exogenous food for about 48 hrs at
25C.
Larval Rearing
The young ones are free swimming and very active in their
environment. Very fast swimming movement was noticed in
them. The yolk sac is fully absorbed at 60 hours. Once the
yolk of the young ones is absorbed, they are fed with boiled
egg.
Determining Sex
It is difficult to determine the sex of the fish when they are
young. In general the females are slightly larger than males
of the same age. During the breeding season the females
develop a swollen abdomen with a yellow tinge. While the
males will ooze milt when gentle pressure is applied to the
abdomen.
III. RESULTS
Brooders of Pangio pangia are found to be matured in the

month of may in both the years 2011 and 2012. A varied
degree of response of different doses of Wova-FH was
P 74

observed. Spawning response varied from 19-21 hours.

Mating was preceded by elaborate courtship. It was observed
that the male rubbed its body with the female and released its
milt and the eggs were fertilized externally. Parental care was
not seen in Pangio pangia. The highest rate of fertilization
was obtained in the pair that was given a dose of 0.7ml/kg
body weight.
IV. DISCUSSION
Induced breeding of Pangio pangia can be performed
successfully in utility tray of (360l310w130h) mm. The
temperature, dissolved oxygen and pH of the breeding tray
are maintained throughout the experiment. A good chasing
behavior was observed among the brooders. The number of
eggs released and fertilized was comparatively examined.
There is little information on induced breeding of Pangio
pangia. This was our first attempt to breed this fish under
control conditions.
From the results, it is evident that highest spawning of P.
pangia occurred at close 0.7ml/kg. A lower dose of 0.5ml/
kg was given and spawning was moderately low. Again a
higher dose of 0.9ml/kg was given and a very low spawning
was seen. The doses of hormone affected the percentage of
fertilization and hatching rate. In our experiment, differences
in the response of spawning were noticed in different sets.
Similar observation was reported by Habibi et al. (1989) in
Carassius auratus. Longer latency period was also reported
by Pandey et al., (2002) in low dose of synthetic hormone
Ovatide. The latency period of Ovaprim in air-breathing
fishes is 18 hours for Channa puntatus and Heteropneustes
fossilis (Haniffa et al, 2000). Pandey et al., (2002) reported
varied inter-spawning period between 8 and 15 hour in
Heteropneustes fossilis infected with the doses of 0.3-1.0ml/
kg of synthetic hormone ovatide. According to Billiard
et al. (1984) and Peter et al., (1986), differences in dose
requirement may be attributed to varied level of dopamine
activity in different species of fish.
In the present study, the incubation period lasted for 3hrs at
a water temperature of 27C. Kohli and Vidyagarthi (1990)
reported the incubation period of 16-18h in Heteropneustes
fossilis at a temperature of 26C. Ramanathan et al. (1985)
reported the incubation period in Mystus puntatus (Jerdon)
to be varied from 18-24h at a temperature of 28.6 1.8C.
Adebayo et al (2007) noted that hatching started at 22.0
1.0 at the temperature of 25.50C in African catfish. Zaki
and Abdula (1983) and Herath (1988) reported shorter
incubation periods at higher temperature. The development
and incubation periods of embryo in most fishes are fully
temperature dependent and varied from species to species (De
Graaf and Janssen, 1996). Das et al. (2007) observed that the
percentage of fertilization of eggs varied from 40-90 and the
percentage of hatching from 25-75 in the induced breeding

of Clarias batrachus. The rate of fertilization and hatching of
Pygocentris nattereri were reported to range from 58-67%
and 50-59% respectively (Rahman and Ahmed, 2007).
In the present experiment, maximum egg laying capacity,
fertilization and hatching rate was observed in a dose of
0.7ml/kg of Wova-FH. The breeding methodology does

not require high investment. Hence this breeding technique
can be conveniently adopted by small farmers for quality
seed production and it can help in the popularization and
conservation of Pangio pangia.
ACKNOWLEDGEMENT
The first author is grateful to the DBT for financial assistance under DBT-RA programme. We express our sincere gratitude to
W. Vishwanath Department of Life Sciences, Manipur University for his valuable suggestions and encouragement.
Table: 1. Effect of Wova-FH on the spawning of Pangio pangia
Wt. (g) fish

2.2
2.0
1.8
[1]

Wt. (g) fish

1.7
1.5
1.5
1.6
1.6
1.7
Hormone Dose (ml/

kg body wt.)
Latency period (hrs)
No. of eggs
spawned
Fertilization (%)
0.5
23.20
100
70-75%
0.7
21.00
150
85-90%
0.9
19.10
20
NIL
Adebayo, O. T., K. A. Ayinde and O. M. Popoola,

2007. Effect of cassava effluent on the hatching and
survival of African catfish, Clarias gariepinus larvae.
J. Fish. Aquatic Sci., 2: 371-374.
[2] Billard, R., K. Bieniarz, R. E. Peter, M. Sokolowka, C.

Weil and L. W. Crim, 1984. Effects of LHRH and

LHRH-A on plasma GtH levels and maturation/

ovulation in the common carp, Cyprinus carpio, kept

under environmental conditions. Aquaculture, 41:
245-254.
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Das M., Islam M.A. and Mughal G.U. 1992. Induced

Breeding and fry rearing of Catfish, Clarias batrachus
(Linn.). Bangladesh J. Zool. 20(1): 87-95
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De Graaf, G.J. and H. Janssen, 1996. Artificial

reproduction and pond rearing of the African catfish
Clarias gariepinus in sub-Saharan Africa. FAO Fish.
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[5]

Haniffa, M.A., J.S. Mohamed and T. M. Rose, 2000.

Induced spawning of the striped murrel Channa
striatus using pituitary extract, HCG, LHRH-A and
ovaprim. Acta Ichthyol. Piscatoria, 30: 53-60.
[6] Herath, H.K.S., 1988. Hybridization, early

development of embryos and production characteristics

of larvae of African Catfish Clarias gariepinus

(Burchell) and Asian catfish Clarias batrachus
(Linnaeus) Master Thesis, Wageningen Agricultural

University. Wageningen, Netherlands.
[7]

Kohli, M. S. P. and S. Vidyarthi, 1990. Induced breeding

embryonic and larval development in Heteropneustes
fossilis (Bloch) in the agroclimatic conditions of
Maharashtra. J. Indian Fish. Assoc, 20: 15-19.
[8]

Kottelat, M. and K. K. P. Lim, 1993. A review of the

eel-loaches of the genus Pangio (Teleostei: Cobitidae)
from the malay Peninsula, with descriptions of six new
species. Raffles bulletin of zoology, 41(2): 203-249.
[9] Pandey, A.K., R. Koteeswaran and B. Singh, 2001.

Breeding of fishes with synthetic hormone drug

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Peter, R. E., M. Sokolowsk and C.S. Nahorniak,

1986. Comparison of (D-Arg6 Trap7, Leu8, Pro9 Net)
luteinizing hormone (LHRA) in combination with
pimozide, in stimulating gonadotropin release and
[11] Ovulation in the gold fish, Carrasius auratus. Can. J.

Zool., 65: 987-991.
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Rahman M. M. and Ahmed A.T.A. 2007. Studies on

Breeding and larval Development of Red Bellied
Piranha, Pygocentris nattereri Kner, 1858 in
Bangladesh. Bangladesh J. Zool. 35 (2): 193-203
[13] Ramanathan, N., P. Natarajan and N. Sukumaran,

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1985. Studies on the induced spawning and larval

rearing of a fresh water catfish Mystus punctatus
(Jerdon). Proc. Anim. Sci., 94: 389-398.
[14] Vishwanath, W. 2000.

Fish Fauna of Manipur.

Manipur Association for Science & Society, Imphal.

ISBN 81-900689-5-4. 143 pp.
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[15] Zaki, M.I. and A. Abdula, 1983. The reproduction and

development of Clarias gariepinus (Claridae) from

Lake Manzala (Egypt). J. Ichthyol., 23: 48-58.
FUNGAL AIRSPORA OVER ONION

FIELD IN MANIPUR VALLEY
A. Premila
Department of Botany, Standard College, Imphal - 795001
E-mail:apremiladevi45@gmail.com
ABSTRACT
Fungal airspora over onion field was monitored during

two consecutive cropping seasons (Dec. 2009 - Apr. 2010
and Dec. 2010 - Apr. 2011) using Rotorod air sampler.
Altogether 28 fungal types were isolated apart from other
types (unidentified spores, hyphal fragments, pollengrains,
insect scales etc.). Alternaria, Aspergilli - Penicilli, Botrytis,
Cercospora, Curvularia, Cladosporium, Chaetominum,
Helminthosporium, Nigrospora, etc. were dominant.
Monthwise variation of fungal spores were observed.
Concentration of fungal spores was highest in January in
both the cropping seasons. The data were correlated with
meteorological parameters.
Monitoring of fungal airspora over onion field was carried

out using Tilaks rotorod air sampler at Phayeng, Imphal West
district, Manipur during two consecutive cropping seasons
(Dec. 2009 - Apr. 2010 and Dec. 2010 Apr. 2011). In both
the cropping seasons, air sampling was started on 1st Dec. (7
days prior to plantation of onion in the field) and continued
upto the end of April (15 days after harvesting of the crop).
The sampler was operated at 1 m above ground level at the
centre of the onion field for 30 minutes at 10 day intervals.
Identification of the fungal spores was done with the help of
published literatures (Ellis, 1971; Barnett and Hunter, 1972
and Tilak, 1989) and by comparing with reference slides.
The number of spores were multiplied by the conversion
factor (5) of the sampler and expressed as per cubic metre
of air. Scanning of the prepared slides was done regularly
throughout the investigation period. Meteorological data for
the investigation period were obtained from ICAR Research
complex, Lamphelpat, Imphal.
Key words : airspora, meteorological parameters, onion,

monthwise variation.
I. NTRODUCTION
Onion (Allium cepa) is the most widely cultivated species
of the genus Allium. In Manipur, it is grown both in the
valley and hilly regions. A variety of diseases and disorders
affect onions. Most of the diseases are caused by fungi
or bacteria. Among the fungal diseases of onion, neck rot
caused by Botrytis allii, Leaf blight (Botrytis squamosa),
downey mildew (Peronospora destructor), smut (Urocystis
magica), white rot (Scelrotium cepivorum) and basal rot
(Fusarium oxysporum) are considered most important.
Contribution of fungal airspora to the occurrence and disease
development on onion crop was reported by various workers
(Devi, et. al. 2010; Lohare and Kareppa, 2009 and Maude
and Prestly, 1977). Sen and Asan (2001) reported airborne
fungi in vegetable growing areas of Edrine, Turkey. Devi
(2010) analysed the fungal airspora of a cabbage field in
Imphal. Devi and Chanu (2012) discussed the airspora and
epidemiology of early blight of tomato in Manipur. So far,
no detail study have been made on the airspora over onion
field in Manipur. As such, the present investigation was
undertaken to detect the major constituents of the fungal
airspora over onion field and the effect of meteorological
parameters on the occurrence of airborne fungi.

Analysis of the spores trapped revealed 27 fungal types.
Hyphal fragments, pollen grains, insect scales, epidermal
hairs, unidentified spores were grouped as other types.
Table 1 revealed the percentage contribution of different
spore types to the total airspora during the two consecutive
cropping seasons. In the first cropping season (Dec. 2009 Apr. 2010), fungal spores contributed 97.28% and other types
contributed 2.72% of the total spore count. Cladosporium
ranked highest concentration (18.45%) to the total airspora
over onion field. Other dominant fungal types were Botrytis
(9.03%), Alternaria (8.55%), Peronospora (7.31%), Fusarium
(6.78%), Aspergilli-Penicilli (6.4%), Cercospora (5.38%),
Helminthosporium (5.33%), round spores (Rhizopus-Mucor
type) (3.43%), Nigrospora (3.02%), ascospores (2.55%) etc.
In the second cropping season (Dec. 2010 - Apr. 2011), fungal
spores contributed 97.03% and other types contributed 2.97
% to the total airspora. Contribution of dominant spores types
in descending order were Cladosporium (17.95%), Botrytis
P 77
(8.51%), Alternaria (7.45%), Fusarium (7.31%) Aspergilli Penicilli (7.92%), Peronospora (6.78%), Helminthosporium
(5.38%), Cercospora (5.33%), ascospores (3.53%),
Nigrospora (3.43%), round spores (Rhizopus - Mucor
type) (3.43%) etc. Similar findings were also reported by
Maude and Prestly (1977) and Lohare and Kareppa (2009).
Fluctuation in meterological parameters particularly relative
humidity and temperature affect the concentration of spores
in the air. Stepalska and Wolek (2005) and Devi (2010)
reported similar results.
The correlation between the monthly average percentage
contribution of fungal airspora and the corresponding
meteorological parameters was depicted in Table 2. Variation
in spore concentration varied in different months. In the
first cropping season, highest concentration (28.41%) of
fungal spores was observed in Jan. 2010 and the lowest
concentration (10.19%) in Dec. 2009. In the second cropping
season, highest concentration (29.57%) of fungal spores was
observed in the month of Jan. 2011 and the lowest (11.1%)
in Apr. 2011. Effect of relative humidity, temperature and
rainfall on the concentration of fungal spores were observed
in the present study. The results corroborates the findings of
other workers. (Hasnain, 1993 and Devi, 2010).
The present study would be useful in understanding the
aerobiology and epidemiology of fungal diseases of onion
in Imphal. Such type of investigation would be helpful in
timely management of fungal diseases of onion crop for
better production.
IV. ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS
The author is grateful to the Principal, Standard College,
Imphal for laboratory facilities and to Meteorological Section,
ICAR Research Complex, Imphal for meteorological data.
V. REFERENCES
[1]

Barnett, H.L. and Hunter, B.B. 1972. Illustrated genera

of Imperfect fungi. 3rd Edn. Burgass, Publishing Co.,
USA, pp 241.
[2]

Manipur. J. Mycopathol Res. 50(1) : 81-84
[5] Ellis, M.B. 1971. Dematiaceous Hyphomycetes.

C.M.I., England, pp 608.
[6] Hameed, A.A.A. 2005. Vegetation : A source of air

fungal bio-contaminant. Aerobiologia 21 : 53 - 61.
[7]

Hasnain, S.M. 1993. Influence of meteorological

factors on the airspora. Grana, 32 : 184 - 188.
[8]

Lacey, J. 1981. The aerobiology of conidial fungi. In.

G.T. Cole and B. Kendrick (eds), Biology of Conidial
Fungi. Vol 1. Academic Press. NY, pp. 373 - 416.
[9] Lohare, S.D. and Kareppa, B.M. 2009 Airspora over

onion field. Int. Res. J. 1 (3&4) : 116 - 117.
[10] Maude, R.B. and Prestly, A.H.1977. Infection of

onions by Botrytis allii. Ann. of Appl. Biol. 85 (1):165
[11] Sen, B. and Asan, A. 2001. Airborne fungi in vegetable

growing areas of Edirne, Turkey. Aerobiologia 17 : 69 - 75.
[12]

Stepalska, D. and Wolek, J. 2005. Variation in fungal

spore concentration of selected taxa associated to
weather conditions in Cracow, Poland, in 1997.
Aerobiologia 21 : 43 - 52.
[13] Tilak, S.T. 1989 Airborne pollen and fungal spores.

Vijayanti Prakashan, Aurangabad. Pp:316
Table: 1 The contribution of spore types to the

total airspora over onion field in Manipur
Sl.No.
1
Spore types
Albugo
First
cropping
season
Second
Cropping
seasons
1.05
1.28
Aspergilli - Penicilli
6.4
7.02
Ascospores
2.55
3.53
Alternaria
8.55
7.45
Beltrania
0.62
0.33
6.
Botrytis
9.03
8.51
Cercospora
5.38
5.33
Chaetomium
1.63
2.13
Devi, A.P. 2010 Aeromycoflora of a cabbage field in

Imphal. Bull of Pure and Appl. Sc. 29 B(2):59-62
Cladosporium
18.45
17.95
10
Colletotrichum
5.37
4.37
[3] Devi, J., Medhi, S. and Sarma, T.C. 2010

Aeromycological study of store houses of onion and

ginger in Guwahati. The Bioscan 2 (sp. Issue) : 547 - 552
11
Corynespora
0.22
0.34
12
Curvularia
2.97
2.72
[4] Devi, A.P. and Chanu, L.B. 2012 Airspora and

epidemiology of early blight of tomato caused by

Alternaria solani (Ell and Mart) Jones and Grant in
P 78

13
Drechslera
1.13
1.01
14
Epicoccum
0.87
1.87
15
Fusarium
6.78
7.31
16
Helminthosporium
5.33
5.38
2010
2011
2010
2011
2010
2011
26.08
13.94
15.8
25.96
18.52
11.1
28.2
15.5
67.1
29.0
18.4
84.4
26.0
11.8
79.2
28.7
12.7
75.8
23.2
7.2
73.2
24.5
20.8
25.8
21.6
22.2
April
2011
29.57
March
2010
28.41
February
2010
19.43
January
2009
10.19
Spore conc.
(%)
December
Table 2 : Correlation between mothwise percentage

contribution of fungal airspora over onion field and
corresponding meteorological parameters.
1.3
2.97
4.6
2.72
7.7
97.03
Other types
6.3
97.28
28
1.5
0.62
1.05
4.9
0.31
1.28
4.1
Tetraploa
Verticillium
5.7
26
27
0.1
1.98
3.6
1.26
6.8
Trichothecium
75.1
25
Nil
3.02
4.2
3.43
5.4
24
80.8
0.23
0.6
0.09
3.0
Pleospora
Round spores
(Rhizopus -mucor )
type
4.8
23
86.4
0.67
0.2
0.91
1.7
Pithomyces
7.3
22
81.6
6.78
0.55
1.9
7.31
0.69
1.7
Peronospora
Pestalotiopsis
5.6
20
21
78.2
3.43
1.26
Nil
3.02
1.98
1.5
Nigrospora
Periconia
Temp. (min)
(oC)
18
19
Temp. (max)
(oC)
0.91
RH (%)
0.67
RF
(mm)
Humicola
Wind Speed
(km/hr)
17

P 79
P 80

VARIATION IN INDOOR AND OUTDOOR

AEROMYCOFLORA OF A RICE MILL IN IMPHAL
A. Premila
CSIR-National Institute of Science
Department of Botany, Standard College, Imphal - 795001
E-mail:apremiladevi45@gmail.com
ABSTRACT
Monitoring of fungal airspora inside and outside a rice mill in
Imphal was undertaken for a period of one year (Jan. - Dec.,
2010) using Tilaks rotorod air sampler. A total of 27 fungal
types (inside the rice mill) and 30 fungal types (outside the
rice mill) were detected from the two sites. Qualitative and
quantitative variations of fungal airspora were observed at
both the sites. More than 50% of the total airspora of the
indoor air of rice mill was contributed by Claviceps and
Helminthosporium ( Bipolaris). Known allergenic fungal
types like Alternaria, Aspergillus, Chaetomium, Fusarium,
Penicillium, etc. were detected at both the sites. Highest
concentration of fungal spores was observed in rainy season.
Concentration of spores were correlated with meteorological
parameters.
Key words : fungal airspora, rice mill, allergen,
meteorological parameters.
I. NTRODUCTION
In India, about 70% of the total population are engaged in
agricultural farming. But unfortunately, no serious thoughts
have yet been given to this problem although the farming
community is working at its own risk. Determination of
local dissemination pattern of spores in air qualitatively and
quantitatively has a great significance of scheduling the
forecasting awareness to the workers (Chakre, 1987). Farm
population generally working on post harvest processes might
come into contact with a variety of potentially hazardous
substrates including airborne pollutants, dust, fungi, zoonatic
microbes and other particulate matters.
Paddy grain which have generally high percentage of
moisture at harvest become mouldy during storage and
become high fragrance in milling and other post harvest
technological processes (Lappanainen et. al.1996). Many
moulds colonizing grain besides degrading the grain and
making it less palatable, may give rise to health hazards to
workers handling the grain. When mouldy or dirty grains

are milled, it generates dust which is nothing but clouds of
fungal spores and other microoganisms and fragments of the
grain. The dust when inhaled causes respiratory disorders
to workers (Tse et. al.;Lacey, 1980; Kennedy et. al. 1994).
In Manipur, comparative study of aeromycoflora inside and
outside rice mills have not been attempted. Hence, the
present investigation was therefore undertaken to find out
the seasonal variation of aeromycoflora in the indoor and
outdoor environment of a rice milling house and also to
determine the source, effect of meteorological factors and
their impact from health hazard view points.

Air monitoring was carried out at 2 sites (Site 1-inside a rice
mill and (Site 2- half kilometre away from the rice mill) for
twelve months (January to December, 2010) by employing
Tilaks rotorod air sampler. Transparent cellotape was
applied to the rods, trimmed back to the width of the rods
with a sharp razor blade and then coated with vaseline. Then
the air was sampled by operating the sampler kept at 1 meter
above ground level (a.g.l.) clinging at the rate of 100 litres
per minute. The sampler was operated at weekly intervals
twice per observation day (8.00 to 8.30 a.m. and 3.00 to 3.30
p.m. at Site 1 and 9.00 to 9.30 a.m. and 4.00 p.m. to 4.30 p.m.
at Site 2). After exposure to the air, the catches (bioparticles)
were mounted beneath a cover glass using glycerine jelly
and thus prepared the slides. Scanning of the prepared slides
was done regularly throughout the period of investigation.
Fungal spores were identified based on published literatures
(Ellis, 1971; Barnett and Hunter, 1972 and Tilak, 1989).
The fungal types were classified as per Ainsworths (1966)
classification (Hawkswork et al., 1985).

The trapped spores were presented under two main groups
fungal spores and other types. The fungal types were assigned
P 81
In Site 2, Deuteromycotina dominated the fungal airspora

by scoring 73.05% of the total population which was
followed by Mastigomycotina (13.66%), other types
(8.63%),Ascomycotina (3.2%), Zygomycotina (1.37%)
and Basidiomycotina (0.09%). Among the fungal types,
Cladosporium contributed highest concentration (21.49%)
which was followed by Aspergilli-Penicilli (19.67%),
Albugo (13.66%), Fusarium (9.23%), Curvularia (6.57%),
Alternaria (5.49%), Pestalotiopsis (4.51%), Chaetomium
(3.05%), Nigrospora (2.47%), round spores (Rhizopus Mucor type) (1.37%), Sclerotoium (1.08%), etc. This was in
agreement with the reports of earlier workers (Gimenez et.
al. 1995 and Singh and singh, 2005).
The present finding clearly showed Claviceps and
Helminthosporium ( Bipolaris) as predominant among
the dominant types contributing more than 10% each to
the total count. This might be due to the diffusive action of
machines while milling the raw materials i.e. paddy grains
physically contaminated with smut (Claviceps) and brown
spot (Helminthosporium ). Perusal and analysis on the
results from different working environments and sources like
dust from bags, floors, walls, dust pasted on different parts of
equipments and machines, etc. present in the working room
showed a normal source of fungi within the rice mill. The
present finding was in congruity with results reported earlier
(Singh and Singh, 2005).
The incidence of certain spore types like Aspergilli-Penicilli,
Cladosporium, Curvularia, Fusarium, Pestalotiopsis, etc.
were drastically higher in Site 2 which might be due to
the specific composition of local vegetation and ecological
entities of the surrounding environment. Hasnain (1993) and
Hameed (2005) reported similar results.
Fig. 1 revealed the quantitative seasonwise variations of
airspora at both the investigation sites. The highest
P 82

45
40
Site 1
Site 2
35
Spore conc.(%)
to five subdivisions as per Ainsworths (1966) classification

(Hawkswork
et al., 1985) (Table 1). Quantitative and
qualitative variations in the incidence of the different
components of airspora inside and outside the rice mill were
observed in the present study.In Site 1, Deuteromycotina
dominated the fungal airspora of both sites by scoring 57.32%
of the total population which was followed by Ascomycotina
(30.67%), other types (6.81), Basidiomycotina (4.83%),
Zygomycotina (0.0.37%) and Mastigomycotina (Nil).
Among the fungal types, Claviceps contributed highest
concentration (27.02%), Helminthosporium ( Bipolaris)
(25.51%) which was followed by Nigrospora (6.68%),
Aspergilli-Penicilli (5.95%), Fusarium (5.6%), Pyricularia
(4.38%), Curvularia (2.81%), fusiform ascospores (2.74%),
basidiospores (2.65%), Alternaria (2.61%), Sclerotium
(2.23%), uredospores (2.18%), etc.
30
25
20
15
10
5
0
Winter (Dec - Feb.)
Summer
(March - May)
Rainy (June - Sept) Retreating monsoon

(Oct. - Nov.)
Fig: 1 - Seasonwise variations of total indoor fungal

airspora inside and outside the rice mill during 2010..
concentration (40.56% in Site 1 and 42.83% in Site 2) of

airspora was observed in rainy season which corresponds
to temperature (max. 28.60C and min. 22.220C), relative
humidity (89.5%), rainfall (7.4 mm) and wind speed (2.7
km/hr) and the lowest (19.5% in Site 1 and 16.28% in Site
2) in winter season which corresponds to temperature (max.
23.90C and min. 6.30C), relative humidity (81%), rainfall
(0.7 mm) and wind speed (2.5 km/hr). It was evident from
the above findings that there was a wide range of relative
humidity and temperature in between the distribution of
highest and lowest concentration of fungal airspora. Thus
showed the close correlation between the concentration of
airspora and the effects of favourable meteorological factors
besides other artificial factors like availability of abundant
substrates, shaking and agitation of milling machines, etc.
The finding was in agreement with that of other workers
(Hasnain, 1993; Singh and Singh, 2005 and Devi and Singh, 2007).
Allergenic biopollutants and biodeteriogenic fungal spores
comprised major share in the airspora of indoor air of rice
mill in Imphal area. In the present study, a large number
of known allergenic fungal spore types like Aspergillus,
Chaetomium, Cladosporium, Curvularia, Epicoccum,
Fusarium,
Helminthosporium,
Mucor,
Penicillium,
Rhizopus, etc. which are known to be associated with
respiratory and other allergy (Agarwal and Shivpuri, 1974)
were freely present in the indoor air of rice mill. Working
more duration continuously for long time might cause
harmful effect to the workers.Similar trend of present study
in far and depth might be beneficial in detection of outbreak
of occupational hazards and similar health problems to the
mill workers. Further, it is suggested that air monitoring of
biopollutants and biodeterioagents be made in rice mills and
similar working environments in Imphal and other parts of
the state.
Table 1: Percentage contribution of different spore types

in the indoor and outdoor air of rice mill in Imphal during 2010.
Sl. No.
Spore types
Percentage contribution of
spores
Site 1 (inside
the rice mill)
Site 2 (outside
the rice mill)
23
Stemphylium
0.03
24.
Tetraploa
0.05
0.03
25
Torula
0.04
0.54
26
Trichoconis
0.02
27
Trichothecium
0.01
57.32
73.05
OTHER TYPES
6.81
8.63
GRAND TOTAL
100
100
MASTIGOMYCOTINA
1.
Albugo
13.66
0.37
1.37
ZYGOMYCOTINA
1.
Round spores
(Rhizopus- Mucor
type)
ASCOMYCOTINA
1.
Chaetomium
0.90
3.05
2.
Claviceps
27.02
3.
Fusiform ascospores
2.74
0.15
4.
Pleospora
0.01
30.67
3.20
BASIDIOMYCOTINA
1.
Basidiospores
2.65
0.09
2.
Uredospores
2.18
4.83
0.09
DEUTEROMYCOTINA
1.
Alternaria
2.61
5.49
2.
Aspergilli Penicilli
5.95
19.67
3.
Beltrania
0.01
0.71
4.
Bispora
0.01
0.35
5.
Cercospora
0.34
0.20
6.
Cladosporium
0.39
21.49
7.
Colletotrichum
0.10
8.
Corynespora
0.01
0.10
9.
Curvularia
2.81
6.57
10.
Diplodia
0.01
11.
Drechslera
0.46
0.08
12.
Epicoccum
0.10
0.01
13.
Fusarium
5.60
9.23
14.
Helminthosporium
(= Bipolaris)
25.51
15.
Memnoniella
0.03
0.01
16.
Nigrospora
6.68
2.47
17.
Periconia
0.05
0.02
18.
Pestalotiopsis
0.01
4.51
19
Pithomyces
0.01
0.30
20
Pyricularia
4.38
21
Sclerotium
2.23
1.08
22
Spegazzinia
0.01
0.05
IV. ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS
The author is grateful to the Principal, Standard College,
Imphal for laboratory facilities and to Meteorological Section,
ICAR Research Complex, Imphal for meteorological data.
V. REFERENCES
[1] Agarwal, M.K. and Shivpuri, D.N. 1974 Fungus

spores: their role in respiratory allergy. Adv. in Pollen

Spore Res., 1:78-128.
[2]

Ainsworth, G.C. 1966 A general purpose classification

for fungi. Bibl. Syst. Mycol., 1: 1-4.
[3]

Barnett, H.L. and Hunter, B.B. 1972. Illustrated genera

of Imperfect fungi. 3rd Edn. Burgass, Publishing Co.,
USA, pp 241.
[4]

Chakre, O.J. 1987 Agricultural practices too pollute

environment. Science Reporter, (7): 376.
[5]

Devi, A.P. and Singh, N.I. 2007 Indoor aeromycology

of certain workplace environments in Manipur and
their management practices, in N.I. Singh (Ed.),
Endemic bioresources of India, (Bishen Singh
Mahendra Pal Singh,) 35-44.
[6]

Gimenez, C., Fouad, K., Choudat, D., Laurillard,

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Vijayanti Prakashan, Aurangabad. Pp:316
BIOCHEMICAL NETWORKS:
THE CHEMISTRY OF LIFE
Rhythm Upadhyaya
Rhyme Upadhyaya

Assam University, Silchar,India
E-mail : rhythm upadhyaya@ymail.com

Future Institute Of Engineering and Management
West Bengal University of Technology, Kolkata,India
E-mail : rhyme_u7@yahoo.in
ABSTRACT
Biochemical networks are the central processing units of life.
They can perform a variety of computational tasks analogous
to electronic circuits. Their design principles, however, are
markedly different: in a biochemical network, computations
are performed by molecules that chemically and physically
interact with each other. Biochemical networks can be viewed
as interconnected processes forming an intricate network
of functional and physical interactions between molecular
species in the cell. The amount of information available on
such pathways for different organisms is increasing very
rapidly. This is offering the possibility of performing various
analyses on the structure of the full network of pathways for
one organism as well as across different organisms. Various
forms of data models have been devised for the analysis of
biochemical networks.
Index Terms : Biochemistry, Metabolic pathways, Gene
regulatory, Signaling pathways.
I. NTRODUCTION
Biochemical Networks are molecular interaction network
in biological processes. Analysis of Biochemical Networks,
deals with abstractions, algorithms, and statistical models,
for gathering information from a broad class of rapidly
emerging datasets, referred to as biochemical networks.
While domain experts see great value in such data and how
it can be used for phenotype characterization, knockout
experiments, drug design, and, in general, understanding
the biochemical processes in the cell, there is increasing
realization that the computational framework needed to
answer the questions needs to be developed. The techniques
for generating, validating, and analyzing network data
are contributing directly to the broader systems view to
biology. A key aim of postgenomic biomedical research is to
systematically catalogue all molecules and their interactions
within a living cell. There is a clear need to understand how
these molecules and the interactions between them determine
the function of this enormously complex machinery, both

in isolation and when surrounded by other cells. Rapid
advances in network biology indicate that cellular networks
are governed by universal laws and offer a new conceptual
framework that could potentially revolutionize our view of
biology and disease pathologies in the twenty-first century.
Identifying the sources of variations and flow of information
in biochemical networks is to understand how cells control
and exploit biochemical fluctuations. we must identify
the sources of stochasticity and quantify their effects.
Cellular biochemical networks are highly interconnected:
a perturbation in reaction rates or molecular concentrations
may affect numerous cellular processes..
II.TYPES OF BIOCHEMICAL NETWORKS

Biochemical networks represent the biological reactions
and interaction network in a cell. Each reaction is identified
with its enzyme, which in turn is coded by certain gene(s). In
[1]There are three types of biochemical networks- Metabolic
Pathways, Gene Regulatory Pathways , Signaling Pathways.
[a] Metabolic Pathways:
Metabolic Pathways are series of chemical reactions
occurring within a cell. In each Metabolic Pathway a
principal chemical is modified by a series of chemical
reactions. Each metabolic pathway consists of a series
of biochemical reactions that are connected by their
intermediates: the products of one reaction are the substrates
for subsequent reactions, and so on. Metabolic pathways
are often considered to flow in one direction. Although all
chemical reactions are technically reversible, conditions in
the cell are often such that it is thermodynamically more
favorable for flux to flow in one direction of a reaction. For
example, one pathway may be responsible for the synthesis
of a particular amino acid, but the breakdown of that amino
acid may occur via a separate and distinct pathway. One
example of an exception to this rule is the metabolism of
glucose. Glycolysis results in the breakdown of glucose, but
several reactions in the glycolysis pathway are reversible and
P 85
participate in the re-synthesis of glucose (gluconeogenesis).

Some more examples of metabolic pathways include
Phosphorylation, Krebs Cycle etc. Metabolic pathways
are often regulated by feedback inhibition Some metabolic
pathways flow in a cycle wherein each component of the
cycle is a substrate for the subsequent reaction in the cycle,
such as in the Krebs Cycle.
[b] Gene Regulatory Pathways:
In [5] A regulatory pathway is a coordinated series of reactions
and molecular interactions regulating the expression and/or
activity of enzymes and transporters. It consists of set of
genes, proteins, small molecules, and their mutual regulatory
interactions. Gene regulatory networks explicitly represent
the causality of developmental processes. They explain
exactly how genomic sequence encodes the regulation of
expression of the sets of genes that progressively generate
developmental patterns and execute the construction of
multiple states of differentiation. Gene regulatory networks
are inhomogeneous compositions of different kinds of
subcircuits, each performing a specific kind of function. A
genetic network consists of a set of genes that are related
through a collection of regulatory proteins. Each gene may
require an input and may produce an output. A genes output
results in the production of either regulatory or constructive
proteins. Regulatory proteins act as inputs for the other genes
and affect their expression, while constructive proteins make
up the physical structure of the organism.The modelling of
gene regulatory networks relies on characterization of the
behaviour of small subsystems, formation of hypotheses
about how these subsystems interconnect, translation of these
hypotheses into a mathematical model and experimentation
to yield results that indicate necessary changes to the original
hypotheses.
[c] Signaling Pathways:
In [2] Finally, signal transduction is a term describing the
transfer of information (called signals)from one cellular
location (often the extracellular medium) to another
(often the cell nucleus); a signal transduction pathway is
coordinated series of reactions and interactions realizing a
signal transduction. Cell-cell interactions through signaltransduction pathways are crucial in the coordination of
embryonic development.Typically, signalling pathways are
activated by the binding of a ligand to a transmembrane
receptor, which in turn leads to the modificationof
cytoplasmic transducers. Subsequently, these transducers
activate transcription factors that ultimately alter gene
expression.One of the most surprising findings about
signaling processes is that only a few pathways are involved
in and are responsible for most of cell development. Until
recently, studies of the evolution of signalling pathways were
carried out by searching for the individual components of
these pathways in those organisms considered to represent
P 86

taxa that were phylogenetically informative for metazoan

evolution. 4 types of intercellular signaling -Endocrine,
Paracrine, Neuronal signaling, Contact-dependent signaling.
signalling pathways are nonlinear, highly integrative
biological modules with robust properties that ensure
reproducible outcomes of developmental processes.At
the same time, however, they are flexible enough to allow
changes in the signaling response during development and
evolution.
III. BIOCHEMICAL NETWORK

DATABASES AND TOOLS
[a] Databases :
In [1] They hold data on biochemical pathways and their
components (e.g. enzymes, substrates,products) and on the
correponding interactions and chemical reactions. They are
encyclopedic references for pathway information; they can
be queried for information retrieval, and can be analysed
through computer programs.
Some existing databases focus on specific types of
interactions e.g. BRENDA (enzymatic catalysis) , DIP
(protein-protein interactions), Transfac (protein-DNA
interactions , and RegulonDB (protein-DNA interactions)
There are several databases on metabolic pathways,
such as KEGG (genes, enzymes, metabolic reactions) ,
EMP (enzymes, pathways) and WIT (metabolic pathway
reconstruction), EcoCyc (metabolic pathways, E.coli) and
MetaCyc (metabolic pathways of other organisms), aMAZE
, CSNDB, PathDB UM-BBD, SHARKdb, etc. The BIND
database contains information on interactions that take part
in signal transduction pathways. An analysis and comparison
of these databases can be found in . In most databases the
information is represented in a (simple) relational form. The
quality of the underlying relational data model is important
for the extraction of suitable information for analysing the
networks.
[a.1] Metabolic Pathways Databases:
In [9] Compendium of pathways describing metabolic and
physical processes (Primary source for metabolic information
initiated by Stanford Research Initiative) .ECOCYC- Entire
genome and biochemical machinery of E. coli , METACYCPathways of more than 165 species, HUMANCYC- Human
metabolic pathways and the human genome, BIOCYCCollection of databases for several organism, KEGGComprehensive Links to several useful databases
[a.2] Gene Regulatory Databases:
In [9] Organize experimental and/or in silico interactions
.BIND -200,000 documented biomolecular interactions
and
complexes,
MINTExperimentally
verified
interactions,HPRD -Elegant and comprehensive presentation
of the interactions, entities,and evidences, MPACTYeast interactions. A part of MIPS, DIP -Experimentally
determined interactions.INTACT- Database and analysis
system of binary and multiprotein interactions,PDZBASEPDZ Domain containing proteins, GNPV- Based on specific
experiments and literature, BIOGRID- Physical and
genetic interactions,UNIHI- Comprehensive human protein
interactions, OPHID -Combines PPI from BIND, HPRD,
and MINT.
TiGER (Tissue-specific Gene Expression and Regulation) is
a database for generating comprehensive information about
human tissue-specific gene regulation, including both
expression and regulatory data.
[a.3] Signaling Pathways Databases:
In [9] Pathways pertaining to signal transduction. PANTHERCompendium of pathways built using CellDesigner ,
REACTOME-Hierarchical layout. Extensive links to
relevant databases
BIOMODELS - Domain experts curated pathways and
associated mathematical models. STKE- Repository of
canonical pathways.INGENUITY- Systems Commercial
mammalian biological knowledgebase, PID -Compendium
of several assembled signaling pathways, BIOPP -Repository
of biological pathways built using CellDesigner.
[b] Pathway tools:
Pathway tools are comprehensive software environment
that supports construction of organism specific databases.
Pathway building tools are required to populate, visualize,
and store a pathway. Currently there ar various pathway
building tools that provide the ability to extract information
as well as to support multiple standard formats. Cytoscape,
CellDesigner, and JDesigner are graphical environments for
constructing pathways that can import/export SBML models
for simulation.
[b.1] Metabolic Pathway Tools:
RAHNUMA (Hypergraph based tool), ARCADIA (A
visualization tool for metabolic pathways.),UTOPIA(model/
view/controller pattern.)PW-COMP(A graph comparative
tool),ELEMENTARY MODE ANALYSIS(characterizing
cellular metabolism), KATSURA,PATHWAY HUNTER
TOOL(shortest pathway analysis)
[b.2] Gene regulatory tools:
GENEVIS-(provides
a
visual
environment
for
exploring the dynamics of genetic regulatory
networks),PAINT(promoter analysis and interaction network
toolset),ZLAB,TRANSFAC(Transcriptional Gene regulation
in eukaryotes),MicroRNAS(regulate gene expression in a
sequence specific manner), ARIADNE.
[b.3] Signaling pathway tools:

STATS(signal transducers and activators of transcription),
Cell Surface Receptor.
Pathway Tools supports analysis of omics datasets (e.g., gene
expression and metabolomics) by painting omics data onto a
diagram of the full metabolic map of the organism, or onto a
diagram of the full regulatory network. Pathway Tools also
computes several variations of enrichment analysis. Pathway
Tools performs metabolic network analyses including
finding choke points (potential drug targets) in metabolic
networks, dead-end metabolite analysis, and reachability
analysis. Pathway Tools has its own genome browser, which
has a microbial orientation. In addition, Pathway Tools can
be coupled with other genome browsers to add support for
pathways to an existing MOD, such as was done for SGD
and DictyBase.
IV. ANALYSIS AND MODELLING

OF BIOCHEMICAL NETWORKS
In [1] Kinetic models detail the interaction between
substrates and enzymes; they involve the solution of
differential equations, for which several quantitative
parameters have to be specified. Finally, metabolic control
analysis is concerned with quantifying the control of flux
among enzymes. [1]Metabolic flux analysis considers
models that relate to the quantification of flux. It is based on
the principle of mass conservation. It requires information
on stoichiomtry; no data on enzyme kinetic is required. This
includes metabolic balancing and isotopic balancing. Petri
nets have been widely used for the formalisation and the
simulation of biochemical processes.[1]Petri nets, an active
research domain in computer science and mathematics, are
a graph-oriented formalism allowing the modelling and
analysis the concurrent behaviour of systems. Petri nets are
special bipartite graphs with an associated semantics. The
two types of nodes are place nodes and transition nodes In
[12] Computer modelling and simulation are commonly used
to analyse engineered systems.Biological systems differ
in that they often cannot be accurately characterized, so
simulations are far from exact. evolution results in recurring,
dynamic organizational principles in biological systems,
and that simulation can help to identify them and analyse
their dynamic properties. By contrast, the components of
biological systems are difficult to characterize. The kinetic
behaviour of a protein specie may depend on its amount,
conformation, cellular location, and the milieu of other
molecules present in the cell at the same time. None of these
variables can be defined exactly. Many are fundamentally
only definable as members of Fuzzy Sets with intrinsically
noisy distribution profiles. Moreover, experimental
P 87
measurement of molecular concentrations, protein states,

interaction kinetics, etc. is inherently inexact. In-vitro
measurements often do not reflect conditions inside a cell and
can be orders of magnitude different from in -vivo values. Invivo measurements, on the other hand, can currently only be
carried out by proxy and provide very approximate values.
For instance, the long half-life of Green Fluorescent Protein
(as well as Luciferase and other reporters), means that in
-vivo measurements represent the time-average (integral) of
an activity, not its instantaneous value. Complex networks of
biochemical reactions, such as intracellular protein signaling
pathways and genetic networks, are often conceptualized
in terms of ``modules, semi-independent collections
of components that perform a well-defined function
and which may be incorporated in multiple pathways.
However, due to sequestration of molecular messengers
during interactions and other effects, collectively referred
to as retroactivity, real biochemical systems do not exhibit
perfect modularity. Biochemical signaling pathways can be
insulated from impedance and competition effects, which
inhibit modularity, through enzymatic ``futile cycles which
consume energy, typically in the form of ATP. In[13] We
have developed BioNetS to be a reliable model for studying
the stochastic dynamics of large biochemical networks.
Important features of BioNetS are its ability to handle
hybrid models that consist of both continuous and discrete
random variables and its ability to model cell growth and
division. We have verified the accuracy and efficiency of the
numerical methods by considering several test systems. We
have developed the software package Biochemical Network
Stochastic Simulator (BioNetS) for efficiently and accurately
simulating stochastic models of biochemical networks.
BioNetS has a graphical user interface that allows models to
be entered in a straightforward manner, and allows the user to
specify the type of random variable (discrete or continuous)
for each chemical species in the network. The discrete
variables are simulated using an efficient implementation
of the Gillespie algorithm. For the continuous random
variables, BioNetS constructs and numerically solves the
appropriate chemical Langevin equations. The software
package has been developed to scale efficiently with network
size, thereby allowing large systems to be studied. In [14],we
introduce the use of ShReD as a round trip distance metric,
which can be combined with a partition algorithm (adapted
from Newmans earlier work on community detection)
to systematically identify biochemical reaction modules
that feature cyclical interactions. The notion of grouping
together network components based on retroactivity
was first proposed by Saez-Rodriguez and coworkers, who
hypothesized that a strictly downstream component should
have little impact on the activity of an upstream component
unless there is a feedback or retroactive relationship. It has
been suggested that such feedback relationships contribute
to robustness with respect to external perturbation, notably
P 88

in signal transduction networks

The ShReD metric
accounts for cyclical interactions that span multiple reaction
steps, and thus significantly extends on the prior work on
retroactivity, which focused on local interactions between
neighboring components. Previously, (shortest) path lengths
between network components have been used to identify
reaction modules by clustering, but without consideration of
directionality and retroactivity . In[14] The signaling network
was reconstructed based on a published model of epidermal
growth factor receptor (EGFR) signaling . The model was
downloaded as an SBML file and cast into the form of a
stoichiometric matrix based on the directional interactions
between signaling molecules defined in the SBML file. The
model consisted of 322 signaling molecules (metabolites and
proteins) participating in 211 signaling reactions. In addition
to the signaling reactions, the model includes 238 allosteric
interactions between the signaling molecules and reactions.
The reactions in this model were a priori assigned to groups
based on their previously catalogued function . For example,
the reactions that convert ERK1/2 and PKB/akt into their
active forms were assigned to the MAPK cascade and PIP
signaling, respectively. This initial grouping, which reflects
historical knowledge of signaling modularity, provided a
basis for comparison between biological knowledge-driven,
canonical associations versus partition-driven, systematically
obtained network modules.In[14] A stoichiometric network
model of human hepatocyte metabolism was reconstructed
from the KEGG reaction database and further augmented by
the addition of xenobiotic transformation reactions, as well
as regulatory interactions mediated by allosteric effectors.
The model comprised 159 reactions, 146 metabolites, and
61 regulatory interactions. The xenobiotic transformation
reactions were added to describe the metabolism of the
anti-diabetic compound troglitazone (TGZ), including steps
needed to supply conjugation substrates such as glutathione
(GSH).
In[15] Understanding of the logic and dynamics of generegulatory and biochemical networks is a major challenge
of systems biology. To facilitate this research topic, we have
developed a modeling/simulating tool called CellDesigner.
CellDesigner primarily has capabilities to visualize, model,
and simulate gene-regulatory and biochemical networks.
Two major characteristics embedded in CellDesigner boost
its usability to create/import/export models: 1) solidly
defined and comprehensive graphical representation
(systems biology graphical notation) of network models
and 2) systems biology markup language (SBML) as a
model-describing basis, which function as intertool media
to import/export SBML-based models. In addition, since its
initial release in 2004, we have extended various capabilities
of CellDesigner. For example, we integrated other systems
biology workbench enabled simulation/analysis software
packages. CellDesigner also supports simulation and
parameter search, supported by integration with SBML ODE

Solver, enabling users to simulate through our sophisticated
graphical user interface. Users can also browse and modify
existing models by referring to existing databases directly
through CellDesigner. Those extended functions empower
CellDesigner as not only a modeling/simulating tool but also
an integrated analysis suite. CellDesigner is implemented
in Java and thus supports various platforms (i.e., Windows,
Linux, and MacOS X).CellDesigner is freely available via
our Web site. In[4] The complete model, protein-protein
interactions between receptors on the membranes of adjacent
cells were also included so that the development of each cell
would be influenced by the state of neighboring cells. For
each cell, the state of the neighboring cells influences the
transcription of the TFs. Therefore, for each cell, the choice
of whether to differentiate into a neuron (corresponding
to a state with TF-1 expression high and TF-2 expression
repressed) or not (corresponding to TF-2 expression high
and TF- 1 expression repressed) depends on the state of
theneighboring cell. These interactions between cells are
critical for the development of boundaries between regions of
neural and nonneural tissue.In[3] We have presented efficient
algorithms for finding simple paths and rooted trees in graphs
based on the color-coding technique and several biologically
motivated extensions of this technique. We applied these
algorithms to search for protein interaction pathways in the
yeast protein network. Sixty-eight percent of the identified
paths and 63% of the identified trees were significantly
functionally enriched. We have also shown the utility of the
algorithm in recovering known MAP-kinase and ubiquitinligation pathways in yeast. While these results are promising,
there are a number of possible improvements that could be
incorporated into this framework: (1) adapt the color-coding
methodology to identify more general subnetworks, building
on our ideas for detecting trees and two-terminal seriesparallel subgraphs, and (2) extend the framework to identify
conserved pathways across multiple species. In addition, our
algorithms could be applied to other biological networks,
most evidently to metabolic networks.In[6] The modelling
of gene regulatory networks relies on characterization of
the behaviour of small subsystems, formation of hypotheses
about how these subsystems interconnect, translation of these
hypotheses into a mathematical model and experimentation
to yield results that indicate necessary changes to the
original hypotheses. Of course, the same general procedure
might be carried out without reduction of the hypotheses to
mathematical form and much of what we now know about
gene regulation has been garnered in this fashion. However,
working with equations has the advantage of making it clear
what assumptions have been made and where contradictions
arise when comparisons are made with experiment.
Furthermore, the complexity of these systems is such that
it is nearly impossible to predict all of the consequences of
a given hypothesis simply by abstract reasoning.In [10] For
both structural and dynamical modeling of a biochemical

network in one unified framework, we have proposed
an S-tree representation that can encompass both direct
mapping onto a network structure and transformation of
data into a set of dynamic equations. Since S-tree modeling
is intrinsically suitable for representing a sparse network,
we can address the topological issue of a biochemical
network as well as the issue of parameter estimation in this
framework. S-tree based GP has thus been presented for
identification of a biochemical network. As this algorithm
has the advantage of automatically assembling the sparse
primitives of a biochemical network, it has the potential to
identify the underlying structure in a more efficient way. By
applying the proposed technique to the identification of an
artificial genetic network based on generated time-course
data, we have verified its capability of finding the reasonable
parameter estimates as well as unraveling the true sparse
structure in a robust way even if we do not have any a priori
knowledge about the exact number of underlying feedback
loops in a given system. Furthermore, the S-tree based
GP could find feasible solutions of the real biochemical
network example without the regularization factors such
as the threshold (to remove the minor connections) and the
coefficient of the penalty term.
V. CONCLUSION
The field of systems molecular biology is largely concerned
with the study of biochemical networks consisting of proteins,
RNA, DNA, metabolites, and other molecules. These
networks participate in control and signaling in development,
regulation, and metabolism, by processing environmental
signals, sequencing internal events such as gene expression,
and producing appropriate cellular responses. It is of
great interest to be able to infer dynamical properties
of a biochemical network through the analysis of wellcharacterized subsystems and their interconnections. Cells
use complex networks of interacting molecular components
to transfer and process information. These computational
devices of living cellsare responsible for many important
cellular processes, including cell-cycle regulation and signal
transduction. Here we address the issue of variations in
their biochemical networks.Intrinsic fluctuations due to the
stochastic nature of biochemical reactions can have large
effects on the response of biochemical networks.
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APPLICATIONS OF ZEOLITES FOR ALKYLATION REACTIONS:

CATALYTIC AND THERMODYNAMIC PROPERTIES.
V.R.Chumbhale
Catalysis and Inorganic Chemistry Division, CSIR-National Chemical
Laboratory, Pune-411008.
ABSTRACT
Key words : Zeolite, ZSM-5, Isopropyl toluene (IPT/
Cymene), Diisopropyl toluene (DIPT), silylation, Activation
energy
I. NTRODUCTION
Catalysis is one of the most important areas of research in
academia and technology. It offers numerous green chemistry
benefits including lower energy requirements , catalytic
versus stoichiometric amounts of materials, increased
selectivity, decreased use of processing and separation agents
and allows for the use of less toxic materials [1].
Heterogeneous catalysis, in particular, addresses the goals of
green chemistry by providing the ease of separation of product
and catalyst, thereby eliminating the need for separation
through distillation or extraction [2]. In chemical industry,
conventional fridel-craft catalysts are being replaced by
zeolites for various hydrocarbon conversion processes
Zeolites are crystalline aluminosilicates represented by the
formula: M2 / n O, Al2O3, XSiO2, YH2O where M is a
cation of valence n. The zeolite structure consists of a three
dimensional net-work of AlO4 and SiO4 tetrahedra linked to
each other by sharing the oxygen ions. The excess negative
charge on the aluminum ion is balanced by an alkali metal ion
which can be partially or completely exchanged with other
mono-di- or trivalent ions. The SiO4, AlO4 net-work forms
honeycombed structure consisting of cavities and channels
of molecular dimensions. ZSM-5, a zeolite discovered by
mobil in 1965, is made up by a ten membered oxygen rings
that are interconnected to form a chain. Linking of these
chains leads to a framework that contains two intersecting
channels types, straight and sinusoidal channels. Both
channels consist of ten - membered rings with a diameter of
5.3 5.6 (straight channels) and 5.1 5.5 (sinusoidal
or zigzag channels) [3, 4]. Zeolites are extensively used in
industries as catalysts for petroleum refining and production
of fine chemicals. Zeolites have greater advantage over
conventional heterogeneous catalyst in many applications
involving acid, acid-base and base for oxidation -reduction
and polyfunctional catalysis. The main features of zeolites

that make them very useful as heterogeneous catalysts are:
their well defined crystalline structure, good internal stability,
high internal surface area, ion-exchange properties, ease of
regeneration to regain initial activity, well-defined micropore
system and shape selectivities and ability to sorb and
concentrate hydrocarbons. Modification of zeolites can be
achieved by cation exchange, metal loading, dealumination,
silication, alumination and silylation [5]. The investigation
of modified ZSM-5 zeolite by silylation for alkylation
of ethylbenzene with ethanol is reported in the literature
[6] In the present work the effect of process parameters
temperature, weight hourly space velocity, reactant molar
ratio on the products formation such as isopropyl toluene
(IPT / cymene) and diisopropyltoluene (DIPT) in alkylation
of toluene with isopropyl alcohol at atmospheric pressure is
presented. Also the influence of different extent of silylation
on these two products is studied. Cymenes (isopropyl
toluene) especially the meta and para isomers are important
intermediates as they can , after oxidation and cleavage
yield m-and p-cresol which are important intermediates
for resins. Commercial cymene/cresol processes have been
in operation by Sumitomo chemical and Mitsumi since
1969. Hydroquinone and resorcinol have also been made
commercially from the corresponding diisipropyl benzene
by oxidation and cleavage [7]. This paper also includes the
Arrhenius activation energy and thermodynamic properties
(enthalpy, entropy and free energy) of HZSM-5 zeolite for
the title reaction.
II. EXPERIMENTAL
Material: The synthesis of high silica Na -ZSM -5 type
zeolite was carried out as reported in patent [8]. The
following raw materials were used for the synthesis. Sodium
silicate: composition (wt %) SiO2 = 27.2 g; Na2O 8.4 g
and water 64.4 g. Aluminum sulphate: Al2 (SO4) 3.16 H2O
(E. Merck); Sulphuric acid (wt %) 98 (BDH Analytical
grade); Trimethyl -n-propyl ammonium bromide TEPA Br
(Synthesized in the laboratory)
Synthesis procedure: Appropriate amounts of aluminum
sulphate and sulphuric acid were dissolved in deionised

P 91
water to yield solution A. A calculated quantity of TEPA Br

was added to solution of sodium silicate of required strength
to yield solution B. The two solutions A and B were then
mixed in a stainless steel reactor vessel (capacity 250 mls)
with continuous stirring to form a free flowing gel which had
the molar composition:
4.38 (TEPA) 2 O, 27.6 Na2O, Al2O3, 87.7 SiO2, 32.62 H2O
The vessel was the closed as quickly as possible to prevent
to prevent sorption of CO2 from air. The reaction vessel was
placed in an air oven at the required temperature and left at
this temperature (180 C) for 96 h. The reactor was cooled
after completion of crystallization and contents were filtered
and washed with water till the filtrate was free of the anion.
The resulting sample was dried in a static air oven at 120
C for overnight. This sample after cooling was calcined at
500 C for 8h to decompose intracrystalline organic (TEPA)
base. The sample Na-ZSM-5 was then cooled and kept over
saturated ammonium chloride solution in a desiccator. The
Na-ZSM-5 sample was treated with 5M ammonium chloride
solution (solution to zeolite ratio = 15) under reflux condition
at 95 C on water bath by repeated exchange. Sodium ion
in Na-ZSM-5 was exchanged with NH4 + ions. The sample
was then dried at 100 C and calcined at 550 C to convert
to NH4ZSM-5 to H+ form (HZSM-5). It was then cooled
and kept over saturated ammonium chloride solution.
Characterization: The zeolite sample was analysed by wet
chemical /gravimetric analysis characterized by XRD (for
crystallinity) and ammonia TPD for acidity following the
standard procedure [9].
Silica deposition: The calcined samples were refluxed using
TEOS at 353 K for 12 h and dried in an air oven for 2h at 393
K and calcined at 823 K to obtain 4% silica deposited on the
sample. The same procedure was repeated twice to obtain 8
% silica deposited sample. The weight of the silica deposited
was obtained by the formula [(Weight of the sample after
silylation - weight of the sample before silylation) / weight of
the sample before silylation]. The weight of silica deposited
was obtained by the formula: [(Weight of the sample after
silylation weight of the
sample before silylation)/weight of the sample before
silylation] 100.
Reaction procedure: Toluene and isopropanol were high
purity reagents and were used without further purification. The
catalytic alkylation of toluene was carried out at atmospheric
pressure using a fixed bed down flow integral silica reactor
(1.8 cm ID 30 cm length). The 2g zeolite sample (10-22
mesh particle size) was loaded in silica reactor and was
activated in a dry air at 550 C for 8 h to drive off moisture
and adsorbed hydrocarbons if any and cooled to reaction
P 92

temperature in the flow of dry nitrogen. The reaction mixture

containing toluene and isopropyl alcohol ( at the specific
molar composition) was fed from the top at the desired rate
using a syringe feed pump ( Model 352 ,Sage Instrument
Co., USA) , vaporized in the preheater zone packed with the
inert material and then passed through the catalyst bed . The
reaction temperature was maintained constant through the
catalyst bed. All temperature were recorded with a centrally
placed calibrated chromel-alumel thermocouple. The vapour
from the reactor was cooled by passing through chilled
water condensers and analysed at regular intervals using a
Shimadzu gas chromatograph (Model GC R1A) fitted with
an Apiezone L column and FID detector at 175 C using
nitrogen as a carrier gas. Gaseous products were analysed
using a porapak Q column. The appropriate response factor
was applied. The products were identified by injecting
standard samples. Conversion, selectivity and yield were
calculated by using following formulae:
Conversion (wt %) = isopropanol in the reactant feed isopropanol in the product / isopropanol in the reactant feed
Selectivity to particular product I (wt %) = Concentration
of the particular product I in the product / isopropanol
conversion
Yield (wt %) = Conversion Selectivity
WHSV (h -1) = weight of the reactants fed per hours (gram)
/ weight of the catalyst (gram)
III. RESULT AND DISCUSSION

The XRD pattern of synthesized zeolite showed a specific
diffraction pattern assigned to ZSM-5 type zeolite [10]
Sample was well crystalline (99.3 % crystallinity and it had
BET surface area = 413 M2 g-1, pore volume = 0.158 cc g -1
and total acid sites density of 4.7 per unit cell.
The alkylation of toluene is an electrophilic substitution on
the aromatic ring activated on the ortho and the para position
by the presence of the methyl group. The para position is
favored because of steric hindrance of the methyl group. The
para position is also favored by shape selectivity due to proper
pore structure of the zeolite catalyst because of its smaller
dimension than ortho and meta isomers. The meta isomer
is thermodynamically more stable and it is present in the
product, comes from direct isopropylation or isomerisation
of the other two (para or ortho) isomers. The most important
route of meta -isopropyl toluene (M-IPT) formation is the
isomerisation, while the amount formed through direct
isopropylation is less significant for mechanistic reasons
as mentioned above. Hence the final isomer distribution
depends on the combination of alkylation and isomerization

rates. Which in turn depends on substrate and catalyst
features (acidity and pore structure). The aromatic alkylation
always involves secondary alkylation thus in the present
case diisoproylation occurred yielding diisipropyl toluene
(DIPT) along with monoalkylation which yields isopropyl
toluene (IPT) (IPT is also known as cymene). The purpose
of this study is to compare the effect of silica deposition on
catalytic performance in terms of DIPT/IPT and yield to
different products. The scheme of the silica deposition over
zeolite surface is depicted below:
#: Catalyst HZSM-5 (Si/Al =100), Reactant feed: toluene/

isopropanol (mole) = 2/1 WHSV = 4.86 h-1; Pressure = 1 Atm
Table 2: Effect of WHSV #
WHSV
h -1
Conversion
(wt %)
Selectivity
to
Cymene
(wt %)
Yield of
Cymene
(wt %)
DIPT /IPT
10 2
3.66
58.60
12.40
7.26
14.52
4.86
98.51
3.12
3.56
3.40
9.8
51.20
10.13
5.19
7.63
#: Catalyst: HZSM-5 (Si/Al = 100) Reactant feed (Toluene:

Isopropanol) 2:1 (mole ratio), T= 300 C Pressure = 1 Atm
The silica deposition over zeolites makes the surface inactive
depending on the severity of modification [5, 6]. Possible
alkylation products from toluene and isopropanol are mainly
ortho, meta and para isopropyl toluene (IPT). Benzene
and xylene are formed as major side products. Among the
aromatic impurities, cumene ethyl substituted toluene is
formed in negligible amounts. The reason that n-propyl
toluene is not formed in the reaction is that the isopropyl
carbonium ion formed through dehydration of isopropyl
alcohol is not isomerizes to n-propyl carbonium ion. IPT is
an important intermediate for the production of cresol. It is
also used for the production of several important materials
such as pharmaceuticals, fungicides, pesticides, perfumery,
polymer and special solvents and can be used as a heat
transfer media.
Table 1 to 4 show the effect of reaction temperature, weight
hourly space velocity, and reactant feed mole ratios and timeon -stream in hours on catalytic performance of HZSM5 zeolite with Si/Al atomic ratio of 100. Table 5 compares
the catalytic performances of HZSM-5 and silica deposited
HZSM-5 catalysts. Conversion of isopropanol, selectivity
to cymenes (IPT) and the ratio of diisipropyl toluenes to
isopropyl toluenes (DIPT/IPT) are performance indicators.
Table 1: Effect of temperature on catalyst performance #
T ( C )
Conversion
(wt %)
Selectivity
to
Cymene
(wt %)
Yield of
Cymene
(wt %)
DIPT /IPT
10 2
200
28.17
2.79
0.78
2.17
250
93.77
3.90
3.65
14.23
300
98.00
3.60
3.50
3.41
350
93.47
4.20
2.93
12.6
From Table 1 it is revealed that as the temperature is increased

from 200 to 300 C, the conversion is also increased from
28-98 % and upon further increased it was dropped to 93
% at 350 C. The % selectivity of cymenes was higher at
250 C with high amount of di-isopropyl toluene (DIPT).
However, the table 1 shows the ratio of DIPT/IPT and there
is no separate entry of DIPT alone. The optimum temperature
for the reaction was found to be between 275-300 C under
the employed process parameters. Table 2 explains the effect
of WHSV on the performance. As WHSV is increased from
3.6 to 9.8, the conversion is increased from 58 to 98 % and
on further increase it was dropped to 51 %. Although the
yield of cymenes is more at lower WHSV of 3.6, the DIPT/
IPT molar ratio is highest (14.5) and the same increase is
found from 3.4 to 7.63 at WHSV=9.8 h -1. The WHSV =
4.86 h-1 is found to be optimum. Table 3 shows conversion
with variation in the reactants molar composition. The
conversion of isopropanol is found to be highest with lower
ratio of DIPT/IPT and toluene to isopropanol molar ratio of
2 is found to be optimum at 300 C and WHSV = 4.86 h-1.
When the catalyst was screened for time-on -stream for 10
h, it was found that the yield of cymenes dropped from 6.7
% to 4.7 % at the end of 10 h. However, the DIPT/IPT molar
ratio was observed lower at 10 h on stream with a value of
5.52. The corresponding value at 2 h of stream was 13.86.
This indicates that the diffusion of DIPT through pores of the
catalyst is hindered with time. Table 5 shows the comparison
of parent and silica deposited parent catalysts (HZSM-5
with Si/Al atomic ratio of 100). It is clear that 4 wt % silica
deposited catalyst shows better selectivity to cymenes than
parent and 8 wt % silica deposited catalysts. However DIPT/
IPT was more among all three catalysts.

P 93
Table 3: Effect of reactant feed (mole ratio) (Toluene: Isopropanol) #
Feed ratio
Conversion
(wt %)
Selectivity
to
Cymene
(wt %)
Yield
of
Cymene
(wt %)
DIPT /IPT
10 2
1;1
59.08
4.95
2.92
10.51
2:1
98.51
3.60
3.54
3.41
3:1
70.57
9.57
6.75
12.82
#: Catalyst: HZSM-5 (Si/Al = 100), T = 300 C, WHSV =

4.86 h-1, Pressure = 1 Atm
Fig 1: Reaction scheme of Isopropylation of toluene over zeolite catalyst
Table 4: Effect of time-on-stream #
Time (h)
10
% yield
Cymenes
6.7
5.92
5.57
4.58
4.76
13.86
10.90
8.97
6.13
5.52
DIPT/IPT 10 2
#: Catalyst: HZSM-5 (Si/Al = 100) Reactant feed (Toluene:

Isopropanol) 2:1 (mole ratio), T = 300 C
WHSV = 4.86 h-1, Pressure = 1 Atm
Table 5: Comparison of parent and silica deposited catalysts #
% selectivity
to Cymene
% Yield of
Cymene
DIPT /IPT
10 2
Parent
catalyst
(HZSM-5
with Si/
Al=100)
3.6
3.5
3.4
Parent
catalyst doped
with 4 wt
% Si
5.20
4.13
8.51
Parent
catalyst doped
with 8 wt
% Si
3.48
3.14
6.49
Catalyst
#: Reactant feed (Toluene: Isopropanol) 2:1 (mole ratio),

WHSV = 4.86 h-1, T = 300 C, Pressure = 1 Atm
Reaction scheme:
P 94

Under the reaction conditions of the alkylation

(isopropylation), protonation of the isopropyl alcohol to
form the carbonium ion is proposed as the initial step. This
is followed by transfer of the isopropyl group to the aromatic
ring and the transfer of proton back to the catalyst site.
However, the same acid site can also rapidly isomerize to
its meta or ortho isomer before it diffuses out of the pore.
In addition, the same isomerization can take place on the
non-selective surface of the zeolite, i.e. outside the pores.
The reaction is known to proceed through the ac tivation of
isopropylene which is formed on dehydration of isopropanol
over acid site of zeolite. The activated isopropylene then
reacts with toluene in the gas phase to produce isopropyl
toluene. It is also assumed that isopropanol and toluene are
adsorbed on the adjacent sites and the protonated isopropylene
formed by the dehydration of isopropanol can react with the
activated toluene molecule. The isopropyl toluene formed
does not undergo disproportionation and transalkylation
reactions at lower temperature as the reactions need higher
activation energies. According to the selectivity relationships
developed by Stock and Brown [11] for non specific
catalysts, the relative rate constant for alkylations K toluene
/K benzene should be about 1.4. Hence, toluene alkylations
is more probable than the dealkylation at the low reaction
temperatures.
The Arrhenius plot of isopropylation of
toluene with isopropyl alcohol using parent zeolite is shown
in the fig 2 and was deduced by using the expression K = F/W
ln 1/1-X where F is the flow rate of the reactant mixture ,
W=weight of the catalyst and X= fractional conversion . The
Arrhenius activation energy was calculated using the slope
of the plot and it was 60.19 K cal /g mole. Thermodynamic
activation parameters are of importance in knowing the
influence of temperature over the performance of the catalyst

in any transformation. Standard thermodynamic relations
were used to calculate thermodynamic activation parameters
and these are:
IV. CONCLUSIONS
The HZSM-5 zeolite with Si/Al atomic ratio of 100
was synthesized, characterized by usual techniques for
crystallinity, surface area and acidity. It was modified for silica
deposition with varying amounts. The optimum temperature,
weight hourly space velocity and reactant feed ratio were 300
C, 4.86 h-1 and 2:1 (Toluene: isopropanol) for alkylation
of toluene with isopropanol at atmospheric pressure. 4 wt
% silica depositions showed better performance in terms of
cymenes selectivity and yield. Thermodynamic parameters
indicated the suitability of the catalyst for the title reaction.
V. REFERENCES
[1]

Jens Hagen, Industrial Catalysis: A practical approach,

Wiley - VCH Germany (2006) p
325.
[2] M.B.Gawande, R.K.Pandey and R. V.Jayaram

Catalysis Science and Technology 2 (2012) 1113 -1125.
Fig 2: The Arrhenius plot for Alkylation of toluene
with isopropanol for HZSM-5 (Si /Al =100)
1 Slope of the Arrhenius graph = -Ea/R

2 Enthalpy of activation H# = Ea-Rt
3 Entropy of activation S# = [H#+ (Rh / KlnKr)] / T
4 Gibbs free energy of activation G# = H# - T S#
Where Ea = Energy of activation, H# is enthalpy of
activation, S# is the entropy of activation, G# is the
Gibbs free energy of activation , R = gas constant , T is the
temperature in K , h= Plancks constant , K=Boltzmann
constant and Kr= first order rate constant . Thermodynamic
activation parameters evaluated at 573 K for HZSM-5 zeolite
(at WHSV=4.86 h-1, Toluene: isopropanol=2:1, Pressure = 1
Atm) were deduced to be Ea = 60.19 K.Cal/g mole, H#
= 59. 05 K cal /mole, S# = 10.305 10 -2 Cal / mole
and G# = 0.0524 K cal / mole. These values indicate that
the catalytic transformation of toluene with isopropanol over
HZSM-5 is the exothermic reaction with zero free energy.
Free energy zero indicates feasibility of the reaction in the
presence of the above catalyst system. Enthalpy and entropy
positive values are indicative of bond rearrangement in
alkylation of toluene with isopropanol.
[3] T.F. Degnan, G.K.Chtnis, P.H. Schipper, Microporous,

Mesoporous Mater 35-36, (2000) 245-252
[4] W.M. Meier and D.H.Olson Atlas of Zeolite Structure

Types, 5th Edison, Elsevier, Amsterdam (2001)
[5] H.G.Karge and J. Weitkamp (Eds): Molecular Sieves,

Science and Technology, Post Synthesis Modification

of Zeolites Springer-Verlag, Berlin (2001)
[6] A.B.Halgeri, J.Das Catalysis Today 73 (2002) 65-73
[7]

K.Weissermel and H-J. Arpe (Eds): Industrial Organic

Chemistry, 3rd Edision, pp 355, 360-361 and 376,
VCH (A Wiley company), New York (USA)
[8] R.J.Argauer and G.R.Landolt US Patent 3 832 449,

Mobil Oil Corp., USA (1972)
[9]

G.P.Babu, S.G.Hegde, S.B.Kulkarni and P.Ratnasamy

J.Catal 81 (1983) 471
[10] W.M.Meier and D.H.Olson Atlas of zeolite structure

Types, Butterworths, London (publisher) 1987.
[11] L.M.Stock and

1(1963) 35-154.
H.C.Brown Adv.Phys.Org.Chem

P 95
P 96

MULTICHANNEL TRANSCEIVER SYSTEM

DESIGN USING UNCOORDINATED DIRECT
SEQUENCE SPREAD SPECTRUM
S.Kalita, R.Kaushik, M.Jajoo, P.P.Sahu
Dept.of Electronics and Communication Engineering
Tezpur University, Napaam
E-mail : shashi1@tezu.ernet.in
ABSTRACT
In this paper, we have proposed and implemented a
multichannel uncoordinated direct sequence spread spectrum
(UDSSS) signaling scheme for underwater communication
(UWC). In this scheme, the transmission of multichannel
signal coded with pseudo-noise sequences in uncoordinated
manner has been introduced. Because of using a set of shared
keys and a randomizer in UDSSS transceiver system, it will
increase the jamming resistance and security in underwater
communication (UWC). We have shown bit error rate (BER)
performance analysis by using circuit simulation model and
from this it is seen that BER of the proposed circuit is less
than that of the previous works.
Index Terms : UDSS ,UWC,BER,AWGN
I. NTRODUCTION
While wireless communication technology [1] today has
become part of our daily life, the idea of wireless underwater
communication may still seem far-fetched. However,
research has been active for over a decade of designing the
methods for wireless information transmission underwater.
Human knowledge and understanding of the world under
oceans, which constitute the major part of our planet, rests
on our ability to collect information from remote undersea
locations. The major discoveries of the past decades, such
as the remains of the Titanic, or the hydro-thermal events at
bottom of Deep Ocean, were made using cabled submersibles.
Although such systems remain indispensable if high-speed
communication link is to exist between the remote end and
the surface, it is natural to wonder what one could accomplish
without the burden (and cost) of heavy cables. Together
with sensor technology and vehicular technology, wireless
communications will enable new applications ranging from
environmental monitoring to the gathering of oceanographic
data, marine archaeology, and search and rescue missions.
The signals that are used to carry digital information through
an underwater channel are not radio frequency (RF) signals,

as electro-magnetic waves propagate only over extremely
short distances due to having higher propagation loss. Here,
acoustic waves are used, which can propagate over long
distances. But due to having a multipath propagation and
Doppler spread UWA communication is one of the most
challenging transmission [2]. The equalizers have been used
adaptively by previous authors to track potentially time
varying Doppler shift [3].
With the rise of wireless communication technology the
security and privacy of transmission become a major
concern for not only military applications but also for
commercial applications. To hide the transmitted information
from malicious receiver and to overcome the jamming
environment, the spread spectrum technique [4], has gained
a great deal of prominence. For the safety issue under threat
of jamming attackers in DSSS system an uncoordinated
DSSS system is proposed by previous authors [5] in wireless
communication.
In this paper, we have proposed and implemented an
uncoordinated direct sequence spread spectrum (UDSSS)
technique in DSSS signaling for multichannel in the
UWC. For reduction of signal distortion due to multipath
propagation and additive white Gaussian noise (AWGN) ,
correlators have been used with code hopping system.
II. MULTICHANNEL UDSSS TRANSCEIVER

The block diagram of the transmitter and receiver is given
below in fig :1 (a) and fig:1 (b). In this scheme the data from
each channel (total 4 channels) is grouped into 4-bit data
word and one group are known as one symbol. So there will
be 16 possible symbols of data. To spread these symbols in an
uncoordinated way, 4 independent PN sequences of length 15
bits are used. Each of these PN-Sequences are shifted in phase
using shift registers to get 15 sequences out of the same PNsequence. Thus, we get 60 PN-sequences from 4 independent

P 97
PN sequences. Now a particular symbol is represented

using a particular phase of the sequences. Since there are
4 independent PN-sequences, we get 4 different sequences
having the same phase shift. The transmitter randomly
selects a sequence out of these 4 sequences to represent the
symbol of data. It is to be noted that unlike other symbols,
data symbol 0000 is represented by a stream of 0s of length
15 bits. To accomplish this task, a 16 to 1 multiplexer is used.
The control signal of the multiplexer is the 4 data lines. PN
sequences of the same phase (as mentioned earlier there will
be 4 PN-sequences of the same phase shift) are connected to
the same pin of the multiplexer through 4 tri-state buffers.
The control lines (enable line) of each of these buffers are
connected to 4 different output lines of a 2 to 4 line decoder.
The rest of the PN-Sequences are also connected in the same
way. The input to the decoder is a 2 bit binary up-counter.
This counter will decide which PN-sequence will be used
for CPSK coding of the 4 bit data symbol. Thus, with every
new symbol the PN sequence changes. That means if two
same data symbol occurs consecutively, the code will not be
same. Finally, at the output of the multiplexer we get a UDSS
signal which is then modulated using quadrature phase shift
keying (QPSK) technique.
In the receiver the received QPSK signal is demodulated and
correlated with the help of locally generated PN sequences.
PN-sequences are same as that of the transmitter. Every 15
bit stream of received data is compared with 60 possible
PN sequences using a correlator and integrator circuit. The
output of all the correlators are fed to decision device, which
selects the largest output and feed it to the decoder stage. The
decoder decodes this largest output in 4-bit binary data. The
each bit of this 4-bit data is routed to the respective channels.
III. DESIGN AND SIMULATION

OF UDSSS CIRCUIT
Using microsim EDA software we have designed and
simulated both UDSSS transmitter and receiver circuit with
four channels (K=4). For K=4 , the number of PN sequences
is 16. Since here we are using four sets of PN sequences
so we get 60 different PN sequences. Fig: 2(a) shows the
schematic of simulated four channel UDSSS transmitter
circuit whereas fig: 2(b) shows the same for simulated four
channel UDSSS receiver circuit. Fig: 3 shows simulated
waveform of different stages of the UDSSS transmitter
and receiver for UDSSS code duration. The waveform in
Fig: 3(a) indicates signals of four channels, Ch-1, Ch-2,
Ch-3 and Ch-4. In the figure, these channels construct the
four-bit words in which each four-bit word is called as one
symbol. These symbols are coded with PN sequences via
multiplexers as seen in the waveform in Fig: 3 (b). The coded
PN sequences are modulated with QPSK modulation with a
carrier frequency of f= 11Khz.
In the receiver the modulated signal is again demodulated by
using QPSK demodulator and as discussed earlier, to recover
the channels CH0-TX,CH1-TX,CH2-TX and CH3-TX
from these coded PN sequences, we have used four sets of
correlators and integrators. Each set contains 16 number of
correlator-integrator and decision device units.The reference
level of the integrator is set by considering voltage more
than integrated out put voltage of the partially matched PN
sequences at correlator stage of the receiver. The outputs
of 16 comparators have been fed into the decoders which
consists of 4 eight input OR gates for four channels CH0RX, CH1-RX, CH2-RX and CH3-RX .
UDSSS
transmitter
UDSSS receiver
Fig: 1 Block diagram of a 4-channel (a) UDSSS transmitter,
(b) UDSSS receiver
P 98

2(a)
made consists of data generator, UDSSS modulator, UDSSS

demodulator, Additive white Gaussian noise (AWGN)
generator block, Multipath signal generation block,XOR
gates, counter and OR gates. The modulated signals from
UDSSS modulator are mixed with AWGN and multipath
fading signals which are then fed to UDSSS demodulator
which provides a digital output. Then it is compared with
input data and finally the compared output are fed to OR
gate and counter for counting of bit errors. Fig :4 (a) shows
the BER vs SNR plot obtained by circuit simulation and is
compared to previous works [3]. Cross sign in the fig at SNR
of 11dB,15dB and 19dB indicates the experimental values.
From the plot it is seen that the variation of the BER vs
SNR plot obtained circuit simulation is almost close to the
analytical values and also previous works [3]. From the fig it
can also be seen that in the range of 11dB~19dB the BER of
the proposed circuit is obtained as ~ 10-4 to 10-6 which is
also less than that of the previous works[3].
2(b)
Fig:2 Circuit diagram of (a) UDSSS
transmitter (b) UDSSS receiver
3(a)
IV. BER PERFORMANCE ANALYSIS WITH

ADDITIVE WHITE GAUSSIAN
NOISE AND MULTIPATH SIGNAL
The bit error rate of the proposed signaling scheme depends
on self interference(SI), ISI due to multipath propagation
(MP), Doppler shift (DS) and Additive white Gaussian noise
(AWGN). From this the error probability is obtained by
using Q(.) function as follows [5]

1 N 1 2 Eb S S + S MP ( ) + S ISI ( ) + S DS ( )
(1)
Pe = =0 E Q
N
S S + S en ( )
N 0
3(b)
3(c)
Fig3: Different stages of UDSSS transmitter
and receiver (a) Transmitted Channel (b)
coded sequence with modulated waveform
Where N= length of hopping pattern, Eb is the signal power,

Ss = desired signal term, SMP = Effect due to multipath
propagation term, SISI = Effect due to intersymbol
interference, SDS = Effect due to Doppler shift and SAWGN
term related to AWGN. So the BER for K channel UDSSS
system is given by,
BER=Pe (
(2)
The circuit simulation model for bit error rate (BER) analysis
of the proposed UDSSS transceiver circuit which we have
Fig:4 Variation of BER vs SNR (dB) plot

P 99
V. CONCLUSION
We have proposed and implemented a multichannel
uncoordinated direct sequence spread spectrum (UDSSS)
signaling scheme for underwater communication (UWC) in
this paper. In this scheme, the transmission of multichannel
signal coded with pseudo-noise sequences in uncoordinated
manner has been introduced. BER performance analysis with
frequencies 11Khz,15Khz and 19Khz are analyzed here by
using circuit simulation in P-spice and analytically by using
equation (1) and (2) . It is seen that the BER of the proposed
circuit is obtained as ~ 10-4 to 10-6 which is also less than
that of the previous works[3].
VI. REFERENCES
[1]

J.G.Proakis and M.Salehi, Communication Systems

Engineering .
[2]
S.A.Aliesawi,C.C.Tsimenidis,
B.S.Sharif
and
M.Johnston. Iterative multiuser detection for

underwater acoustic channels IEEE J.Ocean Engg.,

vol.3, No.4, pp. 728-744, oct. 2011.
P 100

[3]

S.Roy,T.M.Duman and V.K.McDonald, Error rate

improvement in underwater MIMO communication
using sparse partial response equalization IEEE
J.Ocean Engg., vol. 34, no.2, pp. 181-201, Apr. 2009.
[4]

P.P.Sahu and M. Singh, Multichannel direct sequence

spread spectrum signaling using code phase shift
keying, Comput. Electr. Eng.J., vol. 45, no. 1, pp.
181-191, Feb. 1999.
[5]

S.H.Chung and P.J.McLane, Code Hopping-Direct

Sequence Spread Spectrum to compensate for
intersymbol interference in an ultra-wideband
system, IEEE Trans. Commun., vol.56,no.4,pp.
1785-1789, Nov. 2008.
EFFECT OF DEMYELINATION ON
CONDUCTION VELOCITY IN DEMYELINATING
POLYNEUROPATHIC PATIENTS
H. K. Das and P. P. Sahu
Electronics and Communication Engineering
Tezpur University, Tezpur, Assam.
E-mail : hemanga123@gmail.com
ABSTRACT
The reduction of nerve conduction velocity (NCV) is a
major concern for human peripheral nerve diseases such as
Guillain-Barre Syndrome (GBS) and chronic inflammatory
demyelinating polyneuropathy (CIDP). This reduction is
caused due to the loss of myelin sheaths in axon of nerve.
Measurement of reduction of myelin width is a challenging
issue for clinical analysis in demyelinating polyneuropathic
patients. We have formulated nerve conduction velocity
(NCV) with demyelinated factor (function of demyelination
thickness) by considering sodium ion, fast potassium ion and
slow potassium ion as conduction channel and calcium ion
and chlorine ion as a leakage channel in peripheral nerves
of human body. The variation of NCV with demyelination
factor is compared with standard clinical NCV results
recorded through NCV tests.
Index Terms : Nerve conduction velocity (NCV), GuillainBarre Syndrome (GBS), chronic inflammatory demyelinating
polyneuropathy (CIDP).
I. NTRODUCTION
In the nervous system, conduction velocity plays an important
role for clinical analysis of propagation of action potential
sequences generated by the neural membranes through the
nerve fiber [1]. The action potential sequences carrying
information are the main carriers of nerve signal processing.
In this direction, Hodgkin and Huxleys (H-H) model of nerve
fiber is one of the most outstanding scientific achievements
in neuroscience for the analysis of conduction of action
potential sequences in nerve fiber [2] [3] [4]. The H-H model
not only provides electrical, physical properties of membrane
of a squid giant axon, but also nerve conduction properties
[5]. A layer of Schwann cell membranes of myelinated
sheath (grown from the glial cells [6]) surrounding the axon
plays a crucial role for faster conduction of action potential
sequences by saltation process in which the impulses jumps
from one node to another node via the node of Ranvier [7].
It is seen that due to demyelination, the conduction velocity
decreases, which is mainly affected by the decrease or
reduction in myelin thickness. The node of Ranvier tends to
disappear with demyelination and as result the movements
of ions from one side to other side of node in nerve fiber
becomes slow due to non-occurring of saltatory movement.
The loss of myelin sheaths in axon of nerve causes more
conduction delays by reducing the conduction velocity.
In this direction, many works [8] [9] have been made for
stimulation analysis of an unmyelinated nerve fiber. Latency
delay of visual evoked potential [10] [11] and polarimetric
methods [12] are used to measure demyelination in optic
nerve but this technique may not be applied to other
peripheral nerve fiber for demyelination estimation.
Recently scanning electronic microscopic techniques with
the aid of contrast agents [13] is reported for imaging the
myelin and other physical structures in peripheral nerves.
However, these techniques are destructive methods which
are clinically harmful for demyelinating patients. Another
invasive technique of nerve examination is the nerve biopsy
which is performed by removing small piece of nerve in the
ankle or wrist is useful only in certain occasions [14]. The
procedure is painful as well as contains many risks as the
doctors has to be very careful regarding the site selection of
the damaged nerves and the local anesthesia applied at the
site should not cause any allergic reaction to the patients.
It is often seen that the nerve biopsy patients suffer from
discomfort and infection after the surgery.
In our work, all clinical measurements of NCV was made
on considering single nerve where one input signal and
another one output signal was recorded in the EMG for
accurate estimation of reduction of myelin width. So in
this paper, we have presented electrical circuit model with
incorporation of a demyelinating factor (as a function of
myelin sheath thickness) in single demyelinated nerve fiber.
Using this model, conduction velocity is formulated in terms
of demyelinating factor and compared with clinical results.

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II. ELECTRICAL CIRCUIT MODEL

OF A DEMYELINATED NERVE FIBER
Generally, the process of demyelination decreases the
amount of myelin, thereby affecting the myelin resistance
of the nerve which in turn affects the internal resistance of
the axon by decreasing the total resistance of the nerve. On
the other hand, capacitance and the ionic conductance of
the respective ions namely sodium ion, fast potassium, slow
potassium and the other ions (leakage) increases with the
increase in demyelination. Fig.1 represents an electric circuit
model of a demyelinated peripheral nerve incorporated with
a demyelination factor (expressed as ~ w / w, w = width
of myelin sheath of normal nerve fiber, w is the amount of
reduced myelin sheath) consisting of an internal resistance
of Rid (= Ri (1-), where Ri =internal resistance of normal
myelinated nerve, external resistance), Rod (= Ro (1-)
where Ro =external resistance of normal myelinated nerve),
membrane capacitance C (1+), (C = capacitance of normal
myelinated nerve contributed by membrane, nodal and
axolemmal capacitance) and ionic conductance GNa (1+),
GKf (1+), GKs (1+) and GL (1+) ( where GNa, GKf, GKs
and GL are ionic conductance of sodium ions, fast potassium
and slow potassium and leakage ions such as chlorine and
calcium ions, respectively for normal myelinated nerve).
In fig.1, the total ionic current at node n in a demyelinated
nerve in human is represented by
I ion , n = I Na
,n
+ I Kf
,n
+ I Ks , n + I L , n
where INa,n IKf,n , IKs,n, are the ionic currents contributed

by sodium, fast potassium and slow potassium respectively
at node n , whereas IL,n is the leakage current at node n
contributed by the ions (present in small amount )such as
chlorine, calcium, magnesium etc.
potential (as shown in Fig-1) with cubic polynomial function

approximation [15] and considering resting potential zero at
equilibrium,
INa
,n
=(
IKf
,n
=(
IKs , n = (
GNa (1 + )
)Vn(Vn VthNa )( Vn VNa )
VNa (VNa VthNa )
GKf (1 + )
)Vn(Vn VthKf )( Vn VK )
VK (VK VthKf )
(1)
GKs (1 + )
)Vn(Vn VthKs )( Vn VK )
VK (VK VthKs )
IL , n = (
GL (1 + )
)Vn(Vn VthL )( Vn VL )
L
VL (VL Vth )
N
a
K
f
K
s
V, th Vth , Vth and

Where Vn= voltage at node n, Vth
are the threshold voltages of sodium, fast potassium, slow
potassium and leakage component respectively, at which
sodium, fast potassium, slow potassium and leakage current
begins to flow into an active node. VNa, VK, VL are Nernst
(diffusion) potentials at which the ionic currents for sodium,
fast potassium, slow potassium and leakage current returns
to zero respectively. GNa, GKf, GKs and GL are ionic
conductance for sodium, fast potassium, slow potassium and
leakage ions respectively.
III. NERVE CONDUCTION VELOCITY
In this section we have formulated nerve conduction value
by using electrical circuit model as shown in Fig-1. Applying
Kirchoffs voltage law in Fig-1 we can write the current at
node n-1 and node n,
(2)
In 1 = (Vn 1 Vn ) /( Ri + Ro )( 1 )

(3)
In = (Vn Vn + 1) /( Ri + Ro )( 1 )
From Kirchoffs current law we can write
In 1 In = C (1 + )
Vn
+ Iion , n
t
Vn
t
(Vn 1 Vn) /( Ri + Ro)( 1 ) (Vn Vn + 1) /( Ri + Ro)( 1 ) = C (1 + )

+ Iion , n (4)

Considering total resistance of nerve fiber R =Ri + Ro, we

can write
Fig.1 an electric circuit model of a demyelinated nerve in human
The currents can be written in terms of conductance and
P 102

Vn

1 R(1 ) [Vn 1 2Vn + Vn + 1] = C (1 + )
+ Iion, n
(5)
In 1938, Zeldovich and Frank Kamenetsky [16] first obtained

,
where the distance is measured in units of 1/
and time
in units of c/g. Later, it was translated into the notation

Vc=
(6)
70
conduction velocity
the equation for conduction speed to be vc =
conduction velocity versus demyelination
60
Id:0
83
50
40
30
20
10
0
0
Where, f1(V) = (7)

In equation (7), V1 is threshold voltage and V2 represents the
Nernst potential for sodium ion. The equation (5) represents
a discrete reaction diffusion equation of myelinated nerve
with partial demyelination. Since internodes spacing is
very small, the continuum limit is reached [17]. Thus from
equation (6) and using traveling wave solutions of equation
with leading edge approximation [18] for action potential
pulse in our formulation, the mathematical expression for
conduction velocity incorporated with the demyelinated
factor for a demyelinated nerve is obtained as
Vc =
+
Id:0
58
Id:0
47 Id:0
32
0.2
0.4
Id:0
81
0.6
0.8
1.2
dem yelinating factor
Fig.2 conduction velocity versus demyelinating factor where

the black dots represent clinical data of demyelinating patients
obtained from Gauhati Medical College and Hospital (GMCH)
G Kf (1 + )
V 2VthKf
G Na (1 + )
V 2VthNa
( Na
)( 1 ) +
( K
)( 1 )
R(1 )C 2 (1 + ) 2
R(1 )C 2 (1 + ) 2
2V Na
2VK
G Ks (1 + )
V 2VthKs
V 2VthL
G L (1 + )
( K
)( 1 ) +
( L
)( 1 )
2
2
(
1
)
(
1
+
R(1 )C 2 (1 + ) 2
R
C
2VK
2VL
Fig.3 NCV of GBS patient measured with Medicaid make EMG

machine Model No EMG -2000
TABLE.1. STANDARD PARAMETERS FOR HUMAN NERVE:
Fig.2 shows nerve conduction velocity (NCV) versus

demyelinating factor for human nerve obtained by using the
above equation and table-1. The black dots in the figure are
clinical results of demyelinated nerve of GBS patient and
CIDP patient obtained from Gauhati Medical College and
Hospital (GMCH) with Medicaid EMG machine (model no
EMG 2000), matching well with our theoretical curve. It is
seen that the conduction velocity decreases linearly with the
demyelinating factor.
CONCLUSION
In human body, apart from the sodium ion, some other
component like fast potassium, slow potassium are also
responsible for conduction channels whereas calcium,
chlorine are responsible for leakage channels. Considering
these channels, we have expressed nerve conduction velocity
in terms of demyelinated factor for human peripheral nerves.
It is seen that the value of the electrical parameters such as
resistance, capacitance and conductance of nerve fiber are
affected with demyelination.

P 103
ACKNOWLEDGMENT
The authors are thankful to Dr. Mousumi Barthakur of
GNRC and Dr. Munin Goswami and his staff members of
neurological department of Gauhati Medical College and
Hospital for providing necessary clinical NCV results.
REFERENCES
[1]

P. Monsivais, B. A. Clark, A. Roth and M. Husser,

Determinants of Action Potential Propagation in
Cerebellar Purkinje Cell Axons, Journal of
Neuroscience. 25(2) 464-472, 2005.
[2]

A. L. Hodgkin and A. F. Huxley, A quantitative

description of membrane and its application to
conduction and excitation in nerve, J. Physiol. 117
500-44, 1952.
[3]

Wang Jiang, Chen Liangquan and Fei Xian Yang,

Analysis and control of the bifurcation of Hodgkin
Huxley model, Chao, Solitons and Fractals. 31 247256, 2007.
[4]

Z. J. Koles and M. Rasminsky, A computer simulation

of conduction in demyelinated nerve fibers, J.
Physiol. 227 pp 351-364, 1972.
[5]

A. L. Hodgkin and A. F. Huxley, The components

of membrane Conductance in the giant axon of
Loligo, J. Physiol. 116 473-496, 1952.
[6]

K. R. Jessen and R. Mirsky, Nature Review, The

origin and development of axon ensheathment and
myelin growth, Neuroscience 6 671-690, 2005.
[7]

J. R. Schwarz, G. Reid, H. Bostok, Action potentials

and membrane currents in the human node of Ranvier,
J. Physiol. 430 283-292, 1995.
[8]

C. Tai, W. C Groat, and J. R. Roppolo, Simulation

analysis of conduction block in unmyelinated axons
induced by high-frequency biphasic electrical
currents, IEEE trans on Biomedical Engineering.
52(7) 1323-1332, 2005.
[9] V. Schnabel and J. S. Johannes, Evaluation of the
P 104

Cable Model for Electrical Stimulation of unmyelinated

Nerve Fibers, IEEE trans on Biomedical Engineering.
48(9) 1027-1033, 2001.
[10]

Y. You, A. Klistorner, J. Thie and S. L. Graha, Latency

delay of visual evoked potential is a real measurement
of demyelination in a rat model of optic neuritis,
Visual Neurophysiol. 52(9) 6911-6918, 2011.
[11]

D. R. Demmer and S. Boretius, Autoimmune optic

neuritis in the common marmoset monkey comparison
of visual evoked potentials with MRI and
histopathology, Invest Ophthalmol.Vis. Sci. 49 37073714, 2008.
[12]

Y. Fukama, Y. Okazaki, T. Shioiri, Y. Iida, H. Kikuta

and K. Ohnuma, A polarization measurement method
for the quantification of retardation in optic nerve fiber
layer, Proc. of Spice. 6844 68441A1-68441A9, 2008.
[13] M. A. Whiteney, J. L. Crisp, L. T. Nguyen, B.

Friedman, L. A. Gross, P. Steinbach, R. Y. Tsein and Q.

T. Nguyen, Fluorescent peptides highlight peripheral

nerves during surgery in mice, Nature Biotechnology.

1764 1-7, 2011.
[14] L. Goldman and D. Ausiello, Shy ME, Peripheral

neuropathies, Cecil Medicine. Elsevier 23 chap 446, 2007.
[15] S. Binczak, J. C. Eilbeck and A. C. Scott, Ephaptic

coupling of myelinated nerve fibers, Physica D:

Nonlinear Phenomena. 148 159-174, 2011.
[16]

Y. B. Zeldovich and Frank-Kamenetsky, teorii

ravnomernogo rasprostranenia plameni (Toward a
theory of uniformly propagating flames), Doklady
Akademii Nauk SSSR, 19:693-697, 1938.
[17] A. Scott, Neuroscience: A mathematical premier 2002

Springer-Verlag Inc. NewYork pp.139-147.
[18] Paul Rissman, The leading edge approximation to the

nerve axon problem, Bulletin of mathematical

biology. 39 43-58, 1977.
[19]

D.L. Stephanova, M. S. Daskalova, A.S. Alexandrov,

Differences in membrane properties in simulated
case of demyelinating neuropathies, internodal focal
demyelination with conduction block, Journal of
Biological physics. 32 129-144, 2006.
FROM TRANSISTOR TO MEDICINE: MATERIALS,

DEVICES, AND SYSTEMS
Tapas Kumar Maiti1,2
Department of Engineering Physics, McMaster University, Canada
E-mail: maitit@mcmaster.ca, tkm.iitkgp@gmail.com
ABSTRACT
A brief overview on advancement of technology for
emerging applications in life science and healthcare have
been presented. Discussions have been started from the
transistor discovery and have finished with the description
of BrainGate. The impact of emergency medical treatment
using advanced electronic systems on Indian daily life have
been presented.
Keywords : Transistor, ISFET, BrainGate, Emergency
Medicine, Integarted Circuit (IC)
I. NTRODUCTION
Technology changes along the lines of materials; we had
the Stone Age, the Bronze Age and the Iron Age [1]. Maybe
last century will go down in history as the Silicon Age. The
field of material science and chemistry has always provided
the innovation of new transistor technology and integrated
circuit (IC) technology. Several biotechnology ICs such
as micro-sensor, tongue depressors, blood sugar meters,
medical robots, microchip implants, BrainGate, etc., have
been used over the last few decades for the development of
future medical electronics [2].
In this paper, development of IC technology have been
presented in brief. Recent progress of medical micro-devices
and its applications has been described. An overview on
possible emergency treatment in future to safe people using
advanced medical technology is also discussed.
II. DISCOVERY OF INTEGRATED CIRCUITS

In the field of microelectronics, the planar silicon metaloxide-semiconductor field-effect transistor (MOSFET)
is perhaps the most important invention. It was started in
1928 when J. E. Lilienfeld proposed the concept of fieldeffect conductivity modulation and the MOSFET [3]. In
1943, Thomas J. Watson, chairman and CEO of International
Business Machines (IBM) I think there is a world market
2
Present address: Hiroshima University, 1-3-1 Kagamiyama, HigashiHiroshima City, P.C. 7398530, Japan
for maybe five computers. In early 1946 early electronic

computer used glass valves called vacuum tube. It is surprising
that first electronic computers called Electronic Numerical
Integrator and Computer (ENIAC) contained 17,468 vacuum
tubes, 7,200 crystal diodes, 1,500 relays, 70,000 resistors,
10,000 capacitors and around 5 million hand-soldered joints.
It weighed more than 30 short tons (27 t), was roughly 8
by 3 by 100 feet (2.4m0.9m30m), took up 1800 square
feet (167m2), and consumed 150kW of power. In 1947, John
Bardeen, Walter Brattain and William Shockley at AT&Ts
Bell Labs in the United States invented first transistor. In
1949, Popular Mechanics magazine they predicted Where
a calculator like the ENIAC today is equipped with 18,000
vacuum tubes and weighs 30 tons, computers in the future
may have only 1,000 vacuum tubes and perhaps weigh only
1 tons. In 1954 first fully transistorized computer which
contains 2000 transistor, is invented by IBM. In 1958, first
fully integrated circuit (IC) is invented by Jack St. Clair
Kilby at Texas Instruments (TI).
In 1971 first microprocessor consists of 2200 integrated
transistor is invented by Intel. In 1975 it was predicted that
transistor complexity will be double every 1.5 years and is
called Moores Law. In 1965, Gordon Moore is an American
businessman and co-founder and Chairman Emeritus of
Intel Corporation predicted that transistor complexity will
be double every year. In 1977, Kenneth Harry Olsen, cofounder Digital Equipment Corporation (DEC) said there
is no reason for any individual to have a computer in his
home. In 1983, Local Integrated System Architecture
or LISA was a personal computer designed by Apple
Computer, Inc. In 1998, Intel Pentium II processor invented
by Intel and it has 7.3 million transistors. In June 2013, Intel
will introduce Intel Haswell processors which consist of few
billion transistors. Future science and technology can be
predicted by Moores law as shown in Fig.1 [4].

P 105
Over last few decades, silicon nanowires (Si-NWs) based

ion-sensitive field-effect transistor (ISFET) have attracted
enormous research interest for label free detection of charged
biological species (DNAs or proteins) [7, 8]. Biosensors
implement various transducer structures using optical,
electrical and other more specialized and hybrid structures.
Fig.3 illustrates the flow of information in biosensor systems.
Fig. 1. Technologies provide a path for continued improvement

performance, power, cost and size at the
system level, exclusive of conventional CMOS scaling [5].
III. MEDICAL ELECTRONICS

The rapid pace of MOSFET scaling is accelerating
introduction of new technologies to extend CMOS beyond
the 45 nm technology nodes (Fig.1). This acceleration
simultaneously requires the industry to intensify research
on two highly challenging thrust. One is scaling CMOS into
an increasingly difficult manufacturing domain well below
the 90 nm node, and the other is an exciting opportunity to
invent fundamentally new approaches to information and
signal processing to sustain functional scaling beyond the
domain of CMOS. In concert with the ongoing (Moores
Law) scaling of conventional IC technology, there has been
the emergence of biological-centric applications which try to
leverage the capabilities of IC micro-fabrication technologies,
to address the needs of the existing biotechnology devices
and systems [6]. There has been a significant push in the area
of high throughput molecular screening, using microarrays
of sensors [7]. The atomic-scale patterning and device
fabrication capabilities have generated nano-pore structures
as well as nano-tube and nano-wire (Fig.2) devices, with
potential applications for single or few molecules sensing.
These devices can be used to detect a large ensemble of
biological events and to observe single biological events.
Fig. 1. Simulated nanowire FET structure on silicon substrate.
P 106

Biology/Chemistry
/Medicine
Medical Physics
(Receptor)
MEMS
(Transducer)
IC Design
(Circuit, Signal
processing)
Data(Software)
Fig. 3. Flow of information in biosensor systems.
A biosensor device consists of the sensitive biological

element (eg. tissue, microorganisms, organelles, cell
receptors, enzymes, antibodies, nucleic acids, etc), the
transducer or the detector element that transforms the
signal, resulting from the interaction of the analyte with
the biological element, into a measurable signal using e.g.
electrochemistry or optical measurements. The information
flow goes from medical physics, sensing and transduction
to the electrical domain where analog-to-digital conversion
(ADC) and digital signal processing (OSP) brings the results
into the level of bioinformatics.
Today we can grow blood, skin, heart, vessels, noses, ears
from our own cells. First human bladder is grown in 2007
and Next human liver, kidney. This is possible by high
computing system. As the power of modern computers
grows along with the understanding of the human brain,
researchers are more even closer to making some attractive
science fiction into reality [9]. Imagine transmitting signals
directly to someones brain that would allow them to see,
hear or feel specific sensory inputs. The development of a
brain-computer interface (BCI) could be the most important
technological breakthrough in future. A BCI system can be
consider as biosensor system. Human brains are filled with
neurons, nerve cells which are connected to one another by
dendrites and axons. Neurons are at work generate a signal
when we think, move, feel or remember something. That
signal is carried out by small electric signals from neuron to
neuron. Researcher can detect those signals, interpret what
they mean and use them to direct a device of some kind and
finally analyzed by computer. A direct connection between
the brain of a stroke victim and a computer or smart phone is

possible as shown in Fig.4. The paralyzed person can learn to
play video games, send e-mail, and control objects by sheer
thought (Fig.4).
risk during one year. 7.48 deaths/1,000 population. Fig.6 also

shows that death rate of Indian people gradually decreased.
Fig. 6. Birth rate and death rate over last few years in India.
Fig. 4. Interface between the brain of a stroke victim and a computer.
The advancement of electronics in the field of medicine

is a multi-department problem (Fig.5). The researchers
from physics, chemistry, material science, electronics and
electrical engineering, computer science and engineering,
biotechnology, medicine, and micro-electro mechanical
departments are needed to solve the problem.
Chronic diseases are the major cause of death and disability

worldwide. In India, chronic diseases are projected to account
for 53% of all death as shown in Fig.7. Total projected deaths
in India, 2005 is 10,362,000. Total projected deaths due to
chronic disease in India, 2005 is 5,466,000. World Health
Organization (WHO) projects that over the next 10 years 60
million people will die from chronic disease in India.
Physics
Chemistry
Computer
Science &
Multi Department Engineering
Problem
Medicine
Electrical
Engineering
Fig. 5. A multi-department problem
I.V POSSIBLE APPLICATIONS OF FUTURE

MEDICAL ELECTRONICS TO SAFE PATIENT
Birth rate is an overall term for the crude birth rate and the
fertility rate. It depends on both the level of fertility and the
age structure of the population. 20.97 births/1,000 population
Birth rate gradually decreased in the past decade except
during the years 2005 and 2007 in India as shown in Fig.
6. An expression of the number of deaths in a population at
Fig. 7. Projected death by cause in all ages in India
Trauma is now the leading killer of young persons in their

productive years. The National Health Profile of India 2009
lists injury as the 3rd leading cause of death in India. Recent
calculations by the Planning Commission of India estimate
the total societal cost of injury in India to be approx. 3%
of Indias GDP. As per the latest data published by the
National Crime Record Bureau, Road Accidents in India
have increased by 1.4% during 2009 compared to 2008. The
casualties in Road Accidents in the country have increased

P 107
by 7.3% during 2009 compared to 2008. A review of the

incidence of Causalities due to Road Traffic Accidents in
India during the past five years presents a disturbing trend:
TABLE I. INCIDENCE OF CASUALTIES DUE
TO ROAD TRAFFIC ACCIDENTS IN INDIA (2005-2009)
Year
2005
No of
Deaths
98,254
No of
Injured
2006
2006
2008
2009
VI. CONCLUSION
1,05,725 1,14,590 1,18,239 1,26,896
If we start research on advanced medical electronics to

produce artificial blood, skin, heart, vessels, noses, ears, etc.
we can safe many human life and can make better India in
future.
An overview on advancement of technology for emerging

applications in life science and healthcare have been
presented. Development of IC technology and medical
technology is also discussed. Uses of modern medical
treatment using advanced medical electronic systems have
also presented. Possible emergency treatment in future to
safe people using advanced medical science and technology
is also discussed.
V. INFORMATION TECHNOLOGY
REFERENCES
4,47,900 4,52,900 4,65,300 4,69,100 4,66,600
National Crime Record Bureau, Ministry of Home Affairs, Govt. of India
A clinician receives large number of information over very

short period of time. Consequently effective means of storing
and updating data are required. These data can be stored
in a database for different reason in computers: medical
history, medical summary, data integrity, etc. To provide
the medical records , data are stored so that new decisions
can be implemented , However computerized systems has
helped in managing the data through which it is easier to
perform medical audits in a shorter time which results in
quick productivity as shown in Fig. 8.
Consultant
Patient
Client (Patient/Doctor)
1. Klark
1. Name
George
2. Chaitu
tablet (not medicine)
1. Doris
2. Name
Jilling
Smartphone
2. Hema
1. Boby
2. Joush
3. Name
Kasper
Centralized
DBMS
Computer Server
3. Preston
Computer
Fig. 8. Proposed future information technology for medical treatment.
Simultaneously, one can also check the medical record

on line in electronic form instead of visiting the doctors
or medical regularly for instance in a general practitioner,
P 108
allows both access to records and printing of standardized

forms. Prescriptions are an obvious example of where clear,
unambiguous forms are required. As consultation times
per patient becomes less and small savings in time, due to
automated procedures. Hence online data system trough
internet can be beneficial to every individual in many ways
in coming future and can be access using smart phone.

[1]

C.K Maiti, S Chattopadhyay, L.K Bera, Strained-Si

Heterostructure Field Effect Devices, CRC Press,
Dec 12, 2010.
[2] http://www.braingate.com
[3] C. K. Maiti and T. K. Maiti, Strain-Engineered

MOSFETs, CRC Press, Nov 28, 2012.
[4]

International Technology Roadmap for Semiconductors

(ITRS), 2011, http://www.itrs.net
[5]

W. R. Bottoms, SiPs Give More to Moore, Printed

Circuit Design and Fab, April, 2008.
[6]

A. Hassibi, Y. Liu, and R. W. Dutton, Progress in

Biosensor and Bioelectronics Simulations: New
Applications for TCAD, Int. Conf. on Simulation of
Semiconductor Processes and Devices (SISPAD),
pp.1-4, Sept., 2008.
[7]
M. Schena, Microarray Analysis, Wiley, New york, 2003.
[8]

J. Hahm and C.M. Lieber, Direct ultrasensitive

electrical detection of DNA and DNA sequence
variations using nanowire nanosensors, NanoLett.,
vol.4, pp.51, 2004.
[9]

http://computer.howstuffworks.com/brain-computerinterface.htm
[10] http://www.medindia.net/health_statistics/general/
birthdeath.asp
[11] National Crime Record Bureau, Ministry of Home

Affairs, Govt. of India.
ENZYME-MODIFIED FIELD EFFECT TRANSISTORS

(ENFETS) AS BIOSENSORS : A RESEARCH REVIEW
Manoj Kumar Sarma1, Jiten Ch.Dutta2
Department of Physics, Darrang College, Tezpur,
Department of Electronics and Communication Engineering
Tezpur University, Assam, India
Email : mks_1012@rediffmail.com, jitend@tezu.ernet.in
1
ABSTRACT
In recent years, increasing interest has been shown in
the development of Bioelectronic sensors based on ion
sensitive field effect transistors(ISFETs). Many ISFET based
chemical sensors specially enzyme field effect transistors
(ENFETs) have got a fare share for applications in the
fields of medical, environmental, food safety, military and
biotechnology areas. The growing interest for development
of these sensors is due to the fact that they are manufactured
by means of semiconductor technology which has already
entered into multifunctional more than more regime that
is increasingly multidisciplinary in nature. Technology
involved has, therefore, innovative potential that may result
in the appearance of new sensor and device technologies in
future. The basic theoretical principles of enzyme field effect
transistors (ENFETs), the operation principle of ENFET and
a brief introduction of ENFET technology are considered in
this paper.
Keywords : ISFET; Enzyme; pH; Biosensor.
I. NTRODUCTION
The ion sensitive field effect transistor, the heart of enzyme
field effect transistor, was first reported by Bergveld in
1970, who used it for the measurement of ionic in and
effluxes around a nerve [1]. This work was described in
detail in 1972 [2], which is now cited by most authors as a
pioneering publication in the field of ISFET development.
At the same time Matsuo and Wise developed a similar
device using silicon nitride as a sensitive sub gate layer,
which greatly improved the sensor performance [3]. Since
1970, led by Bergveld, more than 600 papers, devoted on
ISFETs [3-4], and another 170 on related biosensors , such
as Enzyme FETs (ENFETs) [5-10], Immuno FETs (IMFETs)
[11], DNA biosensor [12] etc., appeared in many worlds
leading journals on biomedical, electron devices, sensors
and actuators, biosensors and bioelectronics, biotechnology
advances etc.
Enzyme-modified field effect transistor refers to a

bioelectronic device which incorporates an enzyme system
in conjunction with an ion sensitive field effect transistor
(ISFET). Biocatalytic transformations stimulated by enzyme
alter the pH at the gate surface of the ISFET either by
consuming or generating protons. The change in pH inside
the enzyme system affects the surface potential of the ISFET
resulting into the change of channel current. Thus from the
point of view of signal transduction, ENFET may be defined
as an bioelectronic device which converts a biological or
biochemical signal into an electrical signal. In ENFET device,
enzyme system acts as a bioreceptors which recognizes
a biological event and then through biocatalytic reaction
transforms it into quantity detectable by an underlying
ISFET. This idea was first given by Janata and Moss in 1976
[13], but till 1980, no one was able to give accepted results
related to this idea. In 1980, Caras and J. Janata presented
the first results regarding ISFET based penicillin sensor [14].
The device that they described consisted of two ISFETs, one
of which had on the top of the gate surface a membrane with
covalently bound penicillinase enzyme and albumin, while
the other had on the top of the gate surface a membrane with
only covalently bound albumin. Basic principle is that when
penicillin was present in solution, penicillinase enzyme
in the membrane catalyzed penicillin that resulted in the
production of protons and therefore a local pH decreases in
the gate area of the ISFET resulting into an increased drain
current registered by the ISFET.
After this publication, two important research works
related with ISFET based sensors were presented at the
first international conference on chemical sensors held in
1983 in Fukuoka, Japan. ISFET for urea and acetylcholine
determination by Y. Miahara et al. [15] and ENFET for
glucose determination by Y. Hanazato and S. Shiono [16].
After these developments, more than 150 publications
developed to various aspects of ENFET development and
operation have appeared in many worlds leading journals
published by IEEE, ELSEVIER etc. [17]. In recent years
much attention has been paid to the development of these
devices because they are manufactured by means of these

P 109
of semiconductor techniques, while in due course assured

progress in microelectronics development [18]. The advanced
techniques for producing planer and nonplaner structures of
micro and submicro-dimensions based on nano-crystalline
silicon, deep knowledge of mechanical and electrical
properties of latter strongly intensified this new trend in
analytical biotechnology [19]. The use of silicon in a wide
variety of sensors is known well reviewed by Middelhock
[20]. Moreover, the integrated circuit (IC) group technology
is the best way to decrease the primary cost of individual
device and to set up its mass productions. It enables nontraditional devices for computations and detections to be
integrated and combined on the same crystal, with a buffer
electronic system of information processing and storage.
Therefore, the development and manufacture of sensitive,
specific, miniature and cheap ENFETs will undoubtedly
cause global changes in the nature and methods of information
gathering with respect to objects and media in private
life, medicine, biotechnology, agriculture, environmental
monitoring etc. Due to these reasons, ENFETs at present
have drawn much attention in four fields namely: medical,
environmental, food safety and military, with medical
applications being the dominant player. It is stated that in
USA, ninety percent of sales come from glucose-detecting
sensors for medical applications [21]. Strong efforts in
research and development have already produced workable
ENFET sensors for a variety of applications in the medical
field, but ENFETs for detection of pathogenic bacteria are
yet to commercialized. With increased public concern over
the safety of our environment, ENFET sensors capable of
detecting an organism quickly will be important in the
environmental monitoring of pathogens in field and stream.
Within the military sector there are two distinct segments:
research and development of biological warfare agents
(BWAs) and rapid detection after an attack. With the present
focus of US warfare shifting to terrorist organizations, there
is a definite and increasing need for rapid detection of BWAs
in real time it is expected that in the near future, ENFET
research will play an important role in quickly identifying
BWAs. As far as food safety is concerned, current detection
techniques (culturing techniques) require food producers
either to hold onto inventory or release the product and risk
a recall. But ENFET through real time testing will provide
value to food producers through the reduction of product
recalls and reduced treatment costs.
ion-sensitive field effect transistor with an enzyme layer

deposited above the insulating surface of ISFET or covered
with an enzyme containing membrane (Fig.1). The following
are some basic enzyme reactions which are used in ENFET
creation:
Glucose oxidase
-D-Glucose+O2+H2O---D-Glucono--Lactone + H2O2
D-Gluconate+H+
(1)
H2N
\
Urease
C = O + 2H2O + H+ ------ 2N +HC
(2)
/
H2N
AOX
CH2O + O2 + H2O ----- HCOOH + H2O2
HCOO- + H+
(3)
CH3
\
Acetyl cholinesterase
CH3N+ (CH2)2OCCH3--------------
/
||
H20
CH3
O
O
CH3
//
CH3 -C+ HO (CH2)2 N+ CH3 + H+

\
\
O
CH3
CD
Creatinine+H2ON methhylhydantion+N
(4)
(5)
where AOX is the alcoholoxidase, CD is the creatinine

deiminase.
The enzyme reactions thus generate or consume protons,
changing the charge at the gate surface in accordance with
site-binding theory as discussed in the next section.
The basic theoretical principle of ENFET, operation principle

and the modeling of ENFET are described in this paper.
II. THEORTICAL PRINCIPLE OF ENFETs:

Enzyme modified field effect transistor is nothing but an
P 110

III. SITE-BINDING MODEL OF ENFET:
The mechanism responsible for the change in surface

charge can be explained by well known site-binding theory
introduced in 1973 by Yates et al. [22] to describe the
properties of an oxide aqueous electrolyte interface and
was generalized in 1986 by Fung et al. [23] to characterize
ENFETs with oxide insulators. According to this theory, the
insulating surface contains hydroxyl groups (OH) which
can be protonated (thus positively charged) or deprotonated
(thus negatively charged) depending on the concentration of
the hydrogen ions in the electrolyte. The surface hydroxyl
groups which can bind hydrogen ions are called binding
sites. In case of SiO2 insulator, it is assumed that it has only
one kind of H+-specific binding site represented by SiOH,
SiO- and SiOH+ (Fig.2). The ionization reactions are:
SiOH SiO + H +
(6)
IV. ENFET MODELING :

Modeling of ENFET provides important tools for prediction
of function of the device for different new sensing materials
that can be used to make devices with enhanced sensitivity.
Since the introduction of site-binding model, many models
have been developed- some are physico-chemical and
some are based on SPICE (Simulation Program with
Integrated Circuit Emphasis). But irrespective of different
approaches, basic objective of ENFET modeling is to obtain
a relationship of the form 0 = (pH) and almost all models
have considered an electrolyte-insulator-semiconductor
(EIS) system [25] in conjunction with the site binding theory
and electrical double layer theory. The aim of this section
is to describe some mathematical quantities used for many
ENFET models.
(7)
SiOH + H + SiOH 2+
with H+ representing the protons in the vicinity of the surface.
It is thus clear that the originally neutral surface may become
a positive site or negative site by accepting or donating
protons from or to the electrolyte solution respectively.
As a result of these chemical reactions at the interface, the
originally neutral oxide surface containing only neutral
sites is converted into a charged surface having positive and
negative charge sites. The resulting surface charge depends
on an excess of one type of charged site over the other and is
a function of the solution pH. For this reason H+ and OH- are
referred to as potential determining ions for this interface.
Besides the potential determining ions, electrolyte has other
anions and cataions called electrolyte ions. These electrolyte
ions form ion pairs with oppositely charged surface sites
or groups - a process known as surface complexation. The
formation of surface complexes also readjusts the acidbase equilibrium and affects the surface charge by partly
compensating the charged sites. Of course, the distribution of
ions in the electrolyte solution can be well explained by using
Gouy-Chapman-Stern theory [24]. According to this theory,
two layers are formed in the electrolyte solution. Double
layer consists of Stern inner layer and a diffuse layer. Inner
layer consists of two planes namely inner Helmholtz plane
(IHP) and outer Helmholtz plane (OHP). IHP is the locus of
centers of adsorbed ions which form pairs with the charged
surface sites as already discussed in surface complexation.
The OHP is the locus of the centers of the hydrated ions with
the closest approach to the surface. The diffuse layer extends
from the OHP to the bulk of solution and contains the
nonspecifically absorbed ions that behave as an ionic cloud
and balanced by the uncompensated surface sites. With this
model, the electrical double layer behaves as two capacitors
CH and CD in series where CH is the Helmholtz capacitance
and CD is the diffused layer capacitance as shown in Fig. 3.
Fig: (2) : Site binding theory of electrical double layer.
Fig: (3) : Charge and potential distribution of an ENFET for pH < pHpzc.

P 111
Considering site-binding theory, let us denote SiOH2+,

SiOH, SiO- positive, neutral and negative surface sites of
insulating surface. Exchange of the potential determining
ions with these sites can be described as follows:
k
+
SiOH 2+
SiOH + H s+

SiOH
SiO + H s+
(8)
(9)
Under equilibrium conditions, the amphoteric dissociation

constants are given by:
[SiOH ][H
]s
K =
(10)
+
+
[SiOH ]
[SiO ][H ]
(11)
K =
2
[SiOH ]
The subscript s in [H+] means that the concentration of

protons is near the surface of the insulator, and [SiOHs+],
[SiOH], and [SiO-] are the concentration of the proton
binding sites present in the oxide surface.
Now according to the Boltzmann distribution, the relation
between the concentration of an ion species X at a location i
in the electrolyte double layer, [X]i , and the concentration of
the same species at the bulk electrolyte, [X]b , is
(12)
Therefore, (5) and (6) may be rewritten respectively as

(13)
(14)
Using this basic site binding model, Bousse et al. [26]
develops a simple model and proven to be applicable for an
ISFET surface of SiO2 and Al2O3. According to this model,
the resulting equation for the surface potential is
(15)
Where, pHpzc is the value of the pH for which the oxide

surface is electrically neutral and determines the final
sensitivity.
P 112

In 1996, based on the same site binding theory, a new

model was developed by R.E.G. Van Hal et. al [27]. This
model explores the well known equation for capacitance Q
= CV, where Q is the surface charge, C is the double layer
capacitance at the interface and V is the surface potential
denoted by o. According to this model, o can be expressed
as
(16)
With
=
(17)
2
(2.3 kTC
diff
)+1
Where symbolizes the ability of the oxide surface to deliver

or take up protons called buffer capacity of the surface and
Cdiff is the differential double layer capacitance, is a
dimension less sensitivity parameter varying between 0 and
1, depending on the intrinsic buffer capacity.
The charges and the potentials at the interfaces are related by
the following equations:
+ s
(18)
0 = 0
C1
(19)
d = d
C2
C0
(20)
s 0 = s
V. ENFET TECHNOLOGY
As mentioned above, ENFETs are fundamentally ISFETs,
therefore, as far as semiconductor side is concerned, the
classic microelectronic technology of integrated circuits (IC)
is also the basic technology used in ENFET development.
The fabrication step is similar to the process of the p-channel
or n-channel metal gate MOSFETs. ENFETs are fabricated
with silicon films on sapphire wafers (SOS). The gate SiO2
film is thermally grown on the surface of the substrate at
about 1000C. But unlike the MOSFETs, the selection of gate
dielectric coating of ENFETs is important as protonation/
deprotonation of this material is influenced by the pH of
the electrolyte dependent on enzyme. The various methods
used for fabrication of these coatings are plasma enhanced
chemical vapor deposition (PCVD), plasma anodic oxidation,
evaporation by electron beam, sputtering etc. [28]. As far as
integration of enzyme with the ISFET surface is concerned,
the enzyme is immobilized in thick polymer films such as
polyvinylchloride [29], polyacrylamide hydrogels [30] or
polyurethane [31]-[32] on ISFET device or the construction

of membrane e.g. Nafion or polyvinylpyridine [33]-[35]
covered crosslinked enzyme matrices on the ISFET, yield
active ENFET sensing devices. Such systems however, suffer
from basic limitations associated with diffusion barriers of the
substrates through the polymer membranes, leading to slow
response times and moderate sensitivities. It is now reported
that the organization of monolayer/ multilayer enzymebased ISFET could substantially improve the response-time
and analytical performance of the ENFET device.
VI. CONCLUSION
ENFETs are microelectronic/nanoelectronic devices and
have been found to be growing interest in the rapidly
developing field of bioelectronics encompassing a very wide
spectrum of applications. Extensive research is being carried
out in a number of Universities/laboratories across the globe
to develop various ENFET bioelectronic devices mainly
for biomedical, bio-analytical, food processing, defense
applications. Though, a series of reliable and promising
results have been obtained, no successful commercial version
of ENFET based biosensor is available so far. It is because
the practical application of ENFET sensors is complicated
by the fact that their response is affected by the pH of the
medium, buffer capacity, concentration of the substrate and
in some cases, e.g. for glucose, by the concentration of the
co-substrate, i.e. oxygen, the buffer capacity of the solution
tested depends on pH, therefore the pH change in the matrix
with the immobilized enzyme depends on the initial pH. Still
more essential is the pH effect on the enzyme kinetics. It is
expected that through effective research activities, like the
ISFET based pH sensor, the ENFET bioelectronic sensors
will also be commercialized in near future.
VII. REFERENCES
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state device for neurophysiological measurements,

IEEE Trans. Biomed. Eng. BME-17 (1970) 70-71.
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interface. J.Chem.Soc. Faraday Trans.,(70): 1807
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fundamentals and applications. New York: Wiley; 1980
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L. Bousse, N.F.de Rooij, P.Bergveld, Operation of

Chemically sensitive field effect sensors as a function
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[27] R.E.G. Van Hal et al., A general model to describe the

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Tatsuo Akiyama, Yusuke Ujihira, Yoichi Okabe, Takuo

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P 114

single chip, Talanto 50 (1999) 219-226.
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C.Jimenez, J. Bartroli, N.F. de Rooij, M. KoudelkaHep. Use of Photopolymerizable membranes basedd

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polyurethane-acrylate
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J.Munoz, C. Jimenez, A. Bratov, J. Bartroli, S. Alegret,

C. Dominguez, Photosensitive polyurethanes applied
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D.V. Gorchkov, A.P. Soldatkin, S. Poyard, N.

Jaffrezic-Renault, C. Martelet, Application of charged
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D.V. Gorchkov, S. Poyard, A.P. Soldatkin, N.

Jaffrezic-Renault, C. Martelet, Application of charged
polymeric materials as additional permselective
membranes for improvement of the performance
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A.P. Soldatkin, D.V. Gorchkov, C. Martelet ,N.

Jaffrezic-Renault, Application of charged polymeric
materials as additional permselective membranes
for modulation of the working characteristics of
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(1997) 35-40.
ACETYLCHOLINE GATED SPIKING NEURON MODEL

Soumik Roy1, Meenakshi Boro2 , Jiten Ch Dutta3, Reginald H. Vanlalchaka4
Bioelectronics Division, Dept of ECE, Tezpur University
Napaam Post, Tezpur, Assam - 784 028, India
1
xoumik@yahoo.com, 2meenakshi_edo09@agnee.tezu.ernet.in
3
jitend@tezu.ernet.in, 4rh73009@gmail.com
ABSTRACT
The ion channels of post synaptic neuron shows variable
conductance which depends on the transmitters diffused
through the synaptic cleft and binding with the receptor sites.
The binding with the receptor site is enzyme based and so
the enzyme acetylcholine is considered for excitatory state
of the neuron. The activity of binding can be represented by
enzyme modified field effect transistor (ENFET) sensitive to
acetylcholine. Acetylcholine sensitive ENFET functions not
only as a voltage controlled conductance but can also provide
a means of measurement of specific neurotransmitters that
bind with the receptor sites of postsynaptic membrane. The
ENFET is used as the circuit analogue to simulate a group
of excitatory transmitter-gated ion channels. This analogue
is incorporated into a circuit model of the postsynaptic
membrane at the neuromuscular junction to substitute the
variable Na+ conductance. Simulation is performed in
MATLAB for normal excitatory state and the results are
presented.
Keywords : Ion channels, Post synaptic neuron, Synaptic
cleft, Acetylcholine, ENFET.
I. NTRODUCTION
Communication in the nervous system occurs biochemically
at the synapse. The synapse consists of a presynaptic neuron,
synaptic cleft and postsynaptic neuron. Neurotransmitter,
such as acetylcholine is released by the presynaptic
terminals into the synaptic cleft. The transmitter diffuses
and binds with specific receptors in the postsynaptic cell.
The binding initiates the opening of transmitter-gated
ion channels, and subsequent influx of ions into the cell.
The postsynaptic membrane of a single neuron can have
excitatory and inhibitory transmitter-gated ion channels.
Generally, excitatory channels are specific to sodium ions
and inhibitory channels are specific to chloride ions. The
excitatory and inhibitory ionic current control the change in
membrane potential.
The influx of sodium ions causes an excitatory post synaptic

membrane potential (EPSP), whereas the influx of chloride
ions causes an inhibitory postsynaptic membrane potential
(IPSP). When excitation predominates the membrane
potential increases. If a sufficient number of transmitter gated
sodium channels are open, then the membrane potential
exceeds the threshold for initiating an action potential. The
acetylcholine - receptor binding activity initiates the opening
of sodium channels causing the flow of sodium ions into
the cell. If a sufficient number of channels open, then the
membrane potential exceeds the threshold for initiating
an action potential[1].When inhibition predominates the
membrane potential decreases (or hyperpolarizes), and
triggering of an action potential is impeded. Neurons are very
dynamic objects. Some types of neurons called pacemakers
are capable of spontaneously firing in a rhythmic fashion,
others can fire randomly. These behaviours are caused by
very complex and highly dynamic properties within the
neurons. Because of their intrinsic complexity, models
are usually difficult to analyze and are computationally
expensive in numerical implementations. For this reason,
simple phenomenological spiking neuron models such as
integrate-and-fire (IF) models [2]-[3] are highly popular and
have been used to discuss aspects of neural coding, memory,
or network dynamics [4] -[5]. Model neurons which include
time are those in which the actual timing of the input matters.
Models of this form can be sensitive to the actual timing
of their inputs. The simplest form of spiking neural model
which includes time, gives their output in the form of spikes.
Thus the output can be characterised by
(1)
=
S (t=
1...n), ti < ti +1
i :i
Where is the time of the th spike train in a train of spikes
[6].
Neuron models are proposed by neuroscientist to simulate
neurons [7]-[8] for explaining the active principle associated
with it. Among these models, neuroscientists have, utilized
the Hodgkin-Huxley (H-H) model as a circuit analogue of
the axonal membrane.
The H-H equations are simple and elegant tool, capable of

P 115
explaining the activity of neuron with the help of variable

permeability of membrane for different ions, e.g., sodium,
potassium, chloride etc. The electrical equivalent circuit of
H-H model is shown in Fig. 1. In this model, the capacitance of
the lipid bilayer of postsynaptic membrane is represented by
CM and is found to be constant and the membrane resistance
is determined in terms of three parallel conductances gNa,
gK and gO. The conductances gNa , gK and gO represent
the membrane permeability of sodium, potassium and
other ions respectively. ENa and EK are respectively the
chemical potentials of sodium and potassium i.e., Nernstian
membrane potential for sodium and potassium. EO is the
resting potential. The gK and gNa conductances are found
to be time and voltage dependent.
The total current in the H-H model is given by
(2)
I = I +I I +I
m
Na
Where K1 and K2 are the forward and backward rate

constants respectively.
The acetylcholine sensitive ENFET is prepared by
immobilizing acetylcholine esterase (AChE) on the surface
of gate oxide (Al2O3) [11] (Fig.2). It is based on the
biocatalyzed hydrolysis of acetylcholine in the presence of
AChE in accordance with the chemical reaction:
(5)
The proton generated in this reaction changes the pH inside
the enzyme acetylcholinesterase which is registered by
the underlying ion sensitive FET. The threshold voltage of
such device VTH(IS) is a function of pH of solution [12]
dependent on the concentration of acetylcholine . For very
small value of drain to source voltage of ENFET, Vds the
conductance of such ENFET can be expressed as
(6)
Fig. 1: H-H model
Fig. 2(a)
If Vm be the postsynaptic membrane potential established by

the ionic and capacitive membrane current then

=
I C (dVm / dt ) + g o (Vm ENa ) g Na (Vm ENa ) + g K (Vm EK ) (3)
The equations (2) and (3) are called H-H equations which are
simple and capable of explaining the activity of neuron with
the help of variable permeability of membrane for different
ions, e.g., sodium, potassium and other ions.
The acetylcholine - receptor binding activity initiates the
opening of sodium channels causing the flow of sodium ions
into the cell. If a sufficient number of channels open, then
the membrane potential exceeds the threshold for initiating
an action potential [1].
In simplest case the acetylcholine - receptor binding activity
is governed by the chemical reaction [9]-[1]
K1
2 ACh + AChR(closed ) 2 ACh AChR(open)

(4)
K2
P 116

Fig. 2(b)
Fig. 2: Acetylcholine ENFET (a) Schematic diagram (b)

Electronic diagram is the geometric sensitivity parameter
given by
(7)
= C W / L
ox
Where Cox is the oxide capacity per unit area, W and L are the
width and the length of the channel respectively, and is the
electron mobility in the channel. Vgs is the voltage applied to
the reference electrode and VTH(IS), is the threshold voltage

of the ENFET. Acetylcholine-receptor binding activity is
a time dependent phenomenon and therefore number of
opening of transmitter gated ion channels will be varying
with respect to time. VTH(IS) in equation (6) can, therefore,
be modeled as [9]:
VTH ( IS ) (t ) = VTHO (1 exp( K1t ) + exp( K 2t )U (t tm ))

(8)
Where K1 and K2 are time constants analogous to the rate
constants of equation (4), U(t-tm) is the Heaviside function
and VTHO is the threshold voltage proportional to the
maximum attainable conductance, when all the transmittergated channels for Na+ ions are open.
II. METHODS FOR SIMULATION

A spiking neuron model describes a transformation from a
set of input spike trains into an output spike train. It typically
comprises a set of state variables (e.g. the membrane potential)
whose evolution is governed by a set of differential equations.
Incoming spikes induce discrete changes in the state
variables, and outgoing spikes are triggered by a threshold
condition. Although it would be seen that simulating such a
model requires to store spike times, biophysical models can
usually be reformulated in the form of a spiking model as a
set of differential equations with spikes triggering discrete
changes in the state variables [10]. The strategy used to
simulate the spiking in the acetylcholine gated postsynaptic
membrane is by integrating the differential equation for
membrane potential with Euler approximation method and
then thresholding the output.
I Na = I1 + I 2 + I 3
(9)
The membrane potential Vm is increased by spatial
summation of sodium current through open acetylcholine
gated channels.
I = I m I Na I K
= C

(dVm / dt ) g Na (Vm ENa ) + g K (Vm EK ) (10)
Where gNa is the total sodium conductance and gK is the
non-gated potassium conductance.Vg1 ,Vg2 and Vg3 are the
voltages applied to the reference electrodes of the ENFETs.
The membrane potential Vm is obtained by spatially and
temporally varying gNa of acetylcholine-gated sodium
channels.
III. SIMULATION
The component values assigned in the model for MATLAB
simulation are taken from reference [9] CM= 1 F per cm2,
gK= 1mS per cm2, ENa= 60mV and EK= -90mV and I=0.
The specifications for three n-channel ENFETs are L=15m,
W=2m, tox=100nm, =600cm2/V-sec. The parameters for
exponential function in equation (8), applied to each ENFET
inputs are: VTHO= - 2 Volts, tm= 0.04msec, K1= K2 = 0.8
msec. The three gate to source voltage of three ENFETS
i.e.Vg1, Vg2 and Vg3 are kept constants at 1Volt each. The
three input parameters of ENFET namely VTH1,VTH2
and VTH3 dependence on concentration of acetylcholine
are applied in a staggered sequence at 0.02 msec intervals.
This is done to simulate the time variation in acetylcholine
transmitter -receptor binding with respect to different patches
of postsynaptic membrane.
IV. RESULTS
Fig. 3: Circuit model for excitatory Postsynaptic membrane
The circuit model for post synaptic membrane is shown in

the Fig. 3. Since only sodium channels are responsible for
excitatory action, the postsynaptic membrane is divided into
three patches to represent spatial summation of the sodium
current controlled by gNa1, gNa2 ,and gNa3 where
The membrane potential Vm, is established by spatial

summation and temporal integration of the acetylcholinegated sodium current. The opening of a sufficient number
of sodium channels causes the membrane potential to
exceed the threshold for initiating an action potential. In
this model action potential occurs whenever the membrane
potential reaches a threshold value Vth and after that the
action potential is reset to a value Vreset which is below the
threshold potential, i.e., Vreset < Vth. The action potential
thus takes the form of spikes and occurs during the time
period of the pulse. When Vm, exceeds a threshold in the
-60 millivolt range, as shown in the simulation the voltageInternational Journal on Current Science & Technology
P 117
gated sodium channels open causing initiation of an action

potential and when it exceeds 40 millivolt range it resets.
40
Membrane potential(mV)
20
-20
-60
0.1
0.2
0.3
0.4
Time(ms)
0.5
0.6
0.7
Fig. 4: Simulated result of integrate and fire model

of excitatory postsynaptic membrane potential.
V. CONCLUSION
The Fig. 4 shows an analogous simulation showing the
response of the model to a time-varying injected current. The
three acetylcholine gated sodium channels are staggered at
0.04msec time interval which simulates the time variation in
transmitter-receptor binding with respect to different patches
of postsynaptic membrane. After a certain time interval all
the sodium gates are opened which initiates action potential
after crossing the threshold value. The work shows that
acetylcholine-sensitive ENFET can be used as circuit analog
to simulate the excitatory postsynaptic potential.
VI. ACKNOWLEDGMENT
The authors wish to thank UGC for their support to innovative
programme Bioelectronics and AICTE for their support to
Neurobioengineering research.
VII. REFERENCES
[1]

P 118
[3]

Tuckwell H. Introduction to Theoretic Neurobiology,

Cambridge, MA: Cambridge Univ. Press, 1988.
[4]

Gerstner, W. Kistler, W. Spiking Neurons Models:

Single Neurons, Populations, Plasticity, Cambridge
UK: Cambridge Univ. Press, 2002
[5]

Maass, W. Bishop, C. Pulsed Neural Networks,

Cambridge, MA: MIT Press, 1998
[6] L, Smith. Implementing Neural Models in Silicon,

Handbook of Nature-Inspired and Innovative

Computing Section 11, Springer, 2006
-40
-80
[2] Geisler, C. Goldberg, J. A stochastic model of

repetitive activity of neurons, Biophys J 6: 53-69, 1966.
Dutta, J. C. Roy, Soumik. Biologically motivated

Circuit model for simulation of excitatory and
inhibitory synapses, Canadian Journal on Biomedical
Engineering & Technology Vol. 1, No. 2 June 2010, 49-51.

[7] Hodgkin, A, L . Huxley, A. F. A quantitative

description of membrane current and its application to

conduction and excitation in nerve, J. Physiol, 117.
500-544(1952)
[8] Johnson,
Hanna, Membrane model: A single

transistor analog of excitable membrane, J. Theoret.

Bio, 22, 401-411(1969)
[9]

Levine, Michael. D. Fare, T. L. A PhysiologicBased Circuit Model of the Postsynaptic region at the
Neuromuscular Junction, IEEE Proceedings, pp.
1602 - 1603, ISBN : 0-7803-0785-2.
[10] Destexhe, A. Mainen, Z. F. Synthesis of Models

for Excitable Membranes, Synaptic Transmission and
Neuromodulation Using a Common Kinetic

Formalism, Journal of Computational Neuroscience,

195-230 (1994).
[11] Kharitonov, Andrei. B. et al. Enzyme monolayer
functionalized field effect transistors for biosensor

applications, Sensors and Actuators B, 70, 222-231, 2000.
[12] Bergveld, P. Thirty years of ISFETOLOGY what

happened in the past thirty years and what may happen

in the next thirty years, Sensors and Actuators B, 88
(2003),1-20
POWER EFFICIENT ADIABATIC GRAY TO BINARY

& BINARY TO GRAY CODE CONVERTER CIRCUITS
Reginald H Vanlalchaka
Soumik Roy
Dept. of Electronics & Communication Engineering

Tezpur University, Tezpur.
Assam, India-748002
e-mail: rh73009@gmail.com
Dept. of Electronics & Communication Engineering

Tezpur University, Tezpur.
Assam, India-748002
e-mail: xoumik@tezu.ernet.in.com
ABSTRACT
In this paper adiabatic Gray to Binary & Binary to Gray
Code converter circuits are presented. At 0.5m Cmos
technology with L=0.5m and W=1.25m, the power
consumptions is compared graphically at various frequencies
with the counterpart conventional Cmos circuit using
Pspice simulator. Here only two popular partially adiabatic
circuits such as ECRL and PFAL are used as the reference
circuits since they have got good improvement in power
consumptions and mostly used as the reference circuit.
of the output node, energy stored in the load capacitance is

dissipated in the NMOS network (/F) [8].
Adiabatic logic circuits reduce the energy dissipation during
switching process, and reuse the some of energy by recycling
from the load capacitance [ 2].
Index Terms - Clocking pattern, energy recovery, adiabatic

switching, Boolean expressions, power dissipations, power
clock, waveforms and equivalent circuits.
I. NTRODUCTION
Adiabatic is a Greek word and used to describe the
thermodynamic processes. which means no energy is
exchange with environment (i.e no entropy enters or leaves
the system) and therefore dissipated energy is almost zero.
Hence in adiabatic circuit the energy loss is being optimized.
But the functional speed of the circuit is compromised since
a.c or trapezoidal voltage source is used as inputs as well
as supply voltage. In order to increase switching speed and
decrease the area occupancy, the practical circuit is usually
made up of an adiabatic component and a non-adiabatic
component [1-3].
In conventional CMOS logic circuits (Fig.1), if an input is
changed from 1 to 0 logic, the energy is transferred from
the power supply to the output capacitor, the total charge
Q = CLVDD is supply to the output node and the energy which
is being drawn from the power supply is CL.V DD 2 . But when
the transition has ended, only half of the total energy is seen
at the output load capacitor which is
CLVDD
2
and the other
half is lost in PMOS networks(F). From VDD to 0 transition
Fig.1: Conventional Cmos logic circuit with

pull-up(F) and pull-down(/F) circuit [3].
II. CHARGING PROCESS IN

ADIABATIC LOGIC CIRCUIT
Fig.2: Adiabatic Charging
To calculate the energy consumed by charging a capacitance

adiabatically, the equivalent circuit in Fig. 2 for an adiabatic
gate is used. Here, the load capacitance C is charged by a
constant current source. In conventional CMOS logic we use
P 119
constant voltage source to charge the load capacitance.

Here, R is the on-resistance of PMOS network [9].
Therefore the current into the circuit can be determined by-
Cdv(t ) CVDD
=
dt
T
=
i (t )
The energy for a charging event is calculated by integrating

the power p(t) during the transition time T :
=
E
p (t )dt v(t ).i (t )dt

=
or
=
E
(V
(t ) + Vc (t )).i (t )dt
Since no energy is dissipated in the capacitor at one clock

cycle. Therefore energy expression becomes
T
E = RC 2
0
VDD 2
T2
Or
E=
RC
CVDD 2
T
adiabatic circuit, some charge is allowed to be transferred to

the ground, while in a fully adiabatic circuit, all the charge on
the load capacitance is recovered by the power supply. Fully
adiabatic circuits face a lot of problems with respect to the
operating speed and the inputs power clock synchronization
[1].
There are many adiabatic logic design techniques that are
given in the literature. But here two of them are chosen,
ECRL and PFAL which shows the good improvement in
energy dissipation and are mostly used as reference in new
logic families for less energy dissipation [2].
A. Efficient Charge Recovery Logic ( ECRL)
It consists of two cross-coupled transistors M1 and M2 and
two NMOS transistors in the N-functional blocks for the
ECRL adiabatic logic block [12].
An AC power supply pwr is used for ECRL gates, so as to
recover and reuse the supplied energy. Both out and /out are
generated so that the power clock generator can always drive
a constant load capacitance independent of the input signal
[1].
Assuming in is high and /in is low, at the beginning of a
cycle, when the clock pwr rises, out remains at a ground
level, because in turn on M2. /out follows pwr through
M1. When pwr is high, the outputs hold valid logic levels.
These values are used in the next stage for evaluation. While
pwr falls down to a ground level, charge on /out returns
its energy to pwr. Thus, the clock acts both as a clock and
power supply [12].
During recovery process the same amount of energy is

wasted,
Therefore the total energy dissipation over complete cycle
is given as
E=
2 RC
CVDD 2
T
From the above expression the energy loss is inversely

proportional to the switching time T. Here the interesting
fact is that the energy consumption is not only govern by the
time period T but also the resistance R which is absence in
the conventional Cmos. Thus if T>>2RC then, the energy
dissipation is lesser than the conventional CMOS [3, 10].
III. REFERENCE FAMILY USED

Practical adiabatic families can be classified as either
partially adiabatic or fully adiabatic [11]. In a partially
P 120

Fig.3: Basic model of ECRL circuit
B. Positive Feedback Adiabatic Logic (PFAL)

The partial energy recovery circuit structure so called Positive
Feedback Adiabatic Logic (PFAL) has good robustness
against technological parameter variations [8].
The core of all the PFAL gates is an adiabatic amplifier, a

latch made by the two PMOS: M1-M2 and two NMOS: M3M4, that avoids a logic level degradation on the output nodes
out and /out. The two n-trees realize the logic functions. This
logic family also generates both positive and negative outputs.
The functional blocks are in parallel with the PMOSFETs
of the adiabatic amplifier and form a transmission gate. The
two n-trees realize the logic functions. This logic family also
generates both positive and negative outputs [13].
to each other and the one that goes HIGH follows the power
supply until it reaches VDD . At that moment the inputs
are returned to the LOW state and after a certain period of
time in the HOLD 1 phase, the supply ramps down with
the outputs following until the LOW state is reached again.
That is, to say, during the IDLE/ WAIT phase, the circuit
idles. In the EVALUATE phase, the load capacitance either
charges up or does not, depending upon the inputs to the
functional blocks. In the HOLD phase, the output is kept at
steady, so that the subsequent stage can evaluate. Finally,
in the RECOVERY/RESET phase, the charge held on the
capacitance is recovered [11, 15].
V. CIRCUIT IMPLEMENTATION
A.
Formula and logical expression of the circuits
Gray to Binary code Converter

Logical expression:
Fig.4: Basic model of PFAL circuit
B2=G2
B1=G2 G1
B0=G2 G1G0
IV. PHASE IN ADIABATIC

POWER SUPPLY
The constant-current source needed for the adiabatic
operation is usually a trapezoidal or, sinusoidal voltage
source. In an adiabatic circuit, the power supply also acts as
a clock. Hence, it is given the term power clock. A singlephase sinusoidal power-clock can easily be generated using
resonant circuits.
Fig.6: Gray to Binary Code Converter
Binary to Gray code Converter

Boolean expression:
G2=B2
G1=B2 B1;
G0=B1 B0
Fig.5: Timing diagram of Adiabatic Inverter
Initially, the adiabatic supply is in the IDLE / WAIT phase and

the supply voltage is LOW maintaining at the same time the
outputs in the LOW state. Then the inputs are set (one goes
LOW the other HIGH) and the supply voltage ramps-up. As
the inputs are evaluated, the outputs change complementary
Fig.7: Binary to Gray Code Converter

P 121
Binary to Gray Code converter is shown in Fig.12 and in the

same manner the output of PFAL Binary to Gray Code are
realized and obtained.
Fig.8: ECRL Gray to Binary Code Converter Circuit
The circuits are implemented using XOR-Gates and its

adiabatic equivalent of ECRL and PFAL Gray to Binary
Code converter circuits are shown in Fig.8 & Fig.9. Binary
to Gray Code converter of ECRL and PFAL are obtained
in the same methods but changing the inputs and outputs
connection patterns.
Fig.9: PFAL Gray to Binary Code Converter Circuit
Fig.11: Simulated Waveform of the PFAL

Gray to Binary code converter
Fig.10: Simulated Waveform of the ECRL

Gray to Binary code converter
B. Simulation Results
Input and output waveforms are obtained from the Spice
simulation of the circuits, ECRL and PFAL Gray to Binary
Code Converter and ECRL Binary to Gray Code Converter
are shown in Fig. 10, Fig. 11 and Fig.12 respectively.
The output waveforms of ECRL and PFAL are quite similar
under same input conditions. To be kept in mind that, here the
supply power clock has given longer delay (idle/wait) than
usual, in order to get better performance and less wastage of
energy, which means power clock is applied to the circuit
only when it is needed. Simulated output waveform of ECRL
P 122

Fig.12: Simulated Waveform of the ECRL

Binary to Gray code converter
VI. POWER CONSUMPTION

ANALYSIS AND COMPARISON
Total power
dissipation
(W)
Estimation of power consumptions is carried out at 0.5um

technology keeping the W/L ratio of the PMOS and NMOS
are same and L=0.5um and W=1.25um is considered. The
simulation has been done in PSICE Simulator with load
capacitance of 1fF at a frequency of 1Ghz. ECRL and PFAL
logics are investigated against the conventional Cmos logic.
The power analysis results of Gray to Binary & Binary to
Gray Code are shown in Fig.13 and Fig.14 respectively. The
power calculations formulas are mentioned along with the
respective graphs and given in Table 1, Table 2, Table 3 and
Table 4 [5] [6] [7].
Area per chip

(m2)
15
23
40
12.5
12.5
Table 4: At 500MHZ:
CIRCUIT
BINARY TO GRAY CODE CONVERTER

PFAL
ECRL
CMOS
Transistor
count
24
20
20
Total power
dissipation
(W)
10.1
12
20
15
12.5
12.5
15
12.5
Area per chip
POWER DISSIPATIONS OF THE CIRCUITS AT DIFFENT

FREQUENCIES with same value of VDD=3.3V,CL=1FF.
16.2
(m2)
12.5
Table 1: At 1GHZ:
CIRCUIT
GRAY TO BINARY CODE CONVERTER

PFAL
ECRL
CMOS
Transistor
count
24
20
20
Total power
dissipation
(W)
17
19
35
12.5
12.5
Area per chip

(m2)
15
Table 2: At 500MHZ:
CIRCUIT
GRAY TO BINARY CODE CONVERTER

PFAL
ECRL
CMOS
Transistor
count
24
20
20
Total power
dissipation
(W)
8.1
8.8
16
Area per chip

(m2)
15
12.5
Fig.13: Simulated Power plot of Binary to Gray Code converter
12.5
Table 3: At 1GHZ:
CIRCUIT
Transistor
count
BINARY TO BINARY CODE CONVERTER

PFAL
ECRL
CMOS
24
20
20
Fig.14: Simulated Power plot of Gray to Binary Converter

P 121
VII. CONCLUSION
In this paper we have presented Adiabatic Gray to Binary
& Binary to Gray Code Converter circuits using PFAL and
ECRL techniques which have better performance among
the literature. The circuit diagram and simulated output
waveforms of both approaches are shown and the power
dissipations of the circuit are evaluated at various frequencies
and compared with the counterpart conventional CMOS
circuits. From the above observations we have concluded
that the design based on adiabatic principle gives superior
performance when compared to traditional methods in terms
of power even though their total area and transistor count is
more in some circuits.
VIII. REFERENCES
P 124
[1]

Design & Analysis of full adders using adiabatic

logic G.Rama Tulasi, K. Venugopal, B.Vijayabaskar,
R. SuryaPrakash St. Theressa Institute of Engineering
& Technology. International Journal of Engineering
& Research Technology (IJERT). July - 2012
[2]

Adiabatic Technique for Energy Efficient Logic

Circuits
Design. Rakesh Kumar Yadav, Ashwani
K. Rana, Shweta Chauhan, Deepesh Ranka, Kamalesh
Yadav Department of Electronics and Communication,
National Institute of Technology, Hamirpur (H.P)177005, India. ICETECT 2011
[3]

Four Phase Clocking Rule for Energy Efficient Digital

Circuits - An Adiabatic Concept ; Rakesh Kumar
Yadav, Ashwani K. Rana, Shweta Chauhan, Deepesh
Ranka, Kamalesh Yadav; International Conference on
Computer & Communication Technology (ICCCT)-2011
[4]

Improving the positive feedback adiabatic logic

family; J. Fischer, E. Amirante, A. Bargagli-Stoffi, and
D. Schmitt-Landsiedel; Advances in Radio Science

(2004) 221-225 Copernicus GmbH 2004.
[5]

Comparison of cmos and adiabatic full adder circuits;

Y. Sunil Gavaskar Reddy, V.V.G.S. Rajendra Prasad;
International Journal of Scientific &Engineering
Research, Volume 2, Issue 9, September-2011
[6]

ECL to CMOS Buffer Design Project by Sean Hefferly

Nam Le Jennifer Dennis.
[7] EE 307-02 Project by Steffan Benamou, RJane

Fernandez, Hector Torres .
[8]

W. C. Athas, L.J. Svensson, J.G. Koller, N. Tzartzanis,

and E. Chou, Low power digital systems based on
vol. 2, adiabatic- switching principles, IEEE Trans.
VLSI Systems, no. 4, pp. 398-407 Dec. 1994
[9]

Energy Efficient Adiabatic Logic for Low Power VLSI

Applications; Atul Kumar Maurya and Gagnesh
Kumar; 2011 International Conference on
Communication Systems and Network Technologies.
[10] Adiabatic Logic: Future Trends and Future Level

Perspective, Teichmann, P., 2012. pp. 7.
[11] T. Indermauer and M. Horowitz, Evaluation of

Charge Recovery Circuits and Adiabatic Switching

for Low Power Design, Technical Digest IEEE

Symposium Low Power Electronics, San Diego, pp.

102-103,October 2002.
[12] Y. Moon and D. K. Jeong, An Efficient Charge

Recovery Logic Circuit, IEEE JSSC, Vol. 31, No. 04,

pp.514-522, April 1996. 1248-1253, November 2004.
[13] A. Blotti and R. Saletti, Ultralow- Power Adiabatic

Circuit Semi-Custom Design, IEEE Transactions on

VLSI Systems, vol. 12, no. 11, pp.
[14]

W. C. Athas, J. G. Koller, L. Svensson, An EnergyEfficient CMOS Line Driver using Adiabatic

Switching, Fourth Great Lakes symposium on VLSI,
California, March 2005.
LIGHT INDUCED PLATING FOR ENHANCE

EFFICIENCY BY IMPROVING
FILL FACTOR AND SHORT CIRCUIT CURRENT
Santanu Maity*, Avra Kundu, Hiranmay
Saha
Centre of Excellence for Green Energy and
Sensor System
Bengal Engineering and Science University
Shibpur, Howrah 711103, India
*santanumaity_4u@rediffmail.com
ABSTRACT
Contact resistance and series resistance of grid are the
critical parameter for solar cell. Light Induced Plating (LIP)
can use to reduce the contact resistance and series resistance
as a result we get significance improvement of fill factor
where as there is marginal reduction in short circuit current.
Silicon solar cell processes are conventional but critical in
metallization technique because of contact. In this paper we
report the improvement of fill factor (FF) and also Jsc for the
plasmonic effects at front surface of the solar cell.
Key words: Solar cells; Light-induced Plating; Fill Factor;
Plasmonic
I. NTRODUCTION
It is seen that for front contacts defined by photolithography
the solar cell efficiency is ~0.5% more than that obtained
by screen printing [1] so the quality of the front side
metallization of Si-solar cell is a very important criterion for
the performance of the solar cell. However photolithography
is not very prevalent in industrial Si-solar cell mainly due
to matters of cost and complexity. Screen printing of silver
paste therefore emerges as the most cost effective and simple
process for industrial Si-solar cell. However several factors
like grid shading, poor conductivity and contact resistance,
front surface recombination and heavy doping adversely
affect the efficiency of solar cells [2]. Among these the shading
losses caused due to low aspect ratio of screen printed silver
result in the highest efficiency loss (~0.5%) [2]. Further the
contact resistance and conductivity of screen printed silver
result up to 0.4% efficiency loss [2]. Therefore improvement
of the aspect ratio of screen printed silver along with an
improvement in conductivity and contact resistance results in
improvement of solar cell efficiency. Next generation screen
printing applications rely on double printed contact lines (two
Utpal Gangopadhyay
Meghnad Saha Institute of Technology
Nazirabad, P.O : Uchhepota Via Sonarpur
Behind NRI complex,
Kolkata-700150
layer metallization scheme) for achieving high aspect ratio

and selective emitter technologies such as laser-doping [3-6]
to reduce the electrical contact resistance. Electroless plating
of Ni and Cu has also been successfully demonstrated in
commercial production [7]. However this technique involves
high maintenance cost and long plating times which limits
its success [8-9]. Light induced plating (LIP) of silver has
emerged as an attractive method to improve the conductivity
of the front side metallization [3, 8, and 10]. This technique
is very much different as it uses the solar cell ability to
generate the voltage and current to drive the electrochemical
deposition of the metal. Fast plating rates, stability, lower
cost and easy maintenance has made it attractively simple. It
is seen that LIP helps in improving the overall conductivity
of the front side metallization not only by improving its
thickness but also by filling up of voids in the screen printed
silver. The voids are mainly formed when the organic solvent
is removed during the drying process. Work has been carried
out to estimate the efficiency gain due to the reduction
shadowing loss by Lee et al. [11]. Further estimating the
exact current voltage operating point of the solar cell and
hence the plating rate is of importance. Recently, Bartsch et
al.[8,9] have reported the measurement of changes in mass of
the solar cell to determine the plating current density. Use of
inductively coupled plasma measurements to characterized
LIP for Si- solar cell is also been reported by Y. Yao n et al.
[12].
In this paper we present the effect of LIP on the solar
cell characteristics with and without external bias. Series
resistance of front side contacts and also the role of surface
conditions of the solar cell after LIP have been examined in
same details. The series resistance of front contact surface
decreases and Jsc also efficiency of solar cell increases due
to LIP without bias. The series resistance decreases due to
deposition oa silver on front side contact and the increase
in Jsc may mainly be attributed to the formation Ag nano

P 125
II. EXPERIMENTAL DISCUSSION

For improving fill factor (FF) we dipped solar cell in 5%
HF mixture for different times as 30 sec, 40 sec, 50 sec,
and 60 sec. We have chosen a suitable silver solution for
our LIP experiment as it has advantage like in this solution
cathode current efficiency is 100%. We have mixed 5 gm,
12.5 gm, and 15 gm of Potassium Argentum Cyanide (PAC)
in 1000 ml DI water. The Light Induced Plating has been
performed by using both external bias and without external
bias. A constant current source of 5mA is used as the external
bias. External bias circuital arrangement of our LIP set up is
shown in figure 2.
III. RESULTS AND DISCUSSIONS

After HF dipping it is seen that fill factor (FF) increase
gradually (shown in figure 3) whereas the series resistance
was unchanged. But when dipping process cross more than
50 seconds then the FF decreases because HF etch the glass
frit of front side contacts and lift off occurs.
0.674
FF
0.672
FF
particles of different sizes on the front side of the solar cell.

The unintentional deposition of silver nanoparticles on the
surface of solar cells during LIP may lead to the changes
observed in the Jsc of solar cell after LIP caused by the
plasmonic effect[13] of the deposited silver particles during
LIP.
0.670
0.668
0.666
0
10
20
30
40
50
60
TIME (SECONDS)
Figure 3: Change of FF with time
We have optimized LIP experiment for different light

intensities and different concentration of electrolyte
solutions. In figure 4 and figure 5 it is shown that the series
resistance of front contact decreasing with respect to time
but the decrease rate is higher for higher light intensities and
higher concentration of solution because of
faster deposition rate. But if intensity and concentration exit
some limit then it increase optical shading and as a result
decrease in solar cell efficiency.
SERIES
RESISTANCE(Ohm)
Figure 1: with bias LIP setup

1.25
1.20
1.15
1.10
1.05
1.00
0.95
0.90
0.85
0.80
0.75
0.70
0.65
Light intensity(330wt/mt2)
Light intensity(660wt/mt2)
10
15
20
25
LIP time(min)
Figure 2: Circuit arrangement of LIP
P 126

Figure 4: Change of series resistance with time

at different intensity
SERIES RESISTANCE(Ohm)
1.6
Concentration(15gm/lit)
Concentration(12.5gm/lit)
Concentration(5gm/lit)
1.4
1.2
1.0
0.8
0.6
10
15
20
25
30
LIP time(min)
Figure 5: Change of series resistance with

time at different electrolyte concentration
In figure 6(a) it is seen that the finger surface damaged due

to screen printing process (SPP). At the time of firing the
solvent for SPP evaporate and make some unwanted pore on
the front side contact and which increase the series resistance
as a result decrease in solar cell efficiency. After LIP process
the pore filled with silver(shown in figure 7) because field
line always contact with the edge of the pore and which
reduce the series resistance and increase solar cell efficiency.
Figure 7: Microphotograph of finger after LIP(50X)
It is seen that (Table 1) there is a significant increase of Jsc

about 21.3 mA/cm2 to 26.06 mA/cm2 while Rs has decrease
from 1.56 to 1.47. However FF has decreased from
0.43 to 0.40 possibly due to reduction of Rsh from 26.7
to 16.43. But from the spectral characteristic, it is noticed
that there is a reasonable increases of EQE in the wavelength
500nm to 900nm. The behavior of the spectral reflectance
curve indicates the facts that there may be a chance of
unintentional deposition of different size nanoparticle all
over the silicon solar cell surface which leads to plasmonic
effect. This may be one of the possible reasons of increased
Jsc and hence solar cell efficiency although there is a small
decrease of fill factor.
TABLE I : RESULTS OF LlP WITH
AND WITHOUT EXTERNAL BIAS
LIP light intensity

1000W/m2
Parameter
Figure 6(a): Microphotograph of finger before LIP (50X)
(%)
Without bias
Cell1
Cell2
Cell1
Cell2
10
10
Before
LIP
21.3
28.08
26.79
28.46
After
LIP
26.06
22.83
29.26
31.54
Before
LIP
9.38
9.19
9.87
12.87
After
LIP
10.66
8.95
9.88
14.52
Time (Min)
Jsc
(mA/
cm2)
With bias (5mA)

P 127
Figure8: Deposited nanoparticles after LIP
IV. CONCLUSION:
LIP is an established process for improving the Rs of the
front contacts and reducing the shading loss in c-Si solar
cell fabrication. However, most of the work is reported on
decrease in Jsc and increase in FF only. While in this paper
we have reported increase in Jsc and corresponding increase
in efficiency without any significant change in FF. The
unintentional deposition of silver nanoparticle on the surface
of c-Si solar cell during LIP leads to a plasmonic effect as
evidence by reduction in the reflectance and increase of EQE
of solar cell.
V. ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS:
The authors would like to acknowledge Prof. A. K. Barua,
Prof. R. Bhattacharya and Mr. Avra Kundu for their constant
support and encouragement. The work is supported by the
grants supplied by Department of Science & Technology
(DST), Govt. of India
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D. Kray, et al., Industrial LCP selective emitter solar

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N.B. Mason, et al., Laser grooved buried grid Si solar

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J. Bartsch, et al., Electrochemical methods to analyse

the light-induced plating process, Journal of Applied
Electrochemistry 40 (2010) 757-765.
[9]

J. Bartsch, et al., Progress in understanding the

current paths and deposition mechanisms of lightinduced plating and implications for the process, in:
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Energy Conference, 21-25 September, 2009,
Hamburg, Germany, 2009, pp. 1469-1474.
[10] L.F. Durkee, Method of plating by means of light,

4144139, United States, 1979.
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Jin Hyung Lee, Young Hyung Lee,Jun Yong Ahn,

Ji-Weon JeongAnalysis of series resistance of
crystalline silicon solar cell with two-layer front
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Energy Materials & Solar Cells 95 (2011) 22-25.
[12] Y. Yao n, A.Sugianto, A.J.Lennon, B.S.Tjahjono,

S.R.Wenham Use of inductively coupled plasma

measurements to characterise light induced plating for

silicon solar cells Solar Energy Materials & Solar

Cells 96 (2012) 257-265.
[13] Santanu Maity, Sonali Das, Swapan Datta, Hiranmay

Saha, Soma Ray, Utpal Gangopadhyay Plasmonic

effect in Light-Induced Plating of c-Si solar cell ICEE 2012.
IMAGE DENOISING USING SPARSE AND

OVERCOMPLETE REPRESENTATIONS-A STUDY
M. K. Rai Baruah
Bhabesh Deka
Department of Electronics and Communication Engg.

Tezpur Central University
Tezpur, 784028, India
Email: mkraibaruah@gmail.com
Department of Electronics and Communication Engg.

Tezpur Central University
Tezpur, 784028, India
Email: bdeka@tezu.ernet.in
ABSTRACT
Sparse representation based on overcomplete dictionaries
has recently got a lot of interest among the signal and
image processing community. It is assumed that all natural
signals are sparse over some transform domain. This idea
has been exploited in many image processing tasks such
as image compression, image denoising/restoration, image
segmentation, etc. with very impressive results. Recently,
sparse representation has led to the development of a new
research area in signal processing by the name Compressive
Sensing which has revolutionized the signal acquisition
theory. In this paper, we highlight some of the very popular
sparse representation algorithms which have been widely
studied and applied for various signal and image processing
applications. We also study an image denoising algorithm
using the concept of sparse and overcomplete representations
which have shown state-of-the-art performance compared to
its traditional counterparts.
Keywords : Sparse representation, Overcomplete dictionary,
K-SVD algorithm
II. IMAGE DENOISING USING

SPARSITY INDUCING TRANSFORMS
The basic difficulty with the classical image filtering
methods is that, they tend to blur the image, which is usually
not expected from any good and stable filtering techniques.
In particular, the sharp edges or lines that occur in the image
should be preserved while filtering. With the discovery of
continuous wavelet transform (CWT) by Grossman and
Morlet [1]
(a)
(b)
I. NTRODUCTION
An image is corrupted by noise at stages of acquisition,
processing, transmission and storage. For example, when an
analog image is converted to a digital image, the resulting
digitized image contains noise due to quantization. Noise
reduces the image quality and is especially significant when
the objects being imaged are small and have relatively low
contrast. It is necessary to apply an efficient denoising
technique to compensate for such noisy data. The aim of
image denoising is to remove the distortion resulted by the
noise while keeping, as much as possible, the important
features of the image intact. The performance of any
image denoising algorithm relies on the understanding and
exploiting the differences between the noise and the signal.
Fig. 1(b) and Fig. 1(c) illustrate noisy and the corresponding
denoised images, respectively.
(c)
Figure 1. (a) Original Boat image. (b) Image corrupted by
salt and pepper noise. (c) Denoised image
and the application of discrete wavelet transform (DWT) in

signal processing by Mallat [2], a new tool for the study of
non-stationary signals was developed. In particular, in the
early 1990s, Donoho et al. [3], [4] demonstrated a simple
denoising procedure by thresholding the detail wavelet
coefficients. He showed that it had desirable statistical

P 129
optimality properties. This method exploits the sparsity

property of the discrete wavelet transform and uses the fact
that this transform maps the white noise in the signal domain
to the white noise in the transform domain. This is the
unique property which enables the separation of the signal
from the noise. The wavelet shrinkage is an image denoising
technique based on the idea of thresholding the wavelet
coefficients. It may be adaptive or non-adaptive. Visushrink
[5] is a non-adaptive thresholding method that depends only
on the number of data points. The adaptive SUREshrink [3]
technique uses a combination of the universal threshold and
the SURE (Steins Unbiased Risk Estimator) technique and
performs better than the Visushrink. The BayesShrink [6]
minimizes the Bayes Risk Estimator function considering a
generalized Gaussian prior for the signal and thus estimates
a data-adaptive threshold.
The main limitation of the DWT is that it is not translation
invariant because of the decimation operation. That is, the
translation of the original signal leads to different wavelet
coefficients. It gives rise to the pseudo-Gibbs phenomenon
or the ringing effect [7], [8] in the denoised output. In order
to overcome this and get more complete characteristic of
the analyzed signal, the shift-invariant undecimated wavelet
transform (UDWT) was proposed [7].This transform produces
more precise information for the frequency localization and
the denoised images possess better perceptual qualities.
But the UDWT has larger storage space requirements and
involves more computations.
In [9], [10], the authors showed that the traditional wavelet is
not effective for describing a two dimensional image because
the discontinuities present in it are spatially distributed and
the wavelet coefficients for them are not sparse. Wavelets do
very well for the representation of point singularities present
in a one dimensional signal but fails in the case of lines and
curves in images. To overcome these limitations, several
new multiscale transforms were proposed. These include
the curvelets [9], the contourlets [11], and the ridgelets [10].
Image denoising using these transforms are reported in [12][14].
Decomposing a signal based on the sparse representation of
the signal is a new way of image denoising. The basics of
sparse representations of signals are discussed in the next
section.
III. SPARSE AND OVERCOMPLETE

REPRESENTATION OF SIGNALS
The sparse representation of a signal is based on the
assumption that the natural signals can be expressed as a
linear combination of a few bases from an overcomplete
P 130

basis set. Such a representation results in a system of underdetermined equations. Finding relevant sparse solutions of
under-determined systems of linear equations in the presence
of noise has been used popularly by the signal processing
community. It has found applications in diverse areas. These
include image denoising [15], image restoration [16], blind
source separation (BSS) [17], compressed sensing (CS) [18],
biometric authentication [19] and a host of other applications.
The sparse representation of an ideal noiseless signal is
modeled by

(1)
where X is a mx1 signal vector, is a Kx1 sparse coefficient
vector, and is an mxK matrix called the dictionary. It is
assumed that mxK which means that the dictionary is
overcomplete. The columns of the dictionary are called the
atoms. The above model assumes that X can be represented
as a linear combination of atoms from the overcomplete
dictionary . Each atom is assumed to be of unity 2 -norm
throughout this work.
The representation of a signal with an overcomplete
dictionary has the advantage over traditional orthogonal
basis representations because they offer a wider range of
generating elements (bases) and hence are more flexible in
signal representation. A theoretical justification of the use
of an overcomplete dictionary has been given in [20]. We
assume here that the signal has a sparse representation on
the overcomplete dictionary. Since the dictionary is overcomplete, the problem in Equation (1) has infinitely many
solutions.

where
(2)
represents the 0-norm counting the number of
non-zeros in a vector. Consider a signal given by
y= x + n,

(3)

where n is the additive white Gaussian noise (AWGN)
with variance
n2
. The noise-aware variant of the sparse
representation problem in Equation (2) can be modelled by

where
(4)
is a constant depending on the mean-square-error
of the representation and
n2
Algorithms for sparse representations:
Finding the sparsest solution, over a redundant dictionary is

an NP-hard combinatorial optimization problem [21]. This
problem can be solved in a tractable way using two approaches:
1) optimization techniques and 2) greedy algorithms. The
first category solves the problem by minimizing a cost
function and the second one tries to find the nonzero elements
directly through correlations between the dictionary atoms
and the observed data or the residual. The optimization
techniques are broadly divided into two categories, namely,
the convex and non-convex optimization methods. The basis
pursuit (BP) [22], applies convex optimization that uses the
1 -norm in place of 0 -norm as the cost function.
The resulting optimization problem is solved by the linear
programming approach. An efficient method to solve
1 -norm minimization problem is the primal-dual interiorpoint method (PDIPM) [23]. In the PDIPM a sequence of
modified Karush-Kuhn-Tucker (KKT) conditions and the
Newtons method [23] are applied. The main disadvantage
of the PDIPM is that they require a solution space close to
a ``Central Path which is computationally expensive [23],
[24]. In the homotopy method, initially we take x(0) as 0,
then we proceed up to the optimum point x*[24]. When the
sparsity and observation dimension increase proportionately
with signal dimension, homotopy method is not a very
efficient algorithm [24]. The Gradient projection (GP)
method is also a fast 1 minimization algorithm. Here we
take a particular gradient direction to find out the minimum
solution [24]. Two very important algorithms in this category
are the gradient projection sparse representation (GPSR)
and the truncated Newton interior-point method (TNIPM)
[24] which basically solve a quadratic programming problem.
There are also some other algorithms which are used to form
quadratic approximations from the objective function and
subsequently minimize the quadratic cost function. The
proximal gradient method is one such algorithm [24]. Some
other algorithms for 1 minimization include the augmented
Lagrange multiplier method, the iterative shrinkagethresholding (IST), etc. [24].
On the other hand, the greedy category of sparse
representation algorithms selects the atoms that best matches
the signal structure at each iteration. It generally uses the
correlation between the signal (or residual signal) and the
atoms of the dictionary as a measure to find the atoms with
nonzero coefficients. Mallat and Zhang [23] first introduced
the concept of Matching Pursuit (MP) for the sparse
representation of signals over a redundant dictionary. There
are a number of other pursuit algorithms like the Orthogonal
Matching Pursuit (OMP) [26], Stage-wise OMP (StOMP)
[27], etc. The greedy algorithms determine one active
atom (eg., in MP) or several active atoms (eg., in StOMP)
recursively at a time without solving a hard optimization
problem in a multidimensional space.

Compressed sensing:
Sparse representation has also led to the development of the
theory of compressed sensing or compressive sampling (CS).
It is a framework for signal acquisition and compression
simultaneously and based on the work of Candes and
Tao [28]. The CS principle allows the reconstruction of
compressible signals from the sparse data sampled at a rate
much lower than the Nyquist rate.
Consider a signal

x m that has a sparse representation
with respect to a basis set
such that
has
at most k nonzero coefficients. Then x can be recovered by

only
N k . log(m)
set
projections on a second basis
incoherent with
and obeying the uniform
uncertainty principle (UUP). Finally, it solves the following

optimization problem:
(5)
where p=0 or 1 and s is the measured or observed data. When
p=0, the solution involves the computationally exhaustive
combinatorial optimization. On the other hand, for p=1,
the optimization problem becomes a 1 -norm minimization
problem which can be solved by the BP algorithm.
(a)
(b)
(c)
Figure 2. (a) Original image (b) Down-sampled image

by 2 (c) Reconstructed image
The authors in [29] have proposed a novel two stage

algorithm for the removal of salt-and-pepper noise from gray
scale images. In the first stage, the noisy pixels are detected

P 131
using a simple impulse noise detection scheme. In the second

stage, the image is reconstructed based on the partial noisefree pixels using the CS principles. Fig. 2. shows a typical
example of image reconstruction using the CS theory.
IV. K-SVD BASED IMAGE DENOISING

In [15], Elad and Aharon present an image denoising method
using the sparse representation over a learned overcomplete
dictionary obtained by applying the K-SVD, on overlapping
patches of the image. It is assumed that the image x has a
sparse representation in each patch of dimension m p m p .
Addressing image denoising as a sparse decomposition
problem in each patch leads to the following energy
minimization problem:
(6)
(8)
The above is a quadratic optimization problem has the

closed-form solution given by
(9)
where I is the identity matrix.
The K-SVD based image denoising is shown to have the
state-of-the-art performance for the removal of additive
white Gaussian noise [15]. Fig. 2 demonstrates the results
for the K-SVD based image denoising on the Lena
image corrupted by the Gaussian noise with the noise
standard deviation n = 20 .Fig. 4. shows the results for the
Cameraman image corrupted by the same noise level.
where i marks the location of the patch in the image and is

a penalty parameter related to the noise variance and is the
sparsity inducing regularization term.
are the sparse
th
representation for the i patch using
. The operator L i is
a binary matrix m p m which extracts the m p m p patch
from the i th location in the image. The above problem is
solved in two stages:
1) Sparse coding stage
It is assumed that
is known and the minimization
problem in Equation (6) consists of only two unknowns,
namely,
and x . Then with the initialization x = y, the
problem can be decoupled into smaller problems of the form:
V. CONCLUSIONS
This study gave an outline of one of the popular research areas
of recent time. The K-SVD based sparse representation of
signals has been applied for different signal processing tasks
including denoising, compression and pattern recognition.
However, the application of sparse signal denoising is
limited for the removal of additive white Gaussian noise. Our
ongoing effort is to extend the sparse denoising algorithms
for removing the non-Gaussian and non-white noise like the
salt and pepper noise and the speckle noise.
(7)
The above optimization problem is solved by the OMP.
a)
(b)
2) Dictionary update stage

After finding all
as above, the dictionary is updated one
column at a time using singular value decompositions (SVD).
The above two stages are carried out iteratively till the
convergence of the results. After getting all
to all the patches in the image) and the
problem in Equation (6) becomes
P 132

(corresponding
by the SVD, the
(c)
Figure 3. (a) Original Lena image. (b) Image corrupted by

Gaussian noise with n = 20 , PSNR=22.11 dB. (c) Denoised image
using K-SVD based denoising method, PSNR=32.31 dB.
[7] M.Lang,H.Guo, J.E.Odegard, and C.S.Burrus,

Nonlinear processing of a shift invariant dwt for

noise reduction, in Proceedings of SPIE,

Mathematical Imaging: Wavelet Applications for Dual

Use, April 1995.
(a)
(b)
(c)
Figure 4. (a) Original Cameraman image. (b) Image corrupted by
Gaussian noise with n = 20 ,PSNR=22.11dB.(c)
Denoised image using K-SVD based denoising method, PSNR=29.77.
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FOTOFUSION - AN ANALYSIS OF IMAGE

EDITING ON ANDROID PLATFORM AS AN
APPLICATION IN SMART PHONES
Smita Das
Assistant Professor, Computer Sc. & Engineering Dept.
NIT Agartala
Agartala, Tripura, India
E-mail : smitadas.nita@gmail.com
ABSTRACT
The attractiveness of digital cameras, particularly within
phone handsets has caused their prices to plunge just as their
size has shrunk dramatically. Its now becoming difficult to
even find a mobile phone without a camera, and Android
devices are unlikely to be exceptions. Android framework
includes support for various cameras and camera features
available on devices, allowing us to capture pictures and
videos in our proposed applications. This paper proposes
an application named, FOTOFUSION that is basically
an android application which can be used to capture and
display pictures as well as editing those pictures at a single
platform. This proposed application provides two functions.
Firstly, it provides facility to capture photos and videos.
Captured photos and videos are then saved in SD card and
subsequently they can be extracted from the SD card for a
clear view. Second feature of this application is to edit the
photos. This projected application provides an application
which is a fusion of camera and gallery apps. So the users
need not to install separate applications for both. This
anticipated application satisfies the android users who want
complete functionalities of pictures in one application.
Keywords : Android platform, Mobile, Eclipse IDE, SDK,
JDK, Image Processing.
I. NTRODUCTION
It has been about three years since the first Android phone
has been released to the public and less than one and a half
years from the last major upgrade to platform 2.x.Within
this short period of time Android has managed to overtake a
significant part of the global smart phone market, becoming
a clear leader in year-to-year growth.
A. Android Application
Android is a complete operating environment based upon the
Nitesh Kr. Singh, Mukesh Kumar, Ashok

Ajad, Priya Khan
Student, Computer Sc. & Engineering Dept.
NIT Agartala
Agartala, Tripura, India
Linux kernel. Initially, the deployment target for Android was

the mobile-phone arena, including smart phones and lowercost flip-phone devices. However, Androids full ranges
of computing services and rich functional support have
the potential to extend beyond the mobile-phone market.
Android can be useful for other platforms and applications
[1].
B. Mobile System
A mobile operating system, also referred to as mobile OS,
is the operating system that operates a smart phone, tablet,
PDA, or other digital mobile devices. Modern mobile
operating systems combine the features of a personal
computer operating system with touch screen, cellular,
Bluetooth, Wi-Fi, GPS mobile navigation, camera, video
camera, speech recognition, voice recorder, music player,
near field communication, personal digital assistant (PDA),
and other features [2].
C. Developing Android Applications
The Android SDK provides an extensive set of application
programming interfaces (APIs) that is both modern and
robust. Android handset core system services are exposed
and accessible to all applications. Android applications are
written in Java. For now, the Java language is the developers
only choice on the Android platform. There has been some
speculation that other programming languages, such as C++,
might be added in future versions of android [3].
D. Commonly Used Packages
With Android, mobile developers no longer have to reinvent
the wheel. Instead, developers use familiar class libraries
exposed through Androids Java packages to perform
common tasks such as graphics, database access, network
access, secure communications, and utilities (such as XML
parsing).
The Android packages include support for:

Common user interface widgets (Buttons, Spin

Controls ,Text Input)

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User interface layout
Secure networking and Web browsing features

(SSL, Web-Kit)
Structured storage and relational databases (SQLite)
Powerful 2D and 3D graphics (SGL and OpenGL

ES 1.0)
Audio and visual media formats (MPEG4, MP3,

Still Images)
Access to optional hardware such as LocationBased Services (LBS), Wi-Fi, and Bluetooth.
II. BACKGROUND OF THE SYSTEM

Android is a Linux-based operating system designed
primarily for touch screen mobile devices such as smart
phones and tablet computers. Initially developed by Android,
Inc., which Google backed financially and later purchased in
2005, Android was unveiled in 2007 along with the founding
of the Open Handset Alliance: a consortium of hardware,
software, and telecommunication companies devoted to
advancing open standards for mobile devices. The first
Android-powered phone was sold in October 2008.
Android is open source and Google releases the code under
the Apache License. This open source code and permissive
licensing allows the software to be freely modified and
distributed by device manufacturers, wireless carriers and
enthusiast developers. Additionally, Android has a large
community of developers writing applications that extend the
functionality of devices, written primarily in a customized
version of the Java programming language. In October 2012,
there were approximately 700,000 apps available for Android,
and the estimated number of applications downloaded from
Google Play, Androids primary app store [4], was 25 billion.
E. Interface
Androids user interface is based on direct manipulation,
using touch inputs that loosely correspond to real-world
actions, like swiping, tapping, pinching and reverse pinching
to manipulate on-screen objects. The response to user input
is designed to be immediate and provides a fluid touch
interface, often using the vibration capabilities of the device
to provide haptic feedback to the user. Internal hardware such
as accelerometers, gyroscopes and proximity sensors are used
by some applications to respond to additional user actions,
for example adjusting the screen from portrait to landscape
depending on how the device is oriented, or allowing the user
to steer a vehicle in a racing game by rotating the device,
simulating control of a steering wheel.
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F. Application
Applications are developed in the Java language using the
Android software development kit (SDK). The SDK includes
a comprehensive set of development tools, including a
debugger, software libraries, a handset emulator based on
QEMU, documentation, sample code, and tutorials. The
officially supported integrated development environment
(IDE) is Eclipse using the Android Development Tools
(ADT) plugin. Android has a growing selection of third party
applications, which can be acquired by users either through
an app store such as Google Play or the Amazon App store,
or by downloading and installing the applications APK file
from a third-party site. The Play Store application allows users
to browse, download and update apps published by Google
and third-party developers, and is pre-installed on devices
that comply with Googles compatibility requirements. The
app filters the list of available applications to those that
are compatible with the users device, and developers may
restrict their applications to particular carriers or countries
for business reasons.
III. EXISTING CAMERA BASED APPS

Some of the existing camera based Android apps are:
G. CameraZoom FX
This $2.99 app calls itself the ultimate Android camera
app, and really it is. Its certainly the most feature-filled,
handling both shooting and editing duties from one interface.
Camera360 or PicsArt [5] may also be mentioned as free
apps.
H. Pro HDR Camera
There are a couple of reasons to use an HDR (high dynamic
range) app. Smartphone cameras dont always produce the
best dynamic range when shooting high-contrast subjects.
HDR apps help balance things out by taking photos at
different exposures and then combining them into one shot
for a more even exposure. The big problem with HDR using
smart phone cameras is that they dont focus and shoot
fast enough to work with moving subjects. Even slight
movements will screw up the results, so HDR is best used on
scenery and stationary subjects. Another app, simply called
HDR camera [6] does a decent job of dealing with slight
movements by removing ghosting.
I. Wondershare Panorama
Another point-and-shoot camera features is the option to
quickly capture panoramas simply by sweeping the camera.
Thats how Wondershares app works: just point, shoot, and
sweep. It can be used in portrait or landscape mode and
has several effects options that can be applied immediately
after the capture is complete. Its free, too, which helps one
overlook its lack of size and resolution options.
IV. PROPOSED SYSTEM ARCHITECTURE
B. Capturing video
This proposed system facilitate user to capture videos with
a quick access button. Captured video will be saved in SD
card.
The following figure explains the process:
Overview of the architecture of this proposed system can be

depicted by this following flowchart-
Fig. 3: Process of capturing video.
C. View picture
Photos captured by user are saved in SD card for permanent
storage. Pictures can be extracted from this SD card to have
a clear view.
Figure given below explains about this function:
Fig. 1: Block diagram of the proposed System
Different functions of this system are described below:

A. Capturing Picture
This proposed application provides quick access to capture
photo using the camera hardware of android system. After
capturing the photo, option for save or discard will be
provided to the user. The captured photos are automatically
saved in SD card.
Fig. 4: viewing Picture and videos.
D. Editing
This feature is the main attraction of this application. We
can apply some special effects on captured photos by this
application. Process of editing is shown in this given figure:
The following figure shows the process of capturing photos:
Fig. 2: Process of capturing photo.
Fig. 5: Editing Photos.

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Following are the effects which can be applied on Captured

photos:
1) Gray scale : Grayscale is the most commonly
implemented image processing technique on images. In
grayscale implementation, we have taken some variables
with given value and the pixel value of the individual
pixels of the image. Then in accordance to this value and
the constants we have replaced the pixel value with the
newly generated pixel value and displayed the image.
2) Invert : In inverted or negative effect we show the
reverse value of the actual pixel value that is present in
the picture/image. In this implementation, we have taken
the individual pixel value and subtract the value from
255(which is the maximum range for the pixel value).
The image gets inverted, and this effect is observed best
in case of black and white image where the white part
becomes black and black part becomes white.
Fig. 6: Main Page.

Figure 6 shows the main page from where the application starts.
3) Poster : Poster effect of an image simply shows how

the poster implementation of an image shall be. This can
be of various bases like for violet, red, pink etc. In the
implementation we have used the base for blue.
4) Blu : this effect of an image simply shows how the
poster implementation of an image shall be. This can
be of various base like for violet, red, pink etc. In the
implementation we have used the base for blue.
5) Hue : The Hue control allows us to change colours,
enrich or dull colours, lighten or darken colours and
even use it to create a color cast in an image. It can also
be used to adjust tone. However, the Levels or Curves
controls are used more often for tonal adjustments than
Hue.
Fig. 7: Figure depicting Gallery.

Figure 7 shows the page after opening the gallery.
V. EXPERIMENTAL RESULTS
This android application is implemented using Eclipse IDE
with android SDK tool. After successful compilation, a file
with .apk extension is created. This file is used to install
this application. This application is supported by different
android devices which are having android operation system
version 2.2 or later. This application is successfully tested
on Samsung android mobile having android OS version 2.2.
Screenshots of the simulation software are given below:
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Fig. 8: Display picture.

Figure 8 displays an image from the gallery.
The following figures show different effects like invert,

poster, blur, hue and gray scale applied on the same image:
Fig. 12: Implementation of Hue effect.

Fig. 9: Implementation of invert effect.
Fig.10: Implementation of poster effect.
Fig.13: Implementation of Gray scale effect.
VI. CONCLUSION AND FUTURE WORKS

There are various applications present in android market
regarding capturing and editing photos. This proposed
application meets the requirement of users which is a fusion
of capturing and editing photos in very user-friendly manner.
Instead of using two separate application like one for
capturing photo and another for editing the captured photo,
one can use the proposed application where flavor of two
apps are fused in one single app.
Fig. 11: Implementation of Blur effect.
In the perspective of future we can enhance this paper by

adding some more special editing options like crop, zoom
etc. we can also add an option to upload these captured
photos on the web in the same application.

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REFERENCES
[1] h t t p : / / w w w . i b m . c o m / d e v e l o p e r w o r k s /

library/os-android-devel/J.en.wikipedia.org/wiki/
Mobileoperatingsystem.
[2] h t t p : / / w w w. i n f o r m i t . c o m / a r t i c l e s / a r t i c l e .
aspx?p=1388959&seqNum=4.
[3] http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Android%28operating_
system%29.
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[3] h t t p : / / n a d i a - d o r e m i s o f t . o v e r- b l o g . c o m / 1 5 categorie-12200732.html.
[4] http://reviews.cnet.com/8301-19736_7-57429313 251/the-12-best-android-camera-apps-around.
DENOISING OF SPECKLED IMAGES

Sagarika Das
Triguna Sen School of Technology, Assam University
E-mail: sagarikadas89@gmail.com, abhi.021983@gmail.com
ABSTRACT
Speckle is a fine, granular, texture like pattern found in all
coherent imagery systems like ultrasound, Synthetic Aperture
Radar (SAR) and acoustic images. Although the experts may
derive useful information with their eyes but it becomes
difficult to artificially process the image because of the
noise and various artifacts present in the image. So, various
filtering techniques are used to reduce the speckle from those
images. Now, a filter used to reduce the speckle noise should
aim at smoothing the homogeneous region while preserving
the points, edges and linear features. Various algorithms
have been developed so far to do the same. In this paper we
have tried to include the filters in a systematic way to give a
generalized idea of the types of filters and their contribution
in reducing the speckle.
Keywords : Speckle, multiplicative noise, polarized wave,
filter, mean filter.
I. NTRODUCTION
A number of image restoration and enhancement techniques
have been developed so far to remove the noise and blurring
of the degraded images. The degradation of image takes place
due to the formation of speckle. A speckle is a fine pattern
formed on the image which makes it difficult for a person
to derive the useful information from the image. It is caused
when the images use polarized wave for illumination such
as laser and radar imagery. In case of ultrasound images, the
speckle can be seen in all the cross-sectional views of the
image. Speckle is a form of multiplicative noise [1] and its
effect is far more significant than the additive noise such as
sensor noise [2].
Since these images contain speckle, the main aim here is
to reduce the speckle from the images by smoothing the
homogeneous regions while preserving the point features,
edges and linear features. So, we have provided an overview
of various speckle reducing methods in this paper. The paper
is being organized as follows.
In section 2, we show
how the speckle is formed. Section 3 details the various
methods used for speckle reduction including both the preacquisition and post-acquisition methods. Section 4 deals
with the review and empirical analysis of some simulated
images. Finally, section 5 will conclude the paper.
II. FORMATION OF SPECKLE

Generally in ultrasound images, we see that the image is
covered with an alternately dark and bright spots of variable
shapes, distributed in a random manner over the image but
it has no relation with the macroscopic properties of the
surface. These spots are created when an optically rough
surface is illuminated by a coherent wave; the scattered wave
presents a particular intensity distribution which seems as if
the surface is covered with a fine granular structure. Such a
random distribution is known as speckle.
When a surface is struck by a coherent wave, two types of
reflection are observed-Specular reflection and Scattering.
Specular reflection occurs when the surface is large and
smooth as compared to the wavelength of the polarized wave,
e.g. urine filled bladder. Strong reflections like a mirror are
produced in this case. Detection of these echoes depends on
the angle of insonification [3]. Scattering occurs when the
wavelength of the ultrasound pulse is much smaller than the
roughness of the surface e.g. blood cells. Here the incoming
polarized wave is scattered in all directions resulting in the
constructive and destructive interference. The constructive
and destructive interference of these scattered echoes result
in a granular pattern on the image.
III. SPECKLE REDUCTION METHODS

Speckle is a multiplicative noise which can be reduced
using various methods as will be described now. We cannot
remove the speckle completely as in the process we might
lose some valuable information as it is not simply a noise.
The reduction of speckle while preserving the important
features of the image hence becomes very challenging.
Approaches to reduce speckle can be broadly divided into

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two parts: Pre-acquisition method and Post-acquisition

method.
III.1 PRE-ACQUISITION METHODS
These methods are applied before the images are acquired
for calculating the final image by averaging. Here we get a
compound image by combining two or more images of the
same area. It is considered that the speckle pattern differs as
the images being taken for an area are partially correlated.
A number of scanning methods are used for acquiring the
images to be compounded.
In frequency compounding method the images are taken using
different frequency ranges within the given bandwidth [4][5]
[6][7]. Split spectrum processing (SSP) is most commonly
used [8][9][10] where the wideband radio frequency (RF)
signal is split into subbands using high pass and low pass
filters. The final image has enhanced structure and reduced
speckle which is retrieved by compounding the amplitude
data yielded by the envelope detection of the RF subbands.
In spatial compounding approach the different images are
obtained by using different scan directions while acquiring
the images [7][11][12].
In temporal compounding, the frames obtained over time are
averaged. But it is applicable for still images only because
the speckle pattern will not change. For moving surfaces
like heart the image appears to be smeared. A particular
arrangement in a transducer is made recently to receive
elements which simultaneously acquire independent images
[13].
III.2 POST-ACQUISITION METHODS
Post-acquisition method as the name suggests is applied
after the image is acquired and envelope detected. It is better
than the pre-acquisition method in the sense that it does not
require any specific mode of scanning and the output images
are better in terms of quality and speckle reduction [16].
Although the number of post-acquisition methods in the
literature is large, still we have tried to give an overall view
of the various filters used.
III. 2.1 ADAPTIVE FILTERS
Adaptive filters are easy to implement and control and are
widely used in image restoration. They generally adapt to
the level of filtering at each pixel position of the image.
The commonly used adaptive filters include the Lees filter,
Frosts filter and Kuans filter. These filters assume that
speckle noise is essentially a multiplicative noise. Although
the Lee and the Frost filters were improved with time, the
first idea being given by Lopes et al. [14] at the beginning
of the 1990s by classifying the pixels in order to apply
specific processing to the different classes. Later on, the
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so called Adaptive Speckle Reduction filter (ASR) exploits

local image statistics of the specific parts of the image to be
processed further. In [99], based on the local image statistics,
the kernel of the adaptive filter is fitted to the homogeneous
region of the image. To spatially adapt the filter parameters,
local homogeneous regions were also investigated [15][16].
All the above filters were based on the concept of mean filter.
But the concept of median filter has been also examined for
speckle reduction in [4]. This local averaging method tries to
remove the local extrema considering them to be the outliers
in the kernel.
The Kuan Filter [17] is based on the Minimum Mean
Square Error (MMSE) approach. The MMSE estimate is
first developed for the additive noise model q=p+n. The
multiplicative noise is then taken of the form q=p+(n-1)p.
The Kuan filter gives an optimal solution when the intensities
follow Gaussian distribution.
The Lee filter [18] forms an output image by computing a
linear combination of the center pixel intensity in a filter
window with the average intensity of the window. So, the
filter achieves a balance between straightforward averaging
(in homogeneous regions) and the identity filter (where
edges and point features exist). This balance depends on
the coefficient of variation inside the moving window. It
converts the noise into additive form and then works on it.
The Frost filter [19] balances between mean filter and the
all-pass filter. An exponentially shaped filter kernel is formed
such that it can vary from a basic average filter to an identity
filter on a point wise, adaptive basis and hence the balance
is achieved. Again, the response of the filter varies locally
with the coefficient of variation. In case of low coefficient of
variation, the filter is more average-like, and in cases of high
coefficient of variation, the filter attempts to preserve sharp
features by not averaging [20].
The Frost filter uses an exponentially damped convolution
kernel that adapts to regions containing edges by exploiting
local statistics. For a homogeneous region the damping
factor approaches zero so that we get the mean as output and
for the edges it becomes so large that the filtering is inhibited
completely.
The main drawback with these adaptive filters is the size
of the window. If the window is too large as compared to
the scale of interest it will lead to over-smoothing and the
edges will be blurred. Conversely, a small window will have
less smoothing capability and hence will leave speckle.
So, an optimum window size such as 7X7 or 5X5 is taken
depending on the image size for better results.
III.2.2 DIFFUSION FILTERS

The main aim of any speckle reducing filter is to remove
the speckle effectively while preserving the minute features.
This goal is being achieved to much extent by the diffusion
filters which finds the solution using Partial Differential
Equation (PDE) of transient permeability for 2D domain.
Because of the adaptive anisotropy and non-linear nature
these filters have excellent speckle reducing and detail
preserving properties [18][21][22][23][24].
The first anisotropic diffusion method was introduced by P.
Perona and J. Malik in the year 1990 [25]. It is an iterative
method applied on additive noise for smoothing an image.
During each iteration a diffusion function is calculated which
allows smoothing in homogeneous regions and inhibits in
the edges.
Although this method is effective on the images corrupted
by additive noise and can easily do intra-region smoothing
while preserving edges, this filter becomes less effective
when used to denoise an image corrupted by multiplicative
noise [1].
The problem faced by Perona and Malik diffusion technique
to reduce the multiplicative noise was later on modified by Yu
and Acton in 2002 who gave Speckle Reducing Anisotropic
Diffusion (SRAD) [1]. They proposed a diffusion function
based on the coefficient of variation used in synthetic
aperture radar (SAR) imagery.
The diffusion function is a function of Instantaneous
Coefficient of Variation (ICOV) and not of the gradient
magnitude.
The partial differential equation based approach follows an
iterative method and generates a number of filtered images
that vary from fine to coarse. It not only preserves the edges
but also enhances the edges by inhibiting diffusion across
the edges and allowing diffusion on either side of the edges.
It controls the level of smoothing by providing a diffusion
threshold.
of q_0 (t). It is shown that the local variance is depended

on the local geometry of the image. This method can be
implemented using structure tensor [27][28] or by using
Hessian matrix [29].
III.2.3 MULTISCALE APPROACHES
A number of conventional wavelet thresholding methods
[30][31][32] were investigated for speckle reduction [33]
assuming that the speckle is transformed into an additive
Gaussian noise if logarithmic compression is applied on
the image. Both the objectives that is image denoising and
enhancement [34] could be achieved through multiscale
method. But later on, Pizurica et al. [35] proposed a wavelet
based Generalized Likelihood ratio formulation which
relaxed this restrictive assumption. In order to perform the
wavelet thresholding adapted to the non-Gaussian statistics
of the signal in [36][37][38], the Bayesian framework was
also explored. Other multiscale strategies were also been
studied in [39][40] to improve the performance of the
Anisotropic Diffusion filters. In [41], the Kuans filter is
applied to interscale layers of a Laplacian pyramid.
III.2.4 HYBRID APPROACHES
In hybrid approach, a combination of the above approaches
is taken to have advantage of the different paradigms. In [42],
first the image is preprocessed by an adaptive filter, so that
it decomposes into two components. Next, Donohos soft
thresholding method is then performed on each component.
Finally, the two processed components are combined to
reduce the speckle. In [43], partial differential based approach
and a wavelet transform have been combined.
IV. EMPIRICAL ANALYSIS

A number of speckle reducing techniques are mentioned
above. The relative performance of these filters has been
evaluated. The window size for the Lee and Frost filters are
taken to be 7X7 and the number of iterations taken in case
of SRAD is 30.
The Detail Preserving Anisotropic Diffusion (DPAD)

[25] given by Aja-Fernandez and Alberola-Lopez in 2006
proposed a number of improvements to the SRAD technique.
The Oriented SRAD was proposed by Krissien in the
year 2007 [26]. SRAD proved to be very useful in case of
multiplicative noise but the diffusion method couldnt vary
with the direction to speckle adaptive diffusion filtering. The
OSRAD method helped in overcoming this by extending
the SRAD method to a tensor diffusion scheme. Some of
the DPAD methods are also used here like the use of larger
window to estimate q(x,y;t) and the median estimation
Fig. 1(a): Speckled image

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The mean square error (MSE) is calculated by averaging the

absolute difference of the original and the filtered image and
is given by:
Fig. 1(b): After applying Lee Filter
The MSE for the above images is given by:

Filters used
Mean square error

(MSE)
Lee Filter
907.327332
Frost Filter
356.780853
SRAD
185.725159
V. CONCLUSION
Fig. 1(c): After applying Frost Filter
We have presented a comparative study of the various filters

used in both the adaptive as well as the diffusion filtering.
If the ultrasound images are being degraded by noise then
its very difficult to analyze the images and hence find the
exact location of interest. Hence the various techniques for
reducing the speckled noise are being surveyed in both preacquisition and post-acquisition techniques. An empirical
analysis of some of the filters is also being provided for
better understanding.
VI. ACKNOWLEDGEMENT
Fig. 1(d): After applying SRAD
I would like to thank my guide, Mr. Abhijit Biswas, for his

constant support and guidance, without which I would not
have been able to bring out the work what I have presented
here.
REFERENCES
Fig. 1(e): Original image

Fig1: Simulated speckled image of coins (courtesy: internet)
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Zong, X., Laine, A. & Geiser, E. (1998). Speckle

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A STUDY OF RANDOMNESS AND

VARIABLE KEY IN CRYPTOGRAPHY
Achinta Kumar Gogoi
Bidyut Kalita
Department of IT
North Eastern Hill University
Shillong, 793022
achinta345@yahoo.com
Department of IT
North Eastern Hill University
Shillong, 793022
bidyut.kalita07@gmail.com
ABSTRACT
secure. A computationally infinitely powerful opponent can

break every system of this by exhaustive search over the
key space. Consequently, practical computational security is
always conditional and additionally faces the risk of being
broken by progress in the theory of efficient algorithms or in
hardware engineering.
This paper introduces a new method to enhance the performance

of the DES Algorithm. This is done by introducing a new
algorithm AVK which will produce variable key based on the
secret massage during the encryption process. The proposed
method provides high quality encryption, and the system is
very resistant to attempts of breaking the cryptography key.
I. NTRODUCTION
Cryptography is the practice and study of techniques for
secure communication in the presence of third parties
(called adversaries). Since World War I and the advent of
the computer, the methods used to carry out cryptology
have become increasingly complex and its application
more widespread. From e-mail to cellular communications,
from secure Web access to digital cash, cryptography is an
essential part of todays information systems. Security is the
main issue in Cryptography. But the cryptography now on
the market doesnt provide the level of security it advertises.
No one can guarantee 100% security. There are lots more
security issues which can be categorized as Data integrity,
Authentication, Confidentiality, Non repudiation. Therefore
to overcome from all these security issues and from Security
point of view Cryptography or Cryptography Algorithm can
be divided into two categories,
a) Computational Cryptography
b) Unconditional Cryptography
II. COMPUTATIONAL CRYPTOGRAPHY

The security of many presently used cryptosystems, e.g. of all
public-key cryptographic schemes, is based on the assumed
hardness of computational problems in number theory
such as the integer-factoring problem or the problem of
computing discrete logarithms in certain finite cycle groups.
Such a cryptosystem is called computationally secure. Up to
date, no practical cipher has been proven computationally
III. UNCONDITIONAL CRYPTOGRAPHY

(PERFECT SECURITY)
This measure concerns the security of cryptosystems when
there is no bound placed on the amount of computation
that Oscar is allowed to do. A cryptosystem is defined to
be unconditionally secure if it cannot be broken, even with
infinite computational resources.
IV. THE VERNAM CIPHER

OR ONE-TIME PAD
A one-time pad is a very simple yet completely unbreakable
symmetric cipher. The key for a one-time pad cipher is a string
of random bits, usually generated by a cryptographically
strong pseudo-random number generator (CSPRNG). With
a one-time pad, there are as many bits in the key as in the
plaintext. This is the primary drawback of a one-time pad, but
it is also the source of its perfect security. It is essential that
no portion of the key ever be reused for another encryption
(hence the name one-time pad), otherwise cryptanalysis
can break the cipher. To encrypt plaintext, P, with a key,
K, producing ciphertext, C, simply compute the bitwise
exclusive-or of the key and the plaintext:
C = K^P
To decrypt ciphertext, C, the recipient computes
P = K^C
Its that simple, and its perfectly secure, as long as the key is
random and is not compromised.
Therefore it is well known that to achieve perfect security

P 147
the key should be truly random and it should not be reused.
V. STUDY OF DES AND AVK

V.1.DATA ENCRYPTION STANDARD (DES)
The DES algorithm was developed by the International
Business Machines Corporation(IBM) and published by the
United States National Bureau of Standards in January 1977
as an algorithm to be used for unclassified data. The Data
Encryption Standard (DES), is a symmetric block cipher
operating on 64-bit data blocks. A key consists of 64 binary
digits out of which 56 bits used as a secret key and consists
of sixteen Feistel iterations surrounded by two permutation
layers: an initial bit permutation IP at the input, and its inverse
IP1 at the output. The other 8 bits, which are not used by
the algorithm, are used for error detection. The decryption
process is the same as the encryption, except for the order of
the round keys used in the Feistel iterations . The 16-round
Feistel network, which constitutes the cryptographic core of
DES, splits the 64- bit data blocks into two 32-bit words,
LBlock and RBlock (denoted by L0 and R0). In each
iteration (or round), the second word Ri is fed to a function f
and the result is added to the first word Li . Then both words
are swapped and the algorithm proceeds to the next iteration.
The function f is key-dependent and consists of four stages :
session to session. Recently AVK was proposed as a time

variant key. The proposed AVK is illustrated in the table
below for a session between Alice and Bob whereby they
respectively exchange data 34 and 78. In AVK, the key is
made variable with data. K0 = initial secret data, Ki = Ki-1
XOR Di for all i>0 where Di = data in ith session
TABLE1: Illustration of application of simple AVK in cryptography
1. Expansion (E). The 32-bit input word is first expanded

to 48 bits by duplicating and reordering half of the bits.
2. Key mixing. The expanded word is XORed with a
round key constructed by selecting 48 bits from the 56bit secret key, a different selection is used in each round.
3. Substitution. The 48-bit result is split into eight 6-bit
words which are substituted in eight parallel 6 4-bit
S-boxes. All eight S-boxes, are different but have the
same special structure.
4. Permutation (P). The resulting 32 bits are reordered
according to a fixed permutation before being sent to
the output. The modified RBlock is then XORED with
LBlock and the resultant fed to the next RBlock register.
The unmodified RBlock is fed to the next LBlock
register. With another 56 bit derivative of the 64 bit key,
the same process is repeated.
V.2 AUTOMATIC VARIABLE KEY (AVK):
The requirement of information security is increasing
because of widespread use of distributed systems, network
and communication facilities for carrying information
between terminal user and computer and between computer
and computer. Many designer designed many algorithm for
achieving security. But the security is only achieve by making
the secret key unbreakable. Vernum proposed that key would
be impossible to break if the key is made time variant. The
time variant key can be implemented by changing key from
P 148

VI. AVK ALGORITHM

IN DES ALGORITHM
A. Basic idea of AVK in DES Algorithm
As DES algorithm is very much susceptible to the attacker
due to reusing of same key in every session, we have
implemented a new concept AVK (Automatic Variable Key)
in DES, which gives an additional security to this algorithm.
Because in every session the key has been changed by Xoring
the previous Plaintext and the Key as below,
Say P1, P2, P3, P4,.are the plaintext blocks
and K1 is the secret key.
Now
C1 = DES (P1, K1), where C1 is the 1st cipher text block
K2 = XOR (P1, K1),
C2 = DES (P2, K2), where C1 is the 2nd cipher text
block
K3 = XOR (P2, K2),
.
.
So it is difficult for the intruder to guess the key as in every
session the key has been changed.
We have tested AVK in DES algorithm with some sample

text and found below results,
The text was
ABBBBBBBABBBBBBBABBBBBBBABBBBBB
BCDDDDDDDCDDDDDDD CDDDDDDDCDDDDDDD
and we have used the same secret key for both the test.
The result for DES algorithm
The result for AVK in DES algorithm
B. Superiority of AVK in DES Algorithm over traditional

DES Algorithm
From the above result we have seen that though in both the
case same secret key has been used, in DES same cipher text
has been generated and in DES using AVK different cipher
text has been generated for the same plaintext. Therefore
it can be easily conclude that the intruder can easily guess
that same plain text has been repeated, but where as in
second case it difficult for him to guess the above. This was
happened because of the Variable key has been introduced in
every session.
VII. TESTING AND COMPARING OF

RANDOMNESS OF KEYS GENERATED BY
AVK IN DES ALGORITHM
WITH SOME EXISTING RNG
(RANDOM NUMBER GENERATOR )
To check randomness of a key we may have lots of tests. But
NIST (National Institute of Standards and Technology) has
developed package of 15 statistical tests. The tests are:
The Frequency (Monobit) Test,

Frequency Test within a Block,
The Runs Test,
Test for the Longest-Run-of-Ones in a Block,
The Binary Matrix Rank Test,
The Discrete Fourier Transform (Spectral) Test,
The Non-overlapping Template Matching Test,
The Overlapping Template Matching Test,
Maurers Universal Statistical Test,
The Linear Complexity Test,
The Serial Test,
The Approximate Entropy Test,
The Cumulative Sums (Cusums) Test,
The Random Excursions Test, and
The Random Excursions Variant Test.
Each test is based on a calculated test statistic value, which is

a function of the data. The test statistic is used to calculate a
P-value that summarizes the strength of the evidence against
the null hypothesis. For these tests, each P-value is the
probability that a perfect random number generator would
have produced a sequence less random than the sequence that
was tested, given the kind of non-randomness assessed by the
test. If a P-value for a test is determined to be equal to 1, then
the sequence appears to have perfect randomness. A P-value
of zero indicates that the sequence appears to be completely
nonrandom. A significance level () can be chosen for the
tests. If P-value > , then the null hypothesis is accepted; i.e.,
the sequence appears to be random. If P-value < , then the
null hypothesis is rejected; i.e., the sequence appears to be
non-random. The parameter a denotes the probability of the
Type I error. Typically, a is chosen in the range [0.001, 0.01].
We have tested the randomness of the generated keys, as
the randomness of keys in cryptography are most important
factor. Moreover we have to check the proportion of
sequences passing the random test and Uniform Distribution
of P- values of the test.
VIII. PROPORTION OF SEQUENCES

PASSING A TEST
The range of acceptable proportions is determined using the
confidence interval defined as

P 149
Where
and m (No. of sequences to be tested)
Results of XOR
is the sample size. If the proportion falls outside of this

interval, then there is evidence that the data is nonrandom.
In our test module we set the parameter to 0.01 and No.
of sequences to be tested is 25. Based on NIST PRNG Test
Module the minimum proportion pass rate for each statistical
test is 0.93030075.
IX. UNIFORM DISTRIBUTION OF P-VALUES

The distribution of P-values is examined to ensure uniformity.
Uniformity may also be determined via an application of a
test and the determination of a
P-value corresponding
to the Goodness-of-Fit Distributional Test on the P-values
obtained for an arbitrary statistical test. This is accomplished
by computing
Result of Quadratic Congruential 1 generator
where Fi is the number of Pvalues in sub-interval i, and s
is the sample size. A P-value is calculated such that
P-value(U) = igamc
If P-value(U) 0.0001, then the sequences can be considered
to be uniformly distributed.
We have tested randomness for DES using AVK with some
existing RNG (Random number Generator ) and found
below results
Result of DES using AVK
Result of Cubic Congruential generator
P 150

REFERENCES
From the above result we can see that AVK in DES has given
good result compared to some existing RNG.
X. CONCLUSIONS
DES is now considered to be insecure for many applications.
This is chiefly due to the 56-bit key size being too small;
in January, 1999, distributed.net and the Electronic Frontier
Foundation collaborated to publicly break a DES key in
22 hours and 15 minutes There are also some analytical
results which demonstrate theoretical weaknesses in the
cipher, although they are unfeasible to mount in practice.
So it becomes very important to augment this algorithm by
adding new levels of security to make it applicable and can
be depending on in any common communication channel.
As Shannon proposed the variant key for unconditional or
perfect cryptosystem, so application of AVK in DES also
follow the concept of variant key which will change session
to session. More ever the random keys generated by AVK
in DES has passed the randomness tests and giving us good
random keys. This will increase the level of security of DES
algorithm.
[1]

A novel approach towards realizing optimum data

transfer and Automatic Variable Key(AVK) in
cryptography, 2008 by P. Chakrabarti, B Bhuyan,
A.Chowdhuri, C.T.Bhunia .
[2]

P.Chakrabarti, B.Bhuyan, A.Chowdhuri, C.T.Bhunia,

Application of Automatic Variable Key (AVK)
in RSA, accepted for publication in Intl Journal HIT
Transactions on ECCN, Vol 2, No.5 (in press)
[3] P.Chakrabarti , G.H.Mondal , B.Bhuyan ,A.Chowdhuri,

C.T.Bhunia Various New and Modified Approaches

for selective encryption with AVK ( diffusion and

fuzzy) and their comparative study, selected and to be

published in IEEE Conference, ITNG08, USA,
April08
[4] A Comparison of Four Pseudo Random Number

Generators Implemented in Ada* by William N. Graham
[5]

New Approach for Modifying Blowfish Algorithm by

Using Multiple Keys by Afaf M. Ali Al-Neaimi,
Rehab F. Hassan

P 151
P 152

APPROACH TOWARDS REALIZING ERROR PROPAGATION

EFFECT OF AES AND STUDIES THEREOF IN THE LIGHT OF
REDUNDANCY BASED TECHNIQUE
B. Sarkar1
C. T. Bhunia2
Dr. B. C. Roy Engineering College

Durgapur, India
E-mail: sarkar.bikramjit@gmail.com
National Institute of Technology,

Arunachal Pradesh, India &
International Centre for Theoretical Physics, Italy.
E-mail: directornitap@gmail.com
U. Maulik3
Jadavpur University, Kolkata, India
& International Centre for Theoretical Physics, Italy.
E-mail: ujjwal_maulik@yahoo.com
ABSTRACT
Error propagation effect of Advanced Encryption Standard
(AES) is a great research challenge. In literature, several
studies have been made on this issue and several techniques
are suggested to tackle the effect. In this paper we have studied
the error propagation effect in details. Error propagation
effect in case of selective AES and its comparison with
normal AES has also been studied. A graphical analysis of
error propagation for error occurring at different rounds of
AES is also shown.
Index Terms - Advanced Encryption Standard, Selective
AES, bit-error, error propagation, redundancy based
technique.
I. NTRODUCTION
The two types of encryption schemes used for information
security are Symmetric and Asymmetric. DES is the sole
authority of the first type where as the RSA is an important
contribution of second type. Due to several recent past reports
of failure [1, 2] of security or key of DES (Data Encryption
Standard), AES (Advance Encryption Standard) has been
developed as a supplement of DES. The supplement has
aimed to provide higher level of security mainly with higher
key size. Besides the higher level of security, AES has aimed
to provide higher efficiency and better flexibility by means
of encryption at different levels and with different block
sizes [3]. But AES suffers from a major limitation of error
propagation in the encryption process. The AES encryption
is done at several rounds of iteration. Each round of iteration
has different input data and different keys. The input data and
the keys of different round are all generated from the original
source data and the source key respectively. Thus the input
data and the keys at rounds follow a data path and key path
respectively. Any bit error at any round if occurs either at
data path or at key path, the effect propagates and results in
huge errors. The research [4, 5] reported this limitation of
AES in their authoritative work. In the thesis work, a study
on the error propagation under AES encryption will be made
from different blocks of data; and error pattern for different
error vectors at different points of either of the paths. The
limitation of error propagation in AES results in low speed
of encryption, more processing and higher complexity, as
because until and unless error free encryption is achieved the
transmission of the cipher will be meaningless.
II. PROPOSED TECHNIQUE

For the purpose of tackling error propagation of AES, two
techniques, namely the redundancy based technique and
the byte based parity technique were studied in literatures
[3, 4]. The redundancy based technique needs two modules:
encryption module and decryption module for producing
error-free cipher at the transmitter. The output cipher of the
encryption module is decrypted by the decryption module.
The decrypted output is compared with the plain text to
check for errors. If they match, the cipher is error-free and it
is transmitted. The dual process of encryption and decryption
by the technique make the encryption process slow and
costly. The byte based parity technique studied in [4] makes
use of parity checking at each byte of plain text to combat

P 153
error. It is mainly suitable for hardware implementation

whereas the redundancy based technique is applicable to
both hardware and software based implementations. The
redundancy based technique guarantees the error detection /
correction for all error vectors that may generate in the AES
encryption process where as byte based parity technique
does not guarantee the same.
HB2 =
The selective encryption provides a number of advantages in

information transportation. In this technique, only a fraction
of the entire message is encrypted. As a consequence, the
processing time as well as complexity gets reduced. In this
literature, we have investigated the application of Selective
AES Encryption in redundancy based technique (Fig. 1).
HB4 =
4E
20 45 46 46 45 43 54
20
4F 46 20 41 45 53 20
HB3 =
48 41 53 20 54 48 52
4F
57
4E 20 41 20 47 52 45
41 54 20 52 45 53 45 41
52
43 48 20 43 48 41
4C
HB5 =
4C
45 4E 47 45 20 42 45
46
4F 52 45 20 55 53
2E
Let us assume that the hexadecimal values for the key K is
HK where
HK =
42 49 4B 52 41 4D 4A 49
54
20 53 41 52 4B 41 52
Fig. 1. Selective AES applied in Redundancy Based Technique
III. EXPERIMENTAL RESULTS

We conduct an experiment with plain text message as
ERROR PROPAGATION EFFECT OF AES HAS
THROWN A GREAT RESEARCH CHALLENGE BEFORE
US. which is of 640 bits. We will now apply Selective AES
for the redundancy based technique. Our observation will be
on the selection of S% of blocks from the entire message
where the value of S will be taken as 20, 40, 60, 80 and 100.
First we divide the entire message into 5 blocks B1, B2,
B3, B4 and B5, each of which is of 128 bits, where B1 is
ERROR PROPAGATIO, B2 is N EFFECT OF AES ,
B3 is HAS THROWN A GRE, B4 is AT RESEARCH
CHAL and B5 is LENGE BEFORE US.
Let us now take the 128-bit key K as BIKRAMJIT
SARKAR. If we encrypt (AES) the blocks using the key K,
say, we get the Cipher Blocks like C1, C2, C3, C4 and C5.
So, we can express the Cipher Blocks as follows:
Cn = AES_Encryption (Bn, K), where n ranges from 1 to 5.
Let us assume that the corresponding Hexadecimal values
for Bn are HBn, where the values of HBn are as follows:
HB1 =
45 52 52 4F 52 20 50 52
4F
50 41 47 41 54 49
4F
P 154

After the encryption (AES) of Bn using K, we get Cn, where

n ranges from 1 to 5. If we consider the corresponding
hexadecimal values for Cn to be HCn, we get the hexadecimal
values as follows:
HC1 =
C4
DA E4 77 D4 07 E6 23
FC CB B9 2E 90 BB 8C BE
HC2 =
4F 2E 1A 40 55 F2 41 D8
35 9A 92 72 EB 4C C0 8D
HC3 =
68 C8 D3 83 C8 6D 76 FA
B0 5C 99 75 8E 1E 19 88
HC4 =
4A 4F C4 FF C9 03 56 51
BE
CB E4 77 73 92 54 59
HC5 =
38 6A 56 14 2C F9 DC
49
5F
1B 66 A1 60 7B A5
C6
The AES Encryption process has 10 rounds. And after each
round (1st to 9th) one intermediate state is found and after
the 10 rounds the final cipher text is generated. So, each

block Bn, while being encrypted to generate Cn, generates 9
intermediate states. Now say, after first round, the eighth bit
of each intermediate state generated from each block HBn
get erroneous and consequently we get HCn instead of HCn.
That means, each (0,0)th cell of the 2D matrices, generated
after the completion of the first round of AES algorithm, get
somehow changed. Below is the result of forcibly injecting a
one-bit error in the eighth bit of the intermediate states during
the encryption process after the first round is completed
and consequently the generation of faulty cipher text HCn
instead of what is expected to be.
HC1 =
6F BB 3B B0 82 61 58 C8
D7 8F 57 BD 85 DF C9 DC
HC2 =
E8 C9 06 11 93 6F 8C 00
13 EA 2E 48 62 1B 8C EB
HC3 =
38 0C 6F 6F 20 DF 9C A0
33 79 13 69 33 94 CC
F4
HC4 =
05 06 41 39 A0 26 34
EC
B2
F1 40 46 E0 57 0C
E9
HC5 =
D2
0B 43 F7 1A 32 99
A0
08 F2 41 BD 1C 5A AD 64
33 DC D8 5A EC 45 B9 7C
HC5 =
4B 59 CB D9 1D 29 41 75
52 79 B9 2D C8 83 59
AD
Now say, after ninth round, if the eighth bit of each
intermediate state generated from each block HBn gets
erroneous, we get HCn instead of HCn. Below are the
faulty ciphers HCn. Below are the faulty ciphers HCn.
HC1 =
62
DA E4 77 D4 07 E6 23
FC CB B9 2E 90 BB 8C BE
HC2 =
44 2E 1A 40 55 F2 41 D8
35 9A 92 72 EB 4C C0 8D
HC3 =
15 C8 D3 83 C8 6D 76 FA
B0 5C 99 75 8E 1E 19 88
HC4 =
96 4F C4 FF C9 03 56 51
BE
CB E4 77 73 92 54 59
HC5 =
51 6A 56 14 2C F9 DC
49
5F
1B 66 A1 60 7B A5
C6
Similarly, after fifth round, if the eighth bit of each

intermediate state generated from each block HBn gets
erroneous, we get HCn instead of HCn. Below are the faulty
ciphers HCn.
Now we will compare HCn, HCn and HCn with HCn

and accordingly we will find the total number of errors at the
output ciphers for each of the cases. We will then find the
average number of errors occurred in the output cipher when
a single bit error has occurred in any of the intermediate
states generated during the encryption process.
HC1 =
Comparison in Block B1:
F4
E1 51 E0 BA 94 8E
AD
Comparison of HC1 with HC1: Number of errors is 68.
8F 36 1B 4F B2 52 DA
84
HC2 =
93 97 92 5D 9A 13 11 20
65 26 A7 71 C4 52 1C 89

So, the average number of errors occurred is 45.67.
HC3 =
CC
3E 27 6E 89 D2 A2
F5
F6 2D DC 67 5A FD C7 AC
HC4 =
42 33 C3 F1 4D 2C 0D 6B
So, the average number of errors occurred is 43.

P 155

So, the average number of errors occurred is 45.
Block(s) Encrypted
B1
Percentage of
Selection
Average number
of errors occurred
at the output after
the execution of
the Encryption
Module
20
45.67
B1 & B2
40
88.67
B1, B2 & B3
60
133.67
B1, B2, B3 & B4
80
176.0
B1, B2, B3, B4

& B5
100
221.33
Table 1. Percentage of selection (Selective AES) vs. Average number of

errors occurred at the output after the execution of the Encryption Module.
IV. CONCLUSION
From the above experiment it is found that the graph of
Percentage of selection (Selective AES) versus Average
number of errors occurred at the output after the execution
of the Encryption Module is almost a straight line in nature,
which indicates that lesser is the percentage of selection, lesser
is the number of errors occurred at the output. Moreover, the
processing speed is inversely proportional to the percentage
of selection. Hence, a combined process of Selective AES
and Redundancy based technique can be carried out as a
remedy of the Error Propagation Effect of AES. But it must
be noted that the viability of the idea revolves around the
choice of the percentage of selection [7]. The security level
increases with the increase of the percentage of selection. So,
there must be a tread off between the security level and the
processing speed.
REFERENCES
[1]
NIST,
Announcing
the
ADVANCED
ENCRYPTION STANDARD (AES),
Federal
Information Processing Standards Publication,
No.197, 26 Nov2001.
[2] Chandan T Bhunia, Information Technology,
Networks and Internet, New Age International
Publishers, New Delhi, 2005.
[3] G. Bertoni, L. Breveglieri, I. Koren, and V. Piuri,
Fault Detection in the Advanced Encryption
Standard, Proc. Conf. Massively Parallel
Computing Systems (MPCS 02), pp. 92-97, 2002.
[4] G. Bertoni, L. Breveglieri, I. Koren, P. Maistri, and
V. Piuri, On the Propagation of Faults
and Their Detection i
n
a
Hardware
Implementation of the Advanced Encryption
Standard, Proc. Intl Conf. Application-Specific
Systems, Architectures, and Processors (ASAP
02), pp. 303-312, 2002.
[5] Guido Bertoni et al. Error analysis and Detection
Procedures for a Hardware Implementation of the
Advanced Encryption Standard, IEEE Trans
on Computers, Vol 52, No 4, pp 492-504,
April2004.[6] Chandin T Bhunia et al. Project
Work on AES Error Propagation, ISM, Deemed
University, India, June2004.
Fig. 2. Percentage of selection (Selective AES) versus Average number of

errors occurred at the output after the execution of the Encryption Module.
P 156

[6]

C T Bhunia, New Approaches for Selective AES

towards Tackling Error
Propagation Effect
of AES, Asian J of Information Technology,
Pakistan, Vol 5, No. 9, pp 1017-1022, 2006.
[7] Tom Lookabaugh et al, Selective Encryption for

Consumer Applications, IEEE Communication
Magazine, Vol 42, no 5, pp.124-129, April2004.
[8] B Sarkar et al., Study and Analysis of Error

Propagation Effect of Advanced Encryption
Standard, Intl J HIT Transaction on ECCN, Vol. 2, No. - 7, 2008.
Technique - a New Approach to Combat Error

Propagation Effect of AES, Springer Journal of
Institution of Engineers Series B, DOI: 10.1007/
s40031-012-0012-1.
[9] B. Sarkar et al., Modified Redundancy based

P 157
P 158

CIPHER COMBINING TECHNIQUE TO TACKLE

ERROR PROPAGATION BEHAVIOR OF AES
Rajat Subhra Goswami1
Swarnendu Kumar Chakraborty2
Department of Computer Science and Engineering,

Arunachal Pradesh- 791112, India,
Email: rajat.nitap@gmail.com1

Arunachal Pradesh - 791112, India,
swarnendu.chakraborty@gmail.com
Abhinandan Bhinia3
C. T. Bhunia4
Microsoft Corporation , USA

E-mail : abhi1.bhunia@gmail.com

E-mail : ctbhunia@vsnl.com4
ABSTRACT
To tackle error propagation effect of the Rijndal Advanced
Encryption Standard, two techniques studied in literature
are: redundancy based technique and parity based technique.
We propose a new technique called a cipher combining
technique that has several properties better than those of
existing techniques.
Index Terms - Advanced Encryption Standard, Error
propagation effect, Redundancy based technique; Parity
based technique, Cipher text combining technique
I. NTRODUCTION
The Rijndal Advanced Encryption Standard (AES) algorithm
emerged as an important secret-key crypto system [1, 2], and
it replaces DES due to DESs limited level of security[3,4].
However, AES does not guarantee reliable communication
due to error propagation behavior of data and control path
in its encryption process. Several studies [5,7] exhibit that
a single bit error if occurs in the first round of the AES
encryption process causes a large number of erroneous bits
in the final encrypted message. As there is no meaning to
transmit erroneous encrypted message, the transmission
of error free encrypted message/cipher in AES is a great
research challenge.
Two techniques studied in literature [5] for implementing
error free encryption/cipher in AES are: Redundancy-Based
Technique (RBT) and Parity-Based Technique(PBT). In
RBT, a test decryption module is used at the transmitter.
Immediately after encryption at the transmitter, decryption

is followed by the decryption module to check whether
the original message is obtained back on decryption. Once
original message is obtained back and verified, cipher so
produced is transmitted as it is then error free; otherwise
cipher is discarded and the whole process is repeated. In
PBT, simple parity check is conducted on each byte of 128
bits block of AES to check occurrence of any error at each
round; and to make correction by process of rejection &
repeat accordingly. RBT is guaranteed scheme of correcting
any & all errors but it has overhead about 100% (at the
transmitter, one encryption and one decryption module are
required). PBT does not guarantee detection & correction of
all errors, but it is with almost zero overhead. In this letter we
propose a new technique for error correction in cipher.
II. BASIC IDEA

We propose to apply Cipher Combining Technique (CCT)
to obtain error free cipher text in the encryption process of
AES. In the proposed technique, each block of 128 bits of
a message is encrypted thrice to obtain three copies (say
ct0, ct1 and ct2) of a cipher of each block. Bit wise majority
voting is then applied on the three copies of a cipher to
produce a best-effort error free cipher (fig 1). The proposed
technique has several properties.
1. technique exploits the erroneous copies of a cipher
to recover a correct copy
2. technique does not require any additional hardware
for implementation alike in RBT and additional

P 159
REFERENCES
processing alike in PBT

3. technique may be easily implemented both in
hardware and software
4. however, technique does not guarantee correction
of all sorts of error, although such a possibility is rare.
If probability of a bit error at a particular location of a
cipher is p, the probability of failure in CCT is then p2.
Fig. 1: Illustration of CCT
III. CONCLUSION
We have put forward a basic idea for obtaining error free
cipher at transmitter of AES. The idea is decisively to
outperform existing techniques. Experimental verification is
due.
P 160

[1] C T Bhunia, IT, Network and Internet, New Age

Publications, New Delhi, 2005
[2] B Gladman, A Specification for Rijndal, the AES
algorithm, http://fp.gladman.plus.com/2001.
[3] NIST, Announcing the ADVAN ENCRYPTION

STANDARD(AES),
Federal
Information
Processing Standards Publication, no 197, 26 Nov, 2001.
[4]

M Akkar and C Giraud, Implemention of

DES and AES, secure against Some Attacks,
Proc. Workshop Cryptographic Hardware and
Embedded Systems(CHES01), pp. 68-80, 2001.
[5]

G Bertoni, L Breveglieri et all, Error Analysis

and Detection Procedures for a Hardware
Implementation of the Advanced Encryption
Standard,, IEEE Trans. On Computers, Vol 62, No
4, pp.1-14, April, 2003.
[6]

B Bhuyan and C T Bhunia, Ph D thesis,

Approaches to Implement Selective Encryption
with High Level of Security Jadavpur University,
India, 2010.
TWO NEW PROTOCOLS FOR IMPROVING

PERFORMANCE OF AGGRESSIVE PACKET COMBINING
Swarnendu Kumar Chakraborty1
Rajat Subhra Goswami2

Arunachal Pradesh- 791112, India,
Email: swarnendu.chakraborty@gmail.com

E-mail : rajat.nitap@gmail.com
Abhinandan Bhinia3
C. T. Bhunia4
Microsoft Corporation , USA

E-mail : abhi1.bhunia@gmail.com

National Institute of Technology, Arunachal Pradesh 791112, India,
E-mail : ctbhunia@vsnl.com4
ABSTRACT
In the paper, two protocols are suggested to improve
the performance of
of aggressive packet combining
scheme(APC). To
combat error in computer / data
communication networks, ARQ (Automatic Repeat
Request) techniques are used. Several modifications
to improve performance of ARQ are suggested in
literature.
The important modifications are majority packet combining
scheme (MjPC proposed by Wicker), packet combining
scheme (PC proposed by Chakraborty), modified packet
combining
scheme (MPC proposed by Bhunia),
and packet reversed packet combining (PRPC proposed by
Bhunia) scheme. These modifications are appropriate for
improving throughput of conventional ARQ protocols.
Leung proposed an idea of APC for error control in wireless
networks with basic objective of error control in uplink
wireless data network.
We suggest two modifications
of APC to improve its performance in terms of higher
throughput.
Index Terms - Error control, Aggressive Packet Combining
Scheme, Packet Reversed Packet Combining Scheme,
Modified packet combining scheme
I. NTRODUCTION
In order to transfer data reliably from source to destination
either BEC (Backward Error Control) or FEC (Forward
Error Control) strategies are used. It is well established
that BEC strategy is sufficient for wired communication,

and FEC strategy is required for wireless transmission.
Several research attempted to apply BEC in wireless
communication as BEC is cost effective. BEC is
implemented by automatic repeat request (ARQ) protocols
[1-17] in which the erroneous packet received by the receiver
is corrected by the retransmission of a copy of the same
packet from transmitter. BEC uses error detection code
unlike FEC that is costly as it consumes higher bandwidth
for using error correction code. In order to realize the best
of all, it is decisively desirable to employ arq in modified
form to control error in wireless networks. The bit error rate
of wireless channels. is high[18-20] in the range of 10-2 to
10-4. For enabling a reasonable performance radio link bit
error rate requires to be within a range of 10-6 to 10-8 [21].
In order to achieve the desirable quality in high bit error rate
wireless channels, two important modifications for applying
basic ARQ are found in literature: Multiple route packet
combining scheme [22] and Aggressive packet combining
scheme [23]. APC does not address of improving throughput
rather attempts to lower down complexities of handheld
device, power consumption and bandwidth utilization in the
uplink. We address the issues with two modifications.
Chakraborty [24-26] suggested a very simple and elegant
technique, known as packet combining technique, for
error correction using BEC strategy. The technique aims to
minimize delay in correction process. Several modifications
of PC are found in literature, and these are MPC
[27], PRPC [28] and Error Forecasting PC [29]. However,
we propose to apply these modifications in APC for better
performance.

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II. REVIEW OF PACKET COMBINING

SCHEME (PC)
Chakraborty suggested a simple technique where the
receiver will correct limited error, one or two bit error, from
the received erroneous copies. The technique proposed by
Chakraborty is illustrated below:
We assume the original transmitted packet as 01010101.
The packet erroneously received by the receiver as
11010101. The receiver requests for retransmission of
the received erroneous packet but keeps in store the received
erroneous packet. The transmitter retransmits the packet,
but again the packet is received by the receiver erroneously
as 00010101. Chakraborty proposed that the receiver can
correct the error by using two erroneous copies for a bit wise
XOR operation between erroneous copies may be performed
to locate the error position, in the present example being
as follows:
First erroneous copy
11010101
Second erroneous copy 00010101
--------------------------------------------XOR 11000000
The error locations are identified as first and/or second bit
from the left. Chakraborty suggested that the receiver can
apply brute method to correct error by changing received
1 to 0 or vice versa on the received copies followed the
application of error decoding method in use. In the example
the average number of brute application will be 0.5, and in
general 2n-1 if n bits are found in error.
III. REVIEW OF MODIFIED PACKET

COMBINING SCHEME(MPC)
In the MPC technique, on getting a retransmission call from
the receiver the transmitter can send i (i>1) copies of the
requested packet. Receiver getting i copies, can now make
a pair-wise XORed to locate error positions. For example if
i=2, we have three copies of the packet (Copy-1=the stored
copy in receivers buffer, Copy-2=one of the retransmitted
copies, Copy-3=another retransmitted copy) and three pairs
for XOR operation:
Copy-1 and Copy-2
Copy-2 and Copy-3
Comparing pairs
P 162
Number
of bits in
error (x)
Common copy in two

consecutive (x)

Copy-1 and Copy-2
Copy-1 common in first

two xs
Copy-1 and Copy-3
Copy-3 common in next

two xs
Copy-3 andCopy-2
Copy-2 common in next

two xs Copy-3 and Copy-1
Table (I) Algorithm of MPC
IV. REVIEW OF AGGRESSIVE PACKET

COMBINING SCHEME(APC)
APC is a modification of MjPC[30] so as to apply APC in
wireless networks. APC is best illustrated as in [23].
i. ORIGINAL PACKET=11111, and it sent from the
sender. Sender sends three copies of the packet.
ii. All the packets reached receiver with error as:
FIRST COPY: 11011, SECOND COPY: 11110 and
THIRD COPY: 11011.
iii. Receiver applies majority logic bit by bit
on the received three erroneous copies: 11011
11110
11011
and thus gets a
generated copy
as 11011.
iv. Receiver applies error detection scheme to find
whether generated copy is correct or not. As it is not
correct
Assume that an actual packet 10100011 was received as:
Copy-1 = 10101011
Copy-2 = 10101111
Copy-3 = 10100001
when we have under xored operation:
Copy-1 xored Copy-2 (say, C12) = 00000100 (one
bit in error)
Copy-2 xored Copy-3 (C23) = 00001110 (three bits in
error) Copy-3 xored Copy-1 (C31) = 00001010 (two bits
in error).
Now we have to define with which copy the bit inversion
will start and how to proceed thereafter. We define
an algorithm for the purpose as below. Make a table
(see Table (I)) in ascending order of number of bits in
error as indicated by the xor operation. The bit inversion
and the FCS checking process shall begin with the
common copy indicated in the last column of the table so
prepared, and proceed down the table if required. If all

the inversions do not yield any result, the receiver has
to go for requesting further retransmission.. As per
table (I) in this example, the detection of error location
and consequent bit inversion will start with Copy-1
and if required will be followed by Copy-3 and then by
Copy-2.
in this case, receiver choose least reliable bit from
majority logic. In this case these are 3rd and fifth bit
from the left side.
v. Receiver applies brute force correction as in PC to
the 3rd and fifth bits, followed by error detection. By
the process it may get correct copy. If fails it request for
retransmission when sender will repeat three copies
of retransmission.
V. TWO MODIFICATIONS OF APC

Enhancing throughput:
SCHEME I: The APC as proposed by Leung [23] has a
very low throughput. One basic parameter of measuring
throughput is the average number of times (n) a packet is
transmitted/retransmitted for successful receiving at the
receiver. In APC, n>=3, making throughput less or at best
equal to (1/3) X100%. In exactly, if S/W ARQ is employed
with APC, n= [3/ (1-p)] where p is the probability that a
packet is in error. P=1-(1-) N when is bit error rate (BER).
For GBN ARQ with APC, n=3[{1+ (L-1) p}/ (1- p)] where L
is the window size in GBN. Such a low throughput of APC
does not guarantee the claim of bandwidth savings in APC.
We propose that let the normal GBN protocol shall be applied
with the modification that when a packet is acknowledged
negatively, m (m = any odd number3) each of the
negatively acknowledge packet and all other subsequent
packet transmitted by this time shall be retransmitted. This
will make:
Fig: Variation of number of c copies with BER
SCHEME II: In the scheme we propose that when a packet

is acknowledged negatively let the same packet shall
retransmitted with a bit wise XOR copy of the packet with
received correct copy of the just previous packet. Say first
packet, 11001100 (A) is received correctly. Say second
packet, 11110000 is received erroneously as 01110000 (B).
When second packet is acknowledged negatively, transmitter
will transmit followings:
11110000 (copy of the erroneous packet) and XOR of
previously received correct packet and present packet
acknowledged negatively i.e. in this case (11001100 XOR
11110000)=00111100. Say these copies are received both
erroneously as:
11001101(C) and 10111100 (D).
Using A and D, receiver will reconstitute a second packet as
A XOR D=01110000 (E). Now receiver has three erroneous
copies: B, C and E. Receiver will apply MPC on B, C and E
to recover correct copy of the second packet.
The proposed scheme will considerably enhance throughput
as 2 copies in place of 3 copies (as in APC) are transmitted.
n 3[{1+(L-1)p}/(1-p)].
VI. CONCLUSION AND FUTURE RESEARCH
This will raise the throughput of the proposed scheme over

that of the APC. Only issue is the choice of m that will
be deciding factor for higher throughput in the proposed
scheme. The condition on which the proposed scheme will
provide better throughput is:
We have proposed two suggestions and modification of APC

for performance improvement in terms of throughput. All
these modifications require to be compared with simulation
studies to arrive at some definite conclusions.
(m-1)2/[1-(1-)N] (1)
For a set of and N, the variation of required m to have
higher throughput of the proposed scheme over conventional
APC is portrayed in fig (1).
VII. REFERENCES
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of ARQ Techniques used in Computer Communication
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P 166

REVIEW AND SECURITY ANALYSIS OF AN EFFICIENT

BIOMETRIC-BASED REMOTE
USER AUTHENTICATION SCHEME USING SMART CARDS
Subhasish Banerjee
Kiran Sankar Das
Department of Computer Science & Informatics

Bengal Institute Of Technology & management
Santiniketan,India
E-mail : subhasishism@gmail.com
M.Tech (CSE)
Santiniketan,India
E-mail : kiran.sankar.das@gmail.com
Uddalak Chatterjee
Department of Computer Science & Informatics
Santiniketan,India
E-mail : Uddalak.udi@gmail.com
ABSTRACT
A path braking scheme on biometric-based remote user
authentication has been proposed by Li-Hwang In 2010.
Later in 2011, A. K. Das showed some shortfalls of the LiHwang scheme and proposed an efficient biometric based
remote user authentication scheme using smart cards that
overcomes the shortfalls of the main Li- Hwang scheme and
provides mutual authentication. In this paper, we reviewed
and analyzed Dass scheme and pointed out some existing
flaws mainly based on Smart Card tampering and revealing
stored information.
I. NTRODUCTION
In the field of recent e-commerce and m-commerce remote user
authentication has been a great research domain. However,
day-by-day progress in technology and network access
methods exposed serious security weaknesses in remote user
authentication process due to week password management
and advanced attack techniques. several schemes [1-6] have
shown various ways to tamper user authentication and get
access unethically to various authentication processes.
In traditional systems of identity-based user recognition
remote user authentication was based on password. But
passwords can be guessed easily with some basic dictionary
attacks. Later to overcome these problems passwords were
encrypted with cryptographic secret keys. But the long
cryptographic keys were difficult to memories and moreover
they are lost, forgotten and easily shared therefore unable to
provide non-repudiation. In a client- server systems password

based authentication with smartcard are proposed in [7-8].
A biometric system is basically a pattern recognition system
which extracts some pattern set from users provided
biometry and acquires a feature set and further verifies it with
the stored template set in systems database. [9-11]. In recent
work [12-14], biometric based remote user authentication
schemes shown strong authentication protections against
Password theft and fake user attacks. Some advantageous
features of biometric keys are as follows
Biometric keys cannot be lost or forgotten.
Biometric keys are very difficult to share or copy.
Biometric keys are extremely hard to forge or

distribute.

Biometric keys cannot be guessed.
Someones biometrics is not easy to break with

others.
Therefore biometric key based authentication is more secure
and reliable than traditional password based authentication
schemes.
Therefore biometric key based authentication is more secure
and reliable than traditional password based authentication
schemes. In this report we analyzed Dass scheme and shown
that Dass authentication scheme is still vulnerable to various
attacks and does not provide mutual authentication between
the user and the server. In [16-17] researches revealed that

P 167
the secret information stored in smart card can be revealed

by monitoring power consumption. Therefore an attacker
can obtain information stored in users smart card
and also can intercept message packets communicating
between user and server. This paper is organized as a short
review of A.K Das [15] scheme followed by the security
analysis.
II. REVIEW OF A.K DAS SCHEME

In 2011 Das proposed an improved and efficient biometricbased remote user authentication scheme using smart cards.
The scheme was composed of three phases: a. Registration
phase, b. Login phase, c. Authentication phase. The notations
used in the report are shown in the following table.
Notation
Description
Ci
User i
Ri
Trusted registration centre
Si
Server
PWi
Password shared between user

and server
IDi
Identity of the user i
Bi
Biometric template of the

user i
h(.)
A secure one way hash

function
Xs
A secret information maintained in the server
Rc
A random number chosen by

client Ci
Rs
A random number chosen by

server Si
A||B
Data A concatenates with

data B.
XOR operation of A and B
Registration Phase:
A.) Before the remote user Ci login to the system, Ci

first enters his biometrics on a specific device

and offers his/her identification and password to the

registration centre, Ri.
B.) Ri then computes:

generated by server.
, Xs is a secret value
C.) Ri stores (IDi, h(.), fi, ei, ri) on the users smart card

and sends it to the user via a secure channel.
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Login Phase. The user has to perform the following steps to

login to the system.
A.) Ci inserts his/her smart card into the card reader

and provides his/her biometrics information Bi on

the specific device. It verifies users biometrics

checking whether or not. If this holds, Ci passes

biometrics verification.
B.) Ci inputs the IDi and PWi, and then the smart card
computes:
Ci
Si

1. Inserts smart card
and
2. Checks if
3. If it holds, inputs
his/ her password
4. Computes
5. Checks if
6. If it holds, the
smart card computes
< IDi, M2, M3 >
1. Checks the
.
format of
2. If its valid then
computes
3. Verifies
if
4. If it holds then
computes
< IDi, M2, M3 >

1.Verifies whether
.
2. If it satisfies,
computes:
.
3.Verifie
s whether
.
4I fi t
1.After receiving
the message
verifies whether
2. If they are
equal, accepts
login
=
request
Figure 1: Login and Authentication in A. K. Dass Scheme
Checks if is equal to to verify password. If it holds then
smart card further computes:

provide mutual authentication.

1. U ser Impersonation Attack: Suppose a n attacker
g ets
able to track information stored in the smart card and obtains
a nd a lso intercepts t he l ogin
the secret v alues
.The a ttacker then p erforms the
message f rom user
following steps:
is a
A. The attacker first computes the following where
random number generated by the attacker.

C.) sends the login request message
to
Authentication Phase. After receiving the login request

message, the server performs following steps.
B. The attacker then sends the forged message
A.)
C. Upon receiving t he f orged m essage s erver
checks the format of

is valid,
B.) If
computes
to the server
verifies whether
or not. If it satisfies,
c omputes following calculations w here

random number generated by the server.
is a
D.
t hen verifies w hether

satisfies and
checks
. As i t is t he s ame as t he real u ser,
the format of
computes the following:
verification passes. Then
C.)
thinks
o r not. I t
as a valid user, therefore
computes following calculations:
D.) Then
sends the message
to
E.) After receiving the message sent b y

. If it satisfies,
whether
F.)
v erifies whether
computes
v erifies
computes:
. If i t holds,
.
G.) Then
sends
H.) After
receiving t
to
he m
.
essage
erifies
. If t hey are e qual,

whether
accepts users login request. Describe in figure 1.
E.
then sends the message
to
in the
authentication phase.
2. Server Masquerading Attack: If the attacker can obtain

the secret data
and intercept messages between
server and the real user to obtain messages
in login
phase and
in the authentication phase, it
then can act as a server and retrieve messages from the real
user.
A.) The attacker performs the following calculations.
a random number generated by .
is
III. SECURITY ANALYSIS OF A. K DASS

SCHEME
In this part we have analyzed the security aspects in Dass
scheme. To do so, we assume that an attacker could obtain
the secret information stored in the smart card by continuous
monitoring and analysing power consumption of the smart
card [16-17] and also obtain communication messages by
intercepting communication channels between the user and
the server. We have discussed here various attacks over
Dass scheme such as User Impersonation Attack, Server
Masquerading Attack, and finally showed how it fails to
B.)
Then the attacker
sends the forged message
C.)
Upon receiving,
checks whether
holds, therefore
computes
to the user
.
. It
. Further
verifies if
. If it also holds and hence is
convinced t hat the message came from a trusted legal
server.

P 169
IV. CONCLUSION
In this paper authors has reviewed and analyzed Dass scheme
and shown that it fails to provide security against various
attacks. So a better approach on biometric based remote user
authentication scheme can be proposed to enhance all the
security aspects.
V. REFERENCES
P 170
1.

Lamport, L. Password authentication with insecure

communication, Communication of the ACM, vol.
24, no. 11, pp. 770-772, 1981.
2.

Hwang, M. S., Li, L. H, A new remote user

authentication scheme using smart cards, IEEE
Transaction on Consumer Electronics, vol. 46, no. 1,
pp. 28-30, 2000
3.

Yoon, E. J., Ryu, E. K., Yoo, K. Y., Further

improvement of an efficient password based remote
user authentication scheme using smart cards, IEEE
Transaction on Consumer Electronics, Vol 50, no. 2,
pp-612-614, 2004.
4.

Das, M. L., Saxena, A, Gulati, V. P., A dynamic IDbased remote user authentication scheme, IEEE
Transaction on Consumer Electronics, vol. 50, no. 2,
pp. 629-631, 2004.
5.

Lin, C. W., Tsai, C. S., Hwang, M. S., A new strong

password authentication scheme using one-way Hash
functions, Journal of Computer and Systems Sciences
International, vol. 45, no. 4, pp. 623-626, 2006.
6.

Bindu, C. S., Reddy, P., Satyanarayana, B., Improved

remote user authentication scheme preserving user
anonymity, International Journal of Computer
Science and Network Security, vol. 83, pp. 62-66, 2008.
7.

Fan, L., Li, J. H., Zhu, H. W., An enhancement

of timestamp-based password authentication scheme,
Computer Security, vol. 21, no. 7, pp. 665-667, 2002

8.

Shen, J. J., Lin, C. W., Hwang, M. S., Security

enhancement for the timestamp-based password
authentication using smart cards, Computer Security,
vol. 22, no. 7, pp. 591-595, 2003.
9.

Jain, A. K., Ross, A., Prabhakar, S., An introduction

to biometric recognition, IEEE Transaction on
Circuits Systems and Video Technology, vol. 14, no. 1,
pp. 4-20, 2003.
10.

Maltoni, D., Maio, D., Jain, A. K., Prabhakar, S.,

Handbook of fingerprint recognition, (Springer,
New York, 2nd Ed., 2009).
11.

Prabhakar, S., Pankanti, S., Jain, A. K., Biometric

recognition: security and privacy concerns, IEEE
Security and Privacy Mag., vol. 1, no. 2, pp-33-42, 2003.
12.

Khan, M. K., Zhang, J., Wang, X., Chaotic hash-based

fingerprint biometric remote user authentication
scheme on mobile devices, Chaotic Solutions
Fractals, vol. 35, no. 3, pp-519-524, 2008.
13.

Li, C. T., Hwang, M. S., An efficient biometric based

remote user authentication scheme using smart cards,
Journal on Networking and Computer Applications,
vol. 33, pp. 1-5, 2010.
14.

Lin, C. H., Lai, Y. Y., A flexible biometric remote user

authentication scheme, Computer Standards Interf.,
vol. 27, no. 1, pp-19-23, 2004.
15.

Das, A. K., Analysis and improvement on an efficient

biometric based remote user authentication scheme
using smart cards, IET Information Security, vol. 5,
no. 3, pp. 541-552, 2011.
16. Kocher, P., Jaffe, J., Jun, B., Differential power

analysis, Proceedings of Advances in Cryptology, pp.

388-397, 1999.
17.

Messerges, T. S., Dabbish, E. A., Sloan, R. H.,

Examining smart card security under the threat of
power analysis attacks, IEEE Transactions on
Computers, vol. 51, no. 5, pp. 541-552, 2002.
Evolution Strategy for the C-Means

Algorithm: Application to multimodal image
segmentation
Francesco Masulli
DIBRIS - Dipartimento di Informatica, Bioingegneria,
Robotica e Ingegneria dei Sistemi - University of Genoa
Via Dodecaneso 35, 16146 Genoa - Italy
and SICRMM Temple University, Philadelphia - PA
francesco.masulli@unige.it
Anna Maria Massone

CNR - SPIN
via Dodecaneso 33 - I-16146 Genoa - Italy
annamaria.massone@spin.cnr.it
Andrea Schenone
DIBRIS - Dipartimento di Informatica, Bioingegneria,
Robotica e Ingegneria dei Sistemi - University of Genoa
Via Dodecaneso 35, 16146 Genoa - Italy
andrea.schenone@unige.it
February 24, 2013

Abstract
Evolutions Strategies (ES) are a class of Evolutionary Computation methods for continuous parameter optimization problems founded
on the model of organic evolution. In this paper we present a novel
clustering algorithm based on the application of an ES to the search for
the global minimum of the C-Means (CM) objective functional. The
new algorithm is then applied to the clustering step of an interactive

P 171
system for the segmentation of multimodal medical volumes obtained

by different medical imaging diagnostic tools. In order to aggregate
voxels with similar properties in the different diagnostic imaging volumes, clustering is performed in a multidimensional space where each
independent dimension is a particular volumetric image. As a consequence, in this application clustering supports an inference process
based on complementary information carried by each image (e.g. functional or anatomical) in oder to extract regions corresponding to the
different anatomical and/or pathological tissues. A quantitative comparison of segmentation results obtained by the original CM and by
the new algorithm is reported in the paper.
Introduction
C-Means (CM) [6] is a widely used clustering method based on a simple and
efficient numerical approximation to the maximum likelihood technique for
the estimation of probability mixtures parameters [6, 3].
The CM shows some intrinsic problems. In particular, it is subject to
the problem of trapping in local optima of its objective function. In the
clustering literature, many algorithms based on fuzzy set theory have been
proposed in order to overcome this limit of CM, among them the Fuzzy CMeans algorithm [3], the Deterministic Annealing [20], and the Possibilistic
C-Means [12, 13]. As shown by Miyamoto and Mukaidono in [18], all those
methods are different kind of regularization [26] of the local optima problem
of CM. Nevertheless, even with these methods we have no guarantee of finding
the optimal solution of the problem of clustering.
In order to overcome this problem, in this paper we present a novel clustering algorithm based on the application of a global search technique based
on an Evolution Strategy (ES) [19, 25, 1] to the minimization of the objective
function of the C-Means Algorithm [6].
Evolution Strategies are a class of methods for continuous parameter optimization problems founded on the model of organic evolution. In this paper
we present a novel clustering algorithm based on the application of a (, )ES to the search for the global minimum of the classical C-Means (CM) objective function [6, 3]. The new Evolution Strategy based C- Means (ESCM)
algorithm is applied to the clustering step of an interactive system for the
segmentation of multimodal medical volumes [22].
This computer-based system supports the clinical oncologist in the tasks
2
P 172

of delineating the volumes to be treated by radiotherapy and surgery, and

of quantitatively assessing (in terms of tumor mass or detection of metastases) the effect of oncological treatments. In order to aggregate voxels with
similar properties in the different diagnostic imaging volumes, clustering is
performed in a multidimensional space where each independent dimension is
a particular volumetric image. Clustering algorithms can point out clusters
of close voxels in that multidimensional feature space representing the probability distribution of intensities in the different modalities, and therefore sets
of voxels with similar intensity values can be defined within the whole multimodal medical volume. These sets of voxels can then be used to delineate
regions of interest, that is to make a segmentation of the multimodal volumetric image. In this application clustering supports an inference process
based on complementary information carried by each image (e.g. functional
or anatomical), each of them considered as an independent dimension of
the input space, in order to extract regions corresponding to the different
anatomical and/or pathological tissues. A quantitative comparison of segmentation results obtained by the original CM and by the new algorithm is
reported in the paper.
The paper is organized as follows. The next section introduces the CMeans following the parametric learning framework. In Sect.s 3 and 4 we
give some material on Evolution Strategies and we present a novel application
of them to the clustering. In Sect. 5 we set clustering as the basic step of
an inference process that, starting from raw data, mines region of interest
in multimodal medical volumes. In Sect. 6, we present an experimental
comparison of the application of the CM and of the new clustering algorithm
to the segmentation of multimodal images. Conclusions are drawn in Sect.
7.
2
2.1
Parametric Learning Approach to Clustering

Maximum Likelihood estimation of cluster parameters

Let X = xk | xk Rd , k = 1, ..., n be a set of unlabeled random sampled

vectors xk = (x1k , ..., xdk ) or training set, and Y = {yj | yj Rd , j = 1, ..., c}
3

P 173
be the set of centers of clusters (or classes) j . Following a parametric

learning approach, we make the following assumptions:
1. the samples come from a known number of c classes j , j {1, ..., c};
2. the a priori probabilities P (wj ) (i.e. the probability of drawing patterns
of class j from X) are known;
3. the form of class-conditional probabilities densities p (x | j , j ) (i.e.
the probability density of sample xk inside class j ) are known, while
the vectors of parameters j are unknown.
Note that the third assumption reduces the clustering problem to the problem
of estimation of the vectors j (parametric learning).
In this setting, we assume that samples are obtained by selecting a class j
and then selecting a pattern x according to the probability law p (x | j , j ),
i.e.:
p (x | ) =
c

j=1
p (x | j , j ) P (j )
(1)
where = (1 , ..., c ). A density function of this form is called a mixture

density [6], p (xk | j , j ) are called the component densities, and P (j ) are
called the mixing parameters.
A well known parametric statistics method for estimating the parameter
vector is based on maximum likelihood [6]. It assumes that the parameter
vector is fixed but unknown. The likelihood of the training set X is the
joint density
p (X | ) =
n

k=1
p (xk | ) .
(2)
is that value of that maxiThen the maximum likelihood estimate

mizes the likelihood of the observed training set X.
If p (X | ) is a differentiable function of , maximizing the logarithm
of the likelihood, we can obtain the following conditions for the maximum j:
likelihood estimate
n

k=1
log p xk | i ,
j
P j | xk ,
j

P 174


= 0 j.
(3)
Moreover, if the a priori class probabilities P (j ) are also unknown, the

clustering problem can be faced as the constrained maximization of the likelihood p (X | ) over and P (j ) subject to the constraints:
P (j ) 0
c
and
j=1
P (j ) = 1.
(4)
If p (X | ) is differentiable and the a priori probabilities estimate P (j ) =

j must satisfy:
0 for any j, then P (j ) and
n

1
P j | xk ,
P (j ) =
n k=1
(5)
and
n

k=1
log p xk | j ,
j
P j | xk ,
j

=0
(6)
where
j P (j )
p xk | i ,

P j | xk , = c
.
p
x
|
k
h
h P (h )
h=1

(7)
Let we assume now that the component densities are multivariate normal,
i.e.:
j =
p xk | i ,

1
exp[ (xk yj )t 1
j (xk yj )]
2
(2) | j |
d
2
1
2
(8)
where d is the dimensionality of the feature space, yj is the mean vector, j

the
is the covariance matrix, (xk yj )t is the transpose of (xk yj ), 1
j
inverse of j , and | j | the determinant of j .
In the general case (i.e. yj , j , and P (j ) are all unknown) the maximum
likelihood principle yields useless singular solutions. As shown by Duda and
Hart [6], we can obtain meaningful solutions by considering the largest of the
finite local maxima of the likelihood function.
The local-maximum-likelihood estimate for P (j ) is the same as Eq. 5,
while
k=1 P j | xk , j xk

j = n
y
j
P j | xk ,
n
k=1
(9)

P 175
Table 1: C-Means (CM) Algorithm.

1. assign the number of clusters and the tolerance 1 for the stop criterion;
2. initialize the centers of clusters;
3. do until any center changes less than 1 ;
(a) assign the samples to the clusters with smaller Euclidean distance
using Eq.s 12 and 14;
(b) recalculate the centers using Eq. 9;
4. end do.
j =
j )(xk y
j )t
k=1 P j | xk , j (xk y

n
j
P j | xk ,
n
k=1
(10)
where (from Eq.s 7, and 8)
j | 21 exp[ 1 (xk y
1

j )t
j )] P (j )
|
j (xk y
2
P j | xk , j = c
.
1
2 exp[ 1 (xk y
1 (xk y
h )t
h )] P (h )
h=1 | h |
h
2
(11)
The set of Eq.s 5, 9, 10, and 11 can be interpreted as a gradient ascent or
hill-climbing procedure for maximizing the likelihood procedure. A LloydPicard iteration
can start
with Eq. 11 using initial estimates to evaluate
j and then using Eq.s 5, 9, and 10 to update the
Eq. 11 for P j | xk ,
estimates.
Like all hill-climbing procedures the results of this iteration do depend
j is quite time
upon the starting point, and, moreover, the inversion of
consuming, and there is the possibility of multiple solutions.
2.2
C-Means (CM) Algorithm
An efficient implementation of the previous procedure is based on the following approximation of Eq. 11:
P 176

j =
P j | xk ,

1 if Dj (xk ) = min1jC Dj (xk )

0 otherwise
(12)
where Dj (xi ) is a local cost function or distortion measure and in many cases
can be assumed as the scaled Mahalanobis distance Mj (xk ),
j )t 1
j ).
M2j (xk ) | j |1/d (xk y
j (xk y
(13)
This observation is the rationale of the C-Means (CM), also named Basic
Isodata algorithm [6] and Hard C-Means [3]. It is worth noting that the usage
of the Mahalanobis distance still involves a heavy computational overhead. In
many implementations of CM a strong approximation of Dj (xk ) is adopted,
using the Euclidean distance Ej (xk )
j || .
Ej (xk ) || xk y
(14)
The resulting CM algorithm is an efficient approximate way to obtain the

maximum likelihood estimate of the centers of clusters [6].
One implementation of the CM using the Euclidean distance is illustrated
in Tab. 1. In this algorithm the initialization of the number of clusters (Step
1) is performed by using the a-priori knowledge on the problem. At Step
2, the position of centers of clusters can be initialized either using a-priori
knowledge or at random in the d-dimensional hyperbox I:
I = di=1 [mink (xik ), maxk (xik )] ,
I Rd
(15)
As demonstrated by Bezdek [3], the CM, while maximizes the likelihood

of the training set, minimizes at the same time a global error function Jw
defined as the expectation of the squared local cost function:
2
Jw < D >=
c
n

ujk Dj2 (xk )
(16)
k=1 j=1
where ujk P (j | xk ) or, in general, a membership value of pattern xk

(k = {1, ..., n}) to cluster j (j = {1, ..., c}).
The CM, while is an efficient approximation of the maximum likelihood
procedure for estimating the centers of clusters, shows some intrinsic problems. In particular, it is subject to the problem of trapping in local minima
of Jw (i.e. on the local maxima of the likelihood).
7

P 177
This locality in searching for minima is its main limitation, in particular

when we try to apply this algorithm as the basis for inference procedures.
In order to overcome these problems, many attempt, based on different fuzzy clustering paradigms, have been proposed in the literature. The
most popular fuzzy clustering method is the Fuzzy C-Means algorithm by
Bezdek [3] that is based on the constrained minimization of a generalization
of the CM global error expectation. We cite also the technique proposed
by Rose et al [20] based on the maximum entropy principle [9] and using a
Deterministic Annealing technique, and the Possibilistic C-Means algorithm
by Krishnapuram and Keller [12, 13].
In [18], Miyamoto and Mukaidono showed that the Fuzzy C-Means [3],
and the maximum entropy methods correspond to different types of application of the regularization theory to the CM in order to reduce the problem
of local minima.
An alternative approach to the solution of the local minima problem of
CM can be based on the application of global search techniques. In [5]
we propose a global search method for the minimization of Jw based on
the Simulated Annealing technique [11]. In next sections we shall present
some search techniques based on Evolution Strategies, that will be applied
to clustering problem.
Evolution Strategies
Evolutions Strategies (ES) [19, 25, 1] are a class of Evolutionary Computation methods for continuous parameter optimization problems founded on
the model of organic evolution. During each generation (iteration of the ES
algorithm) a population of individuals (potential solutions) is evolved to produce new solutions. Only the highest-fit solutions survive to become parents
for the next generation.
In biological terms, the genetic encoding for an individual is called genotype. New genotypes are created from existing ones by modifying the genetic
material. The interaction of a genotype with its environment induces an
observed response called phenotype.
Reproduction takes place at the genotype level, while survival is determined at the phenotype level. Only highly fit individual survive and reproduce in future generations.
P 178

Individuals in the population are composed by object variables and strategy parameters. In basic ES, an individual is represented as a vector
a = (x1 , ..., xn , 1 , ..., n ) 2n
(17)
consisting of n object variables and their corresponding n standard deviations

for individual mutations.
There are two variants of an ES. The multi-membered ES plus strategies (denoted as ( + )-ES) and the multi-membered ES comma strategies
(denoted as (, )-ES). In ( + )-ES parents create 1 offspring individuals by means of recombination and mutation. The best parents and
offspring are selected to form the next population. For a (, )-ES, with
> 1, the best individuals are selected from offspring only. We shall
discuss now the ES operators, i.e. recombination, mutation, and selection.
3.1
Recombination
Recombination (or crossover) in ES is performed on individuals of the population. The most used recombination rules are:
1. no recombination;
2. discrete recombination: the components of two parents are selected at
random from either the first or the second parent to form an offspring
individual;
3. intermediate recombination: offspring components are somewhere between the corresponding components of the parents;
4. global and discrete recombination: one parent is selected and fixed and
for each component a second parent is selected anew from the population to determine the component values using discrete recombination;
5. global and intermediate recombination: one parent is selected and fixed
and for each component a second parent is selected anew from the
population to determine the component values using intermediate recombination.
The recombination operator may be different for object variables and
strategy parameters.
9

P 179
3.2
Mutation
For mutations each xj is mutated by adding an individual, (0, j )-normally

distributed random number. The j themselves are also subject to mutation and recombination (self-adaptation of strategy parameters [24]), and a
complete mutation step m(a) = a is obtained by the following equations:

s = exp(N (0, ))
(18)
(19)
(20)
j = j exp(Nj (0, )) s
xj = xj + Nj (0, j )
Mutation is performed on the j by multiplication with two log-normally

distributed factors, one individual factor, sampled for each j ( = 1/ 2 n),
and one common factor s ( = 1/ 2n), sampled once per individual. This
way, a scaling of mutations along the coordinate axes can be learned by the
algorithm itself, without an exogenous control of the j .
More sophisticated ES using so-called correlated mutation are presented
in [1].
3.3
Selection
Selection for survival is completely deterministic, as it is only based on the

rank of fitness. It is called also an extinctive selection, as worst individuals are definitively excluded from contribution offspring to the next
generation.
It is worth noting that ( + )-ES is elitist and therefore, while performance is monotonously improved, the implemented search is local and unable
to deal with changing environment.
On the contrary, (, )-ES enables the search algorithm to escape from
local optima, to follow a moving optimum, to deal with noisy objective function, and to self adapt strategy parameters effectively. The ratio / is
named the degree of extinctiveness and is linked to the probability to locate
the global optimum. If it is large there is a high convergence reliability,
whereas if it is small there is a high convergence velocity. Investigations
presented in [24] suggest an optimal ratio of / = 1/7.
10
P 180

Table 2: Evolution Strategy based C-Means (ESCM) algorithm.

1. assign , , the number of clusters, and the threshold 2 ;
2. initialize the population;
3. evaluate Jw for each individual (Eq. 16);
4. do until Jwbest /Jwbest is greater than 2 ;
5. count1=0;
(a) while count1 less then ;
i. count1++;
ii. select by rank two individuals for mating;
iii. order consistently the centers of clusters in both selected individuals using algorithm RI (Tab. 3);
iv. crossover object variables (discrete recombination);
v. crossover strategy parameters (intermediate recombination);
vi. mutate individual as shown in Sect. 3.2;
(b) end do;
(c) evaluate Jw for each individual (Eq. 16);
(d) select the fittest individuals for next population;
6. end do.
11

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Evolution Strategy based C-Means (ESCM)

algorithm
In order to overcome the limits of C-Means, a (, )-ES can be used to find

the global optimum of Jw (Eq. 16).
Tab. 2 illustrates the Evolution Strategy based C-Means (ESCM) algorithm. Each genotype a is a list containing the object variables (i.e. the
centers of clusters) and the strategy parameters:
a = (y1 , ..., yc , 1 , ..., c )
(21)
where c is the number of clusters. ESCM works in a (c (d + 1))-dimensional

space, where d is the dimension of the pattern space.
After the initialization of parameters (step 1), the population is initialized
(step 2) in the following way: Centers of clusters (i.e. object variables) are
initialized at random in the hyperbox I (Eq. 15), while strategy parameters
are initialized at random in the range [0, ], where is order of 1/10 the side
of I.
The remaining steps are quite standard for an (, )-ES, with the exception of Step 5(A)iii. In fact we must note that, before mixing object variables
of parents (centers of clusters) using discrete recombination crossover, they
must be re-indexed, in such a way centers with same index are likely to correspond to the same cluster. The re-indexing algorithm is described in Tab. 3
and is modified by the RL algorithm proposed in [27]. Besides, the stop
condition (Step 4)
Jwbest
< 2
(22)
Jwbest
is based on the ratio of normalized difference of objective function Jw evaluated on the fittest individual of two successive generations.
In principle, ESCM allows us to avoid local minima of Jw and to find
the global optimum, improving in this way the reliability of inferential tasks
associated to the clustering procedure.
Moreover it is simple to create variants of the basic ESCM. For instance,
if we want to reduce the interference of big blobs to the localization of the
centers of small clusters, it is straightforward to change in the algorithm Jw
with the following scaled global error function Js :
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Table 3: Re-indexing (RI) algorithm.

1. compile the matrix of distances M among centers of clusters of the two
individuals;
2. count2=0;
3. while count2 less than c;
(a) count2++;
(b) find the minimal item of the matrix;
(c) assign the same index to both centers of clusters in the two individuals;
(d) delete the corresponding row and column in the matrix of distances M ;
4. end do.
Js
c
n

1
j=1 Cj
ujk Dj2 (xk ),
(23)
k=1
where Cj is the cardinality of cluster wj .
5
5.1
Segmentation of multimodal medical volumes

Multimodal medical volumes (MMV)
Medical images are obtained by different acquisition modalities, including

X-ray tomography (CT), magnetic resonance imaging (MRI), single photon
emission tomography (SPECT), and positron emission tomography (PET),
ultrasounds (US), etc. [15]. Multimodal volumes can be derived from sets of
such different diagnostic volumes by spatial coregistration of volumes in order
to fully correlate complementary information (e.g., structural and functional)
about the same patient.
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The visual inspection of a large set of such volumetric images permits

only partially to the physician to exploit the available information. Therefore, computer-assisted approaches may be helpful in the clinical oncological environment as support to diagnosis in order to delineate volumes to be
treated by radiotherapy and surgery, and to assess quantitatively (in terms of
tumor mass or detection of metastases) the effect of oncological treatments.
The extraction of such volumes or other entities of interest from imaging
data is named segmentation and is usually performed, in the image space,
by defining sets of voxels with similar features within a whole multimodal
volume.
5.2
Clustering-based inference approach to MMV segmentation
It is worth noting that it is very difficult or impossible to settle the solution

of the multimodal volumes segmentation problem in a reliable rule based
systems framework, as physicians are hardly able, at least for low level steps
in image analysis, to describe the rationale of their decisions. Moreover, for
higher level in image analysis, rationales of physicians, even if more precise, strongly depend on many factors, such as different clinical frameworks,
different anatomical areas, different theoretical approaches, etc.
Inference procedures based on learning from data must be then employed
for design a computer-assisted systems for segmenting multimodal medical
volumes.
Actually, in such data based systems, a possible supervised approach has
two major drawbacks:
it is very time-consuming (especially for large volumes), as it requires
the labeling of prototypical samples needed for applying the generalization process. Even if the number of clusters is predefined, a careful
manual labeling of voxels in the training set belonging with certainty
to the different clusters is not trivial, especially when it concerns multimodal data sets and
heavy biases may be introduced by physicians unskilled or fatigued
due to the large inter-user and intra-user variability generally observed
when manual labeling is performed.
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On the contrary, unsupervised methods may fully exploit the implicit

multidimensional structure of data and make clustering of the feature space
independent from the users definition of training regions [2, 8] due to their
self-organizing approach.
A multimodal volume may be defined by the spatial registration of a set
of d different imaging volumes. As a consequence, its voxels are associated
with an array of d values, each representing the intensity of a single modality
in a voxel. From another point of view, the d different intensity values related
to the voxel in such multimodal volume can be viewed as the coordinates of
the voxel within a d-dimensional feature space where multimodal analysis
can be made.
An image space (usually 3D) defined by the spatial coordinates of the
data set, and a multidimensional feature space, as described before, must
be considered for a more complete description of the segmentation problem.
The interplay between these two spaces turns out to be very important in
the task of understanding the data structure.
Actually, the definition of clusters within the above described d-dimensional
feature space and the classification of all the voxels of the volumes to the resulting classes are the main steps in segmenting multimodal volumes.
This approach, where an inference process based on clustering constitutes
the principal procedure for the MMV segmentation, has been followed in
many recent papers [4, 22, 17, 10, 14], and it has been shown to be more
robust to noise in discrimination of different tissues than techniques based
on edge detection [4].
Nevertheless, the used clustering method itself must be well founded in
statistics and must be not limited by intrinsic problems, such as the problem
of local optima in CM.
Moreover, many bias effects must be taken into account in considering
clustering for the segmentation of medical images. Actually, very heterogeneous clusters may be found in the feature space, with very different probability densities, and considering the cardinality of clusters may be necessary
in order to include in the analysis the statistical nature of the data set. Furthermore, the partial volume effect during acquisition may produce a really
intrinsic ambiguity of borders between regions of interest. As a consequence,
unsupervised clustering based segmentation of medical images emerges as a
very difficult task, whose usefulness is related to the balance of two conflicting actions, namely, the elimination of noise and redundancy from original
images and the preservation of significant information in the segmented im15

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age. These constraints may force users to introduce their knowledge in the
sequence of analysis and further refinements are often needed in order to
obtain meaningful and affordable results.
5.3
Interactive segmentation system
From all these considerations a correct architecture for a computer based

system for multimodal medical volumes segmentation should include a computational core grounded on unsupervised clustering together with powerful
interactive tools for knowledge based refinements that physicians could tune
and organize to specific diagnostic tasks to be performed. This way, as requested in the clinical practice, physicians can stay in control both of the
sequence of choices and of the results in the analysis process in order to
introduce in the segmentation process their theoretical and heuristic knowledge.
A system based on those assumptions has been developed by our group
and is described in [22]. It is an interactive system with a friendly Graphics User Interface, and supporting a full sequence of analysis of multimodal
medical images. The main functions performed by this system are: Feature
extraction, dimensionality reduction, unsupervised clustering, voxel classification, and intra- and post-processing refinements.
The main component of this system is the clustering subsystem that
make possible to run in the feature space alternative clustering algorithms,
including the C-Means [6], the Capture Effect Neural Network [7], Fuzzy
C-Means [3], the Deterministic Annealing [20, 21], and the Possibilistic CMeans [12, 13]. In [16, 17] we report some comparisons of application of such
algorithms on clinical images.
6
6.1
Experimental analysis
Data set
We have implemented the Evolution Strategy based C-Means (ESCM) algorithm as a clustering module of the previously described graphical interactive
system supporting the full sequence of analysis of multimodal medical volumes.
16
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(a)
(b)
Figure 1: T1-weighted (a) and T2-weighted (b) MRI images of a patient with
glioblastoma multiforme in the right temporal lobe.
In order to illustrate in a specific case the inference task of MMV segmentation based on clustering, and to show the gain in precision and reliability
obtained in this task using the ESCM instead of the original CM, let we
consider now a simple data set consisting of a multimodal transverse slice
of the head (Fig. 1) composed by spatially correlated T1-weighted and T2weighted MRI images from an head acquisition volume of an individual with
glioblastoma multiforme.
The images are 288 x 362 with 256 gray levels. The tumor is located in
the right temporal lobe and appears bright on the T2-weighted image and
dark on the T1-weighted image. A large amount of edema is surrounding the
tumor and appears very bright on the T2-weighted image. The lower signal
area within the mass suggests tissue necrosis. Each pixel in the above defined
two-modal slice is associated to an array of two intensity values (T1 and T2).
Therefore, each of these couples of pixel intensity is represented by a point
in a 2D feature space (Fig. 2), whose coordinates represent the intensity
values in that pixel of each modality belonging to the multimodal set. The
segmentation task consists in finding the main classes in this feature space
and in associating each pixel in image to one of this classes. The main classes
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250
200
T2
150
100
50
50
100
150
T1
200
250
300
Figure 2: Feature space (T2 versus T1) obtained from the MRI images in
Fig. 1.
in the data set are: white matter, gray matter, cerebro spinal fluid (CSF),
tumor, edema, necrosis, scalp. A slight mis-registration between images may
be responsible of some mis-classification errors in final results.
6.2
Methods
We give here some information on the implementation of clustering algorithms used in the experimental analysis.
The CM uses 7 clusters and a tolerance for the stop criterion 1 = .01,
centers of clusters are initialized at random, and convergence is noticed
in 10-15 fast iterations.
For the ESCM using Jw , according to the / = 1/7 rule proposed
by Schwefel [24], we selected = 10 and = 70. Moreover, we initialized c = 7, 2 = .005, and the centers of clusters at random. We
implemented the selection by rank using a linear probability distri-
18
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7000
best individual cost function
6500
6000
5500
5000
4500
10
15
20
iteration
25
30
35
40
Figure 3: Cost function of best individuals versus iteration of ESCM.
Figure 4: Segmentation obtained by the CM algorithm with 7 clusters.

19

P 189
Figure 5: Segmentation obtained by the ESCM algorithm using Jw and with

7 clusters.
bution with negative slope, while the intermediate recombination is
implemented as the average of components of parents.
The implementation of ESCM using Js is identical to the previous one,
with the obvious exception of the objective function. A typical plot
of Jsbest is presented in Fig. 3. Using Jsbest /Jsbest 2 as the stop
condition, the ESCM ends in 15 iteration.
6.3
Results and Discussion
Let us compare the results produced by the ESCM clustering algorithm and
by the standard C-Means (CM) algorithm.
In Fig. 4 the results of the unsupervised segmentation with the CM algorithm are shown. CM almost correctly defines scalp and white matter.
Nevertheless it produces mistakes in classification of gray matter and edema
in the left side of brain, and especially is not able to separate tumor, necrosis
and CSF. Similar results are obtained by the basic ESCM with the standard
cost function Jw (Fig. 5). Nevertheless, as an important difference, from
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Figure 6: Segmentation obtained by the ESCM algorithm using Js and with

7 clusters.
a large number of tests, ESCM results to be largely more stable than CM
with respect to the positions of centroids and to the extension of clusters
in the feature space. Eventually, by using the newly defined scaled global
error function Js to take into account the cardinality of clusters, the results
of ESCM (Fig. 6) dramatically improve. Actually, we may notice that, in
comparison with CM, and with the basic version of ESCM, the final version
of ESCM correctly distinguishes between tumor and CSF, and within the
tumor region is able to find the necrosis region. Correct definition of scalp
and white matter and misclassification in the left side of the brain remains
as from CM.
Conclusions
The C-Means (CM) [6], while is an efficient approximation of the maximum

likelihood procedure for estimating the centers of clusters, shows some intrinsic problems. In particular, it is subject to the problem of trapping in
local minima of its objective function Jw (Eq. 16). This locality in search21

P 191
ing for minima is a main limitation, in particular when we try to apply this
algorithm as the basis for inference procedures.
In order to overcome the limits of C-Means, we have proposed in this
paper a novel clustering algorithm based on the application of an Evolution
Strategy (ES) [19, 25, 1] to the search for the global minimum (Evolution
Strategy based C-Means or ESCM algorithm).
The ESCM is based on a (, )-ES strategy where the object variables
of genotypes are the centers of clusters. The implementation of the (, )ES strategy is quite standard, but before mixing object variables of parents
using discrete recombination crossover, they are re-indexed, in such a way
centers with same index are likely to correspond to the same cluster.
It is worth noting that it is easy to make variants to the basic ESCM. For
instance, with the straightforward change of Jw with the scaled global error
function Js (Eq. 23) it is possible to reduce the interference of big blobs to
the localization of the centers of small clusters.
In this paper we considered a complex inference processes based on clustering consisting in multimodal medical volumes (MMV) segmentation. This
approach has been shown to be very robust to noise and able to process complementary information carried by each image (e.g. functional or anatomical) [4]. In this inference task, devoted to aggregate voxels with similar
properties (corresponding to the different anatomical and/or pathological
tissues) in the different diagnostic imaging volumes, clustering is performed
in a multidimensional space where each independent dimension is a particular volumetric image. Nevertheless, the used clustering method itself must
be well founded in statistics and must be not limited by intrinsic problems,
such as the problem of local optima in CM. Moreover, many bias effects (due,
e.g., to heterogeneous clusters and to partial volume effect during acquisition)
must be taken into account in considering clustering for the segmentation of
medical images.
We have implemented the ESCM algorithm as a clustering module of the
previously described graphical interactive system supporting the physician
for the full sequence of analysis of multimodal medical volumes.
In the experimental results presented in the paper, we have compared
the segmentation obtained by the application of CM, ESCM using Jw and
ESCM using Js to a simple data set consisting of a multimodal transverse
slice of the head (Fig. 1) composed by spatially correlated T1-weighted and
T2-weighted MRI images from an head acquisition volume of an individual
with glioblastoma multiforme.
22
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The two implementations of ESCM give more stable solutions than CM

with respect to the positions of centroids and the extension of clusters in
the feature space. In particular, the ESCM using Js , as is able to take
into account the cardinality of clusters, dramatically improves the quality of
segmentation results.
Acknowledgments
The images are from the BrighamRAD Teaching Case Database of the Department of Radiology at Brigham and Womens Hospital in Boston.
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P 196

A DETERMINISTIC INVENTORY MODEL FOR DETERIORATING ITEMS

WITH TIME DEPENDENT DEMAND AND ALLOWABLE SHORTAGE
UNDER TRADE CREDIT
PINKI MAJUMDER AND U.K.BERA
Department of Mathematics,National institution of Technology,Agartala,Tripura(west),India,

e-mail:pinki.mjmdr@rediffmail.com, bera uttam@yahoo.co.in
Abstract. In this proposed research we developed a deterministic inventory model of deteriorating items for time dependent demand and trade credit. Here supplier offers a credit limit
to the retailer and retailer also offers a credit limit to the customer. This paper develops a
model to determine an optimal ordering policy under conditions of allowable shortage and permissible delay in payment.Numerical examples are used to illustrate all results obtained in this
paper.Finally the model is solved by Generalised Reduced Gradient(GRG) method and using
LINGO software.
Key words :Time dependent demand , shortage, deterioration , trade credit,optimization.
1. Introduction
In todays business transactions , it is more and more common to see that the retailers are
allowed a fixed time period before they settle their account to the supplier. We term this period
as trade credit period.Before the end of the trade credit period, the retailer can sell the goods
and accumulate revenue and earn interest.A higher interest is charged if the payment is not
settled at the end of the trade credit period.
Goyal[6] develops an economic order quantity under the conditions of permissible delay in payments for an inventory system.Jamal et. al consider an ordering policy for deteriorating items
with allowable shortage and permissible delay in payment.Funthermore, Sarker et. al[11] address a model to determine an optimal ordering policy for deteriorating items under inflation,
permissible delay in payment and allowable shortage.Chen and Ouyang[2] extend Jamal et.
al.[7] model by fuzzifying the carrying cost rate,interest paid rate and interest earned rate simultaneously , based on the interval-valued fuzzy numbers and triangular fuzzy number to fit
the real world.
Kumar M et al. developed an EOQ model for time varying demaqnd rate under trade credits.
Chen and Kang[3] proposed an integrated inventory models considering permissible delay in
payment and variant pricing strategy,M. Liang et. al[4] developed an optimal order quantity
under advanced sales and permissible delay in payments.Deterioration is applicable to many
inventories in practice like blood,fashion goods, agricultural products and medicine , highly
volatile liquids such as gasoline;alcohol,electronic goods , radioactive substances , photographic
film, grain etc.So decay or deterioration of physical goods in stock is a very realistic feature and
inventory researches felt the necessity to use this factory into consideration.Shah and Jaiswal
presented an inventory model for items deteriorating at a constant rate.Covert and philip[1] ,
Deb and Chaudhuri[5] ,Kumar,M et al.[8]developed an inventory model with time dependent
deterioration rate. Recently Meher ,Panda[9] and Sahu[10] developed an inventory model where
Corresponding Author.
1
P 197
Pinki Majumder and U.K.Bera
demand is a weibull function of time.

In the classical inventory models the demand rate is assumed to be a constant . In reality ,
demand for physical goals may be time dependent and price dependent. Meher , Panda and
Sahu[10] develops inventory model where demand is a function of time.
In this paper we establish an deterministic inventory model with allowable shortage , time
dependent demand , weibull deterioration and two trade credit period. Here we derive the
optimal value of cycle time which minimize the total average cost. Lastly numerical examples
are set to illustrate all results obtained in this paper.
2. Assumptions and notation
The following notations and assumptions are used for the development of proposed model.
2a. Notation
(i) D(t)=a(1-bt); the annual demand as a decreasing function of time where a > 0 is fixed
demand and b(0 < b < 1) denotes the rate of demand.
(ii) C = The unit purchase cost.
(iii) S = The unit selling cost with (S > C).
(iv) h= The inventory holding cost per year excluding interest charges.
(v) A = The ordering cost per order.
(vi) P = The unit shortage cost.
(vii) Q(t) = The order quantity at time t = 0.
(viii) (t) = The deteriorating rate which is a weibull function of time as (t) =t1 where
0 < << 1, > 0 and t > 0
(ix) M = Retailers trade credit period offered by the supplier in years.
(x) N = Customers trade period offered by the retailer in years.
(xi) Ic = Interest charges payable per $ per year to the supplier.
(xii) Ie = Interest earned per $ per year.
(xiii) I(t) = Inventory level at time t.
(xiv) T1 = Length of the period with positive stock of the item.
(xv) T2 = Length of the period with negative stock of the item.
(xvi) T = Length of the replenishment cycle . T = T1 + T2
(xvii) Z(T1 , T2 ) : Total Inventory cost when the length of period with positive stock of the
item is T1 and the length of the period with negative stock of the item is T2 .
(xviii) Z1 (T1 , T2 ) : Total relevant cost per unit time when N M T1 < T .
(xix) Z2 (T1 , T2 ) : Total relevant cost per unit time when N T1 M < T .
(xx) Z3 (T1 , T2 ) : Total relevant cost per unit time when 0 T1 N M < T .
(xxi) T1 = Optimal value of T1 .
(xxii) T2 = Optimal value of T2 .
2b. Assumption
(i)
(ii)
(iii)
(iv)
(v)
(vi)
P 198
The inventory system under consideration deals with the single item.
The planning horizon is infinite.
The demand of the product is declining function of time.
Shortages are allowed.
Ic Ie , S C, M N .
The supplier offers the full trade credit to the retailer.When T1 M ,the account is
settled at T1 = M ,the retailer pays off all units sold and keeps his/her profits, and starts
paying for the interest charges on the items in stock with rate Ic .When T1 M ,the
account is settled at T1 = M and the retailer no need to pay any interest on the stock.

A deterministic inventory model.......... allowable shortage under trade credit
(vii) The retailer can accumulate revenue and earn interest after his/her customer pays for
the amount of purchasing cost to the retailer until the end of the trade credit period
offered by the supplier . That is , the retailer can accumulate revenue and earn interest
during the period N to M with rate Ie under the condition of trade credit.
(viii) The deteriorated units can neither be repaired nor replaced during the cycle time.
3. Mathematical Formulation
The inventory level I(t) depletes to meet the demand and deterioration. The rate of change of
inventory level is governed by the following differential equation
dI(t)
+ I(t) = D(t) ,0 t T
(1)
dt
dI(t)
1
+ t I(t) = a(1 bt) ,0 t T
(2)
which is equivalent to
dt
with the initial condition I(0) = Q and the boundary condition I(T1 ) = 0
Consequently, the solution of (2) is given by
b
(T1+1 t+1 ) +2
(T1+2 t+2 ) 2b (T12 t2 )+(T1 t)]
,0tT
(3)
I(t) = aet [ +1
The order quantity is
Q = I(0) = a[ +1
T1+1
b
T +2
+2 1
bT12
2
+ T1 ]
(4)
the total cost of inventory system per time unit include the following :
A
(a) Ordering cost : (T1 +T
2)
T +1
bT +2
1
(b) Deterioration cost per unit time : (TCa
[ 1 +2
]
1 +T2 ) +1
(c)Inventory holding cost per unit time:
(2+3)
(2+2)
(+3)
b
ah
2 b
2
[
T
2(+1)
(+1)(+3)
T1
+
2 T1
(T1 +T2 ) (+1)(2+3) 1
T

P
I(t)dt
(d)Shortage cost = (T1 +T
)
2
(+2)
T
(+1)(+2) 1
bT13
3
T12
]
2
T1
P
= (T1 +T
2)
T
(1 t )[ +1
(T1+1 t+1 )
b
(T1+2
+2
t+2 ) 2b (T12 t2 ) + (T1 t)]dt
T1
bT 3
T2
(+2)
(+3)
(2+3)
2+2
b
P
2 b
2
= (T1 +T2 ) [ (+1)(+2)
T1
(+1)(+3)
T1
+ (+1)(2+3)
T1
2(+1)
31 + 21 ]+
2 T1
+1
2+2
+1
2+3
+1
2
P
2 b
2)
2)
2)
2)
2)
[ (T1+1 (T1 +T
(T1 +T
) +2
(T1+2 (T1 +T
(T1 +T
) b
(T12 (T1 +T
(T1 +T2 ) +1
+1
2+2
+1
2+3
2
+1
+3
+1
+2
+2
(T1 +T2 )
b
2)
2)
2)
) + (T1 (T1 +T
(T1 +T
) +1
(T1+1 (T1 + T2 ) (T1 +T
) + +2
(T1+2 (T1 + T2 )
+3
+1
+2
+2
3
2
(T1 +T2 )+3
3)
2)
) + 2b (T12 (T1 + T2 ) (T1 +T
) (T1 (T1 + T2 ) (T1 +T
)]
+3
3
2
Regarding interest charges and earned three cases may arise based on the length of M, N, T1 .
The three cases are as follows
Case1 : N M T1 < T
Case2 : N T1 M < T
Case3 : T1 N M < T

P 199
p1.png
Figure 1. case 1: N M T1 < T
p2.png
Figure 2. case 2: N T1 M < T
p3.png
Figure 3. case 3: T1 N MT
P 200

4. According to given assumption,there are three cases to occur in interest charged for the
items kept in stock per year.
Case 1. N M T1 < T
c
Annual interest payable = (T1CI
+T2 )
ca
= (TCI
1 +T2 )
T1
I(t)dt
(1 t )[ +1
(T1+1 t+1 )
2
(2+3)
b
ca
= (TCI
[
T
1 +T2 ) (+1)(2+3) 1
(+1)
T1
T1
(+2)
T1
(+1)
(+2)
2 b
2+3
M
(+2)(2+3)
b
(T1+2
+2
(2+2)
2
T
2(+1)2 1
t+2 ) 2b (T12 t2 ) + (T1 t)]dt
(+3)
b
T
(+1)(+3) 1
(+2)
T
(+1)(+2) 1
bT13
3
T12
2
(+1)
bT12
b
2
+T1 )(M M
) (+1)(+2)
M +2 + 2(+2)(+3)
M +3 (+1)(2+2)
M 2+2 +
2
(+1)
3
2
bM6 + M2 ]
Case2. N T1 M < T
In this case annual interest payable = 0
Case 3. T1 N M < T
In this case annual interest payable = 0
5. According to given assumption,three cases will occur in interest earned per year.
case 1. N M T1 < T
M
The annual interest earned = (T1SI+Te 2 ) [a(1 bT2 )T2 (M N ) + a(1 bt)tdt]
= (T1SI+Te 2 ) [a(1
bT2 )T2 (M N ) +
2
a( M2
bM 3
3
N2
2
bN 3
)]
3
case 2. N T1 M < T
T1
The annual interest earned = (T1SI+Te 2 ) [a(1bT2 )T2 (M N )+a(1bT1 )T1 (M T1 )+ a(1 bt)tdt]
= (T1SI+Te 2 ) [a(1
bT2 )T2 (M N ) +
T2
a( 21
bT13
3
N2
2
bN 3
)
3
+ a(1 bT1 )T1 (M T1 )]
case 3. T1 N M < T
The annual interest earned = (T1SI+Te 2 ) [a(1 bT2 )T2 (M N ) + a(1 bT1 )T1 (M N )]
The annual total cost incurred by the retailer
Z(T1 , T2 ) = Setup cost + Holding cost + Purchasing cost + Shortage cost +Interest payable Interest earned
T1+1
bT1+2
(2+3)
(2+2)
A
2 b
2
+ (TCa
[
] + (T1ah
[
T
2(+1)
2 T1
(T1 +T2 )
+T
)
+1
+2
+T2 ) (+1)(2+3) 1
1
2
3
2
bT
T
(+3)
(+2)
b
T
+ (+1)(+2)
T1
31 + 21 ]+
(+1)(+3) 1
bT13
T12
(2+3)
(2+2)
(+3)
(+2)
b
2 b
2
ca
+ (TCI
[
T
T
+
T
2 T1
1
1
1
+T
)
(+1)(2+3)
2(+1)
(+1)(+3)
(+1)(+2)
3
2
1
2
(+1)
(+2)
(+1)
T1
T1
bT 2
b
2
( (+1)
(+2)
21 +T1 )(M M
) (+1)(+2)
M +2 + 2(+2)(+3)
M +3 (+1)(2+2)
M 2+2 +
(+1)
3
2
2 b
M 2+3 bM6 + M2 ]
(+2)(2+3)
where Z1 (T1 , T2 ) =
(+2)
P
+ (T1 +T
[
T
2 ) (+1)(+2) 1
+1
2
P
2)
[ (T1+1 (T1 +T
(T1 +T2 ) +1
+1
bT13
T12
(+3)
(2+3)
2+2
b
2 b
2
T
+
T
+
]+
2
1
1
1
(+1)(+3)
(+1)(2+3)
2(+1)
3
2
2+2
+1
2+3
+1
(T1 +T2 )
2 b
2)
2)
2)
) +2
(T1+2 (T1 +T
(T1 +T
) b
(T12 (T1 +T
2+2
+1
2+3
2
+1

P 201
+2
+1
+2
(T1 +T2 )+3
b
2)
2)
2)
) + (T1 (T1 +T
(T1 +T
) +1
(T1+1 (T1 + T2 ) (T1 +T
) + +2
(T1+2 (T1 + T2 )
+3
+1
+2
+2
3
2
(T1 +T2 )+3
3)
2)
) + 2b (T12 (T1 + T2 ) (T1 +T
) (T1 (T1 + T2 ) (T1 +T
)]
+3
3
2
SIe
M2
bM 3
N2
bN 3
(T1 +T2 ) [a(1 bT2 )T2 (M N ) + a( 2 3 2 + 3 )]
T1+1
bT1+2
(2+2)
(2+3)
A
Ca
2 b
2
+
[
]+ (T1ah
[
T
2(+1)
2 T1
(T1 +T2 )
(T1 +T2 ) +1
+2
+T2 ) (+1)(2+3) 1
3
2
T
bT
(+3)
(+2)
b
T
+ (+1)(+2)
T1
31 + 21 ]+
(+1)(+3) 1
bT 3
T2
(+2)
(+3)
(2+3)
2+2
b
P
2 b
2
[
T
(+1)(+3)
T1
+ (+1)(2+3)
T1
2(+1)
31 + 21 ] +
2 T1
(T1 +T2 ) (+1)(+2) 1
+1
+1
+1
2+2
2+3
2
P
2 b
2)
2)
2)
2)
2)
[ (T1+1 (T1 +T
(T1 +T
) +2
(T1+2 (T1 +T
(T1 +T
) b
(T12 (T1 +T
(T1 +T2 ) +1
+1
2+2
+1
2+3
2
+1
+2
(T
+T
)
(T1 +T2 )+3
(T1 +T2 )+2
(T1 +T2 )+1
+1
+2
b
2
) + (T1 +1 +2 ) +1
(T1 (T1 + T2 ) 1 +2
) + +2
(T1 (T1 + T2 )
+3
+3
3
2
(T1 +T3 )
(T1 +T2 )
(T1 +T2 )
b
2
) + 2 (T1 (T1 + T2 )
) (T1 (T1 + T2 )
)]
+3
3
2
T12
bT13
SIe
N2
bN 3
(T1 +T2 ) [a(1 bT2 )T2 (M N ) + a( 2 3 2 + 3 ) + a(1 bT1 )T1 (M T1 )]
where Z2 (T1 , T2 ) =
T1+1
bT1+2
(2+3)
(2+2)
A
Ca
2 b
2
+
[
] + (T1ah
[
T
2(+1)
2 T1
(T1 +T2 )
(T1 +T2 ) +1
+2
+T2 ) (+1)(2+3) 1
bT13
T12
(+3)
(+2)
b
T
+ (+1)(+2) T1
3 + 2 ]+
(+1)(+3) 1
bT13
T12
(+2)
(+3)
(2+3)
2+2
b
P
2 b
2
T
[
T
T
+
T
+
]+
2
1
1
1
1
(T1 +T2 ) (+1)(+2)
(+1)(+3)
(+1)(2+3)
2(+1)
3
2
+1
(T
(T1 +T2 )2+2
(T1 +T2 )2+3
+T
)
+1 (T1 +T2 )+1
+2 (T1 +T2 )+1
P
2
2 b
b
1
2
[
(T1
2+2 ) +2 (T1
2+3 ) 2 (T12 +1
(T1 +T2 ) +1
+1
+1
+3
+1
+2
(T1 +T2 )
(T1 +T2 )
(T1 +T2 )+2
(T1 +T2 )
+1
b
)
+
(T
(T
(T
+
T
)
) + +2
(T1+2 (T1 + T2 )
1
1
2
1
+3
+1
+2
+1
+2
3
2
(T1 +T2 )+3
2)
3)
) + 2b (T12 (T1 + T2 ) (T1 +T
) (T1 (T1 + T2 ) (T1 +T
)]
+3
3
2
SIe
(T1 +T2 ) [a(1 bT2 )T2 (M N ) + a(1 bT1 )T1 (M N )]
Z3 (T1 , T2 ) =
Since Z1 (M, T2 ) = Z2 (M, T2 )

Z2 (N, T2 ) = Z3 (N, T2 )
Therefore Z(T1 , T2 ) is continuous and well definded
All Z1 (T1 , T2 ), Z2 (T1 , T2 ), Z3 (T1 , T2 ) are defined on T1 > 0, T2 > 0.
6. The determinations of the optimal solution of Z(T1 , T2 )
The optimal solutions (T1 , T2 ) of Z1 (T1 , T2 )can be determined by equations
Z1 (T1 ,T2 )
T1
Z1 (T1 ,T2 )
=
T2
=0
(1)
0
(2)
(1) implies
T +1
A
Ca
1
(T1 +T
2 (T +T )2 [ +1
2)
1
2
bT1+2
(2+3)
(2+2)
(+3)
b
ah
2 b
2
] (T1 +T
2(+1)
(+1)(+3)
T1
+
2 [ (+1)(2+3) T1
2 T1
+2
2)
bT13
T12
(+2)
+
]
1
(+1)(+2)
3
2
bT 3
T2
(2+3)
(2+2)
(+3)
(+2)
b
CIc a
2 b
2
(T1 +T2 )2 [ (+1)(2+3) T1
2(+1)
(+1)(+3)
T1
+ (+1)(+2)
T1
31 + 21
2 T1
(+1)
(+2)
(+1)
T1
bT1
bT 2
b
2
( (+1)
(+2)
21 +T1 )(M M
) (+1)(+2)
M +2 + 2(+2)(+3)
M +3 (+1)(2+2)
M 2+2 +
(+1)
3
2
2 b
M 2+3 bM6 + M2 ]
(+2)(2+3)
e
+ (T1SI
[a(1 bT2 )T2 (M N )
+T2 )2
(+2)
P
(T1 +T
2 [ (+1)(+2) T1
2)
+1
2
P
2)
[ (T1+1 (T1 +T
(T1 +T2 )2 +1
+1
P 202
+ a( M2
(+3)
b
(+1)(+3)
T1
2+2
2)
(T1 +T
2+2

bM 3
3
N2
2
bN 3
)]
3
(2+3)
b
+ (+1)(2+3)
T1
b
2)
) +2
(T1+2 (T1 +T
+1
+1
bT13
T2
+ 21 ]
3
+1
b
2)
(T12 (T1 +T
2
+1
2+2
2(+1)
2 T1
2+3
2)
(T1 +T
2+3
+2
+1
+2
(T1 +T2 )+3
b
2)
2)
2)
) + (T1 (T1 +T
(T1 +T
) +1
(T1+1 (T1 + T2 ) (T1 +T
) + +2
(T1+2 (T1 + T2 )
+3
+1
+2
+2
3
2
(T1 +T2 )+3
3)
2)
) + 2b (T12 (T1 + T2 ) (T1 +T
) (T1 (T1 + T2 ) (T1 +T
)]+
+3
3
2
2
+1
+2
2+2
2+1
b
2 b
2
P
P
2
(+1) T1 + (+1) T1
(+1) T1
bT1 + T1 ] + (T1 +T
[
T
[ (T1+1 (T1 +
(T1 +T2 ) (+1) 1
2 ) (+1)
+1
2 b
2)
T2 ) + (T1 + T2 )+1 T1 (T1 + T2 )2+1 ) (+2)
(T1+2 (T1 + T2 ) + (T1 +T
( + 2)T1+1 (T1 +
+1
+1
+T2 )+1
2)
T2 )2+2 ) b
( (T1 +T
2T1 + (T1 + T2 ) T12 (T1 + T2 )+2 ) + ((T1 + T2 ) T1 + (T1(+1)
(T1 +
2
+1
b
(( + 1)T1 (T1 + T2 ) + T1+1 (T1 + T2 )+1 ) + +2
(( + 2)T1+1 (T1 + T2 ) + T1+2
T2 )+1 ) (+1)
(T1 + T2 )+2 ) + 2b (T12 + (T1 + T2 )2T1 (T1 + T2 )2 ) (T1 + (T1 + T2 ) (T1 + T2 ))]
b
2 b
2
+ (TCa
(T1 bT1+1 ) + (T1ah
[ T +1 (+1)
T1+2 + (+1)
T12+2 (+1)
T12+1 bT12 + T1 ] +
+T2 ) (+1) 1
1 +T2 )
2
b
aCIc
2
[ b T 2+2 (+1)
T12+1 (+1)
T1+2 + (+1)
T1+1 bT12 + T1 (T1 bT1+1 bT1 +
(T1 +T2 ) (+1) 1
1)(M
M +1
)]
(+1)
=0
(3)
Now (2) implies

T +1
A
Ca
1
(T1 +T
2 (T +T )2 [ +1
2)
1
2
bT1+2
(2+2)
(2+3)
(+3)
b
2 b
ah
2
(+1)(+3)
] (T1 +T
2(+1)
T1
+
2 [ (+1)(2+3) T1
2 T1
+2
2)
bT 3
T2
(+2)
T
31 + 21 ]
(+1)(+2) 1
bT 3
T2
(2+3)
(2+2)
(+3)
(+2)
b
2 b
2
ca
(T1CI
[
T
2(+1)
(+1)(+3)
T1
+ (+1)(+2)
T1
31 + 21
2 T1
+T2 )2 (+1)(2+3) 1
(+1)
(+2)
(+1)
T1
bT1
bT 2
b
2
(+2)
21 +T1 )(M M
) (+1)(+2)
M +2 + 2(+2)(+3)
M +3 (+1)(2+2)
M 2+2 +
( (+1)
(+1)
3
2
2 b
M 2+3 bM6 + M2 ]
(+2)(2+3)
2
3
2
3
e
e
+ (T1SI
[a(1 bT2 )T2 (M N ) + a( M2 bM3 N2 + bN3 )] (T1sI+T
[a(1 2bT2 )(M N )]
+T2 )2
2)
2
bT 3
T2
(+2)
(+3)
(2+3)
2+2
b
P
b
2
(T1 +T
(+1)(+3) T1
+ (+1)(2+3)
T1
2(+1)
31 + 21 ]
2 [ (+1)(+2) T1
2 T1
2)
+1
2+2
+1
2+3
+1
2
P
2 b
2)
2)
2)
2)
2)
[ (T1+1 (T1 +T
(T1 +T
) +2
(T1+2 (T1 +T
(T1 +T
) b
(T12 (T1 +T
(T1 +T2 )2 +1
+1
2+2
+1
2+3
2
+1
(T1 +T2 )+3
(T1 +T2 )+2
(T1 +T2 )+2
(T1 +T2 )+1
+1
+2
b
) + (T1 +1
) +1 (T1 (T1 + T2 )
) + +2 (T1 (T1 +
+3
+2
+2
(T1 +T2 )+3
(T1 +T3 )3
(T1 +T2 )2
b
P
2
2
) (T1 (T1 + T2 )
)] + (T1 +T2 ) [ (+1)
(T1+1 (T1 +
T2 ) +3 ) + 2 (T1 (T1 + T2 )
3
2
2 b
T2 ) (T1 + T2 )2+1 ) (+2)
(T1+2 (T1 + T2 ) (T1 + T2 )2+2 ) b
((T1 + T2 ) T12 (T1 + T2 )+2 ) +
2
b
(T1+1 (T1 + T2 )+1 ) + (+2)
(T1+2 (T1 + T2 )+2 ) +
((T1 + T2 ) T1 (T1 + T2 )+1 ) (+1)
b
(T12 (T1 + T2 )2 ) (T1 (T1 + T2 ))] =0
(4)
2
The equation (3) and (4) gives the optimal value T1 and T2 .
The optimal solutions (T1 , T2 ) of Z2 (T1 , T2 ) can be determined by equations
Z2 (T1 ,T2 )
=0
(5)
T1
Z2 (T1 ,T2 )
=0
(6)
T2
(5) implies
T +1
A
Ca
1
(T1 +T
2 (T +T )2 [ +1
2)
1
2
bT1+2
(2+3)
(2+2)
(+3)
b
ah
2 b
2
] (T1 +T
2(+1)
(+1)(+3)
T1
+
2 [ (+1)(2+3) T1
2 T1
+2
2)
bT13
T12
(+2)
+
]
1
(+1)(+2)
3
2
bT13
T12
(+2)
(+3)
(2+3)
2+2
b
P
2 b
2
(T1 +T
T
+
T
+
]
2 [ (+1)(+2) T1
2 T1
1
1
)
(+1)(+3)
(+1)(2+3)
2(+1)
3
2
2
+1
2+2
+1
2+3
+1
2
P
2 b
2)
2)
2)
2)
2)
[ (T1+1 (T1 +T
(T1 +T
) +2
(T1+2 (T1 +T
(T1 +T
) b
(T12 (T1 +T
(T1 +T2 )2 +1
+1
2+2
+1
2+3
2
+1

P 203
(T1 +T2 )+2

(T1 +T2 )+3
(T1 +T2 )+2
(T1 +T2 )+1
+1
b
(T
+
T
)
)
+
(T
(T
) + +2
(T1+2 (T1 + T2 )
1
2
1
1
+3
+1
+2
+1
+2
3
2
(T1 +T2 )+3
3)
2)
) + 2b (T12 (T1 + T2 ) (T1 +T
) (T1 (T1 + T2 ) (T1 +T
)]+
+3
3
2
2
2
2
b
b
P
P
[ T +1 (+1)
T1+2 + (+1)
T12+2 (+1)
T12+1 bT12 + T1 ] + (T1 +T
[ (T1+1 (T1 +
(T1 +T2 ) (+1) 1
2 ) (+1)
+1
2 b
2)
T2 ) + (T1 + T2 )+1 T1 (T1 + T2 )2+1 ) (+2)
(T1+2 (T1 + T2 ) + (T1 +T
( + 2)T1+1 (T1 +
+1
+1
+T2 )+1
2)
T2 )2+2 ) b
( (T1 +T
2T1 + (T1 + T2 ) T12 (T1 + T2 )+2 ) + ((T1 + T2 ) T1 + (T1(+1)
(T1 +
2
+1
+1
+1
b
+1
+1
T2 ) ) (+1) (( + 1)T1 (T1 + T2 ) + T1 (T1 + T2 ) ) + +2 (( + 2)T1 (T1 + T2 ) + T1+2
(T1 + T2 )+2 ) + 2b (T12 + (T1 + T2 )2T1 (T1 + T2 )2 ) (T1 + (T1 + T2 ) (T1 + T2 ))]
b
2 b
2
+ (TCa
(T1 bT1+1 ) + (T1ah
[ T +1 (+1)
T1+2 + (+1)
T12+2 (+1)
T12+1 bT12 + T1 ]
+T2 ) (+1) 1
1 +T2 )
2
3
T2
bT 3
e
+ (T1SI
[a(1bT2 )T2 (M N )+a( 21 31 N2 + bN3 )+a(1bT1 )T1 (M T1 )] (T1SI+Te 2 ) [a(T1
+T2 )2
bT12 ) + a(1 bT1 )(M 2T1 ) + T1 (M T1 )(b)]=0
(7)
(6) implies
A
Ca
1
(T1 +T
2 (T +T )2 [ +1
2)
1
2
T +1
bT1+2
(2+3)
(2+2)
(+3)
b
ah
2 b
2
] (T1 +T
2(+1)
(+1)(+3)
T1
+
2 [ (+1)(2+3) T1
2 T1
+2
2)
N )(1 2bT2 )]=0
(8)
bT 3
T2
(+2)
T
31 + 21 ]
(+1)(+2) 1
bT 3
T2
(+2)
(+3)
(2+3)
2+2
b
P
2 b
2
(T1 +T
(+1)(+3)
T1
+ (+1)(2+3)
T1
2(+1)
31 + 21 ]
2 [ (+1)(+2) T1
2 T1
2)
+1
2+2
+1
2+3
+1
2
P
2 b
2)
2)
2)
2)
2)
[ (T1+1 (T1 +T
(T1 +T
) +2
(T1+2 (T1 +T
(T1 +T
) b
(T12 (T1 +T
(T1 +T2 )2 +1
+1
2+2
+1
2+3
2
+1
(T1 +T2 )+3
(T1 +T2 )+2
(T1 +T2 )+2
(T1 +T2 )+1
+1
+2
b
) + (T1 +1
) +1 (T1 (T1 + T2 )
) + +2 (T1 (T1 +
+3
+2
+2
(T1 +T2 )+3
(T1 +T3 )3
(T1 +T2 )2
b
P
2
2
T2 ) +3 ) + 2 (T1 (T1 + T2 )
) (T1 (T1 + T2 )
)] + (T1 +T2 ) [ (+1)
(T1+1 (T1 +
3
2
2 b
T2 ) (T1 + T2 )2+1 ) (+2)
(T1+2 (T1 + T2 ) (T1 + T2 )2+2 ) b
((T1 + T2 ) T12 (T1 + T2 )+2 ) +
2
b
(T1+1 (T1 + T2 )+1 ) + (+2)
(T1+2 (T1 + T2 )+2 ) +
((T1 + T2 ) T1 (T1 + T2 )+1 ) (+1)
b
(T12 (T1 + T2 )2 ) (T1 (T1 + T2 ))]
2
2
3
T12
bT13
e
[a(1bT
)T
(M
N
)+a(
N2 + bN3 )+a(1bT1 )T1 (M T1 )] (T1SI+Te 2 ) [a(M

+ (T1SI
2
2
2
+T2 )
2
3
The optimal solutions (T1 , T2 ) of Z3 (T1 , T2 ) can be determined by equations
=0
(9)
=0
(10)
(9) implies
Z3 (T1 ,T2 )
T1
Z3 (T1 ,T2 )
T2
T +1
A
Ca
1
(T1 +T
2 (T +T )2 [ +1
2)
1
2
bT1+2
(2+3)
(2+2)
(+3)
b
ah
2 b
2
] (T1 +T
2(+1)
(+1)(+3)
T1
+
2 [ (+1)(2+3) T1
2 T1
+2
2)
bT 3
T2
(+2)
T
31 + 21 ]
(+1)(+2) 1
bT13
T12
(+2)
(+3)
(2+3)
2+2
b
P
2 b
2
(T1 +T
T
+
T
+
]
2 [ (+1)(+2) T1
2 T1
1
1
)
(+1)(+3)
(+1)(2+3)
2(+1)
3
2
2
+1
2+2
+1
2+3
+1
2
P
2 b
2)
2)
2)
2)
2)
[ (T1+1 (T1 +T
(T1 +T
) +2
(T1+2 (T1 +T
(T1 +T
) b
(T12 (T1 +T
(T1 +T2 )2 +1
+1
2+2
+1
2+3
2
+1
+3
+1
+2
+2
(T1 +T2 )
b
2)
2)
2)
) + (T1 (T1 +T
(T1 +T
) +1
(T1+1 (T1 + T2 ) (T1 +T
) + +2
(T1+2 (T1 + T2 )
+3
+1
+2
+2
3
2
(T1 +T2 )+3
3)
2)
) + 2b (T12 (T1 + T2 ) (T1 +T
) (T1 (T1 + T2 ) (T1 +T
)]+
+3
3
2
P 204

b
P
2 b
2
P
2
[ T +1 (+1)
[
T1+2 + (+1)
T12+2 (+1)
T12+1 bT12 + T1 ] + (T1 +T
(T1+1 (T1 +
(T1 +T2 ) (+1) 1
)
(+1)
2
+1
2 b
2)
(T1+2 (T1 + T2 ) + (T1 +T
( + 2)T1+1 (T1 +
T2 ) + (T1 + T2 )+1 T1 (T1 + T2 )2+1 ) (+2)
+1
2)
T2 )2+2 ) b
( (T1 +T
2
+1
+1
+1
+T2 )
2T1 + (T1 + T2 ) T12 (T1 + T2 )+2 ) + ((T1 + T2 ) T1 + (T1(+1)
(T1 +
+1
+1
b
(( + 1)T1 (T1 + T2 ) + T1 (T1 + T2 )+1 ) + +2
(( + 2)T1 (T1 + T2 ) + T1+2
T2 )+1 ) (+1)
(T1 + T2 )+2 ) + 2b (T12 + (T1 + T2 )2T1 (T1 + T2 )2 ) (T1 + (T1 + T2 ) (T1 + T2 ))]
b
2 b
2
+ (TCa
(T1 bT1+1 ) + (T1ah
[ T +1 (+1)
T1+2 + (+1)
T12+2 (+1)
T12+1 bT12 + T1 ]
+T2 ) (+1) 1
1 +T2 )
e
+ (T1SI
[a(1bT2 )T2 (M N )+a(1bT1 )T1 (M N )] (T1SI+Te 2 ) [a(M N )(12bT1 )]=0
(11)
+T2 )2
Equation (10) implies
T +1
Ca
A
1
(T1 +T
2 (T +T )2 [ +1
2)
1
2
bT1+2
(2+3)
(2+2)
(+3)
b
ah
2 b
2
] (T1 +T
(+1)(+3)
T1
+
2 [ (+1)(2+3) T1
2 T1
+2
)
2(+1)
2
bT 3
T2
(+2)
T
31 + 21 ]
(+1)(+2) 1
bT13
T12
(+2)
(+3)
(2+3)
2+2
b
P
2 b
2
(T1 +T
T
+
T
+
]
2 [ (+1)(+2) T1
2 T1
1
1
)
(+1)(+3)
(+1)(2+3)
2(+1)
3
2
2
+1
2+2
+1
2+3
+1
2
2
P
b
2)
2)
2)
2)
2)
[ (T1+1 (T1 +T
(T1 +T
) +2
(T1+2 (T1 +T
(T1 +T
) b
(T12 (T1 +T
(T1 +T2 )2 +1
+1
2+2
+1
2+3
2
+1
+3
+1
+2
+2
(T1 +T2 )
b
2)
2)
2)
) + (T1 (T1 +T
(T1 +T
) +1
(T1+1 (T1 + T2 ) (T1 +T
) + +2
(T1+2 (T1 +
+3
+1
+2
+2
+3
2
3
2
P
2)
3)
2)
) + 2b (T12 (T1 + T2 ) (T1 +T
) (T1 (T1 + T2 ) (T1 +T
)] + (T1 +T
[ (T1+1 (T1 +
T2 ) (T1 +T
+3
3
2
2 ) (+1)
2 b
T2 ) (T1 + T2 )2+1 ) (+2)
(T1+2 (T1 + T2 ) (T1 + T2 )2+2 ) b
((T1 + T2 ) T12 (T1 + T2 )+2 ) +
2
b
(T1+1 (T1 + T2 )+1 ) + (+2)
(T1+2 (T1 + T2 )+2 ) +
((T1 + T2 ) T1 (T1 + T2 )+1 ) (+1)
b
(T12 (T1 + T2 )2 ) (T1 (T1 + T2 ))]
2
e
[a(1bT2 )T2 (M N )+a(1bT1 )T1 (M N )] (T1SI+Te 2 ) [a(M N )(12bT2 )]=0
(12)
+ (T1SI
+T2 )2
7. Numerical Example:To illustrate the results of the proposed model, we solve the following numerical examples.
Example 1:- Let C = 60, S = 70, P = 20, Ic = 0.02, Ie = 0.015, A = 350, a = 2900, b = 0.35, =
0.01, = 2, M = 0.02, N = 0.01, h = 4
Then we see thatT1 = 0.02229108, T2 = 8.023180 and the minimum average cost Z1 (T1 , T2 ) =
103.6384
0.01, = 2, M = 0.10, N = 0.022, h = 8
129.9500
0.30, = 2, M = 0.09589041, N = 0.01369863, h = 4
100.4811
8. Conclusion:In this paper, an EOQ inventory model is considered for determining the optimal cycle time under weibull deterioration rate and demand declining market where shortages are allowed.Also
the proposed model in-cooperates other realistic phenomenon and practical features such as
trade credit period.The credit policy in payment has become a very powerful tool to attract

P 205
10
new customers and a good incentive policy for the buyers.In keeping with this reality , these
factors are incorporated into the present model. Numerical examples are presented to justify
the claim of each case of the model analysis by obtaining the optimal inventory length, shortage
time period and also calculated the total variable cost.
The proposed model can be extended in several ways.For instance,we may extend this model
for partial trade credit period, quantity discount,taking selling price, ordering cost , demand
as a fuzzy number.
9. References:[1]Covert R.P and Philip G. C(1973),An EOQ model for items with weibull distribution deterioration ,AIIE Transactions,5,323-326.
[2]Chen L.H,Ouyang L.Y.,Fuzzy inventory model for deteriorating items with permissible
delay in payment,Appl. Math. Comput. 182(2006)711-726.
[3] Chen L.H ,Kang F.S (2010),Integrated inventory models considering permissible delay in
payment and variant pricing strategy , Appl. Math. Model,34,36-46.
[4] Chen M.L and Chang M. C. (2011),Optimal order quantity under advance sales and permissible delays in payment,African Journal of Business Management 5(17),7325-7334.
[5] Deb m. and Chaudhuri K.S.(1986), An EOQ Model for items with finite rate of production and variable rate of deterioration, Opsearch,23,175-181.
[6]Goyal S.K,Economic order quantity under conditions of permissible delay in payments,J.
Operat. Res.Soc. 36(1985) 335-338.
[7]Jamal A.M.M , Sarker B.R,Wang S.,An ordering policy for deteriorating items with allowable Shortage and permissible delay in payment .Journal of Operation Research society
48(1997) 826-833.
[8] Kumar M., Tripathi R.P. and Singh S.R (2008) , Optimal ordering policy and pricing
with variable demand rate under trade credits,Journal of National Academy of Mathematics ,
22,111-123.
[[9] Meher M. K , Panda G.C, Sahu S.K ,An Inventory Model with weibull Deterioration
Rate under the Delay in payment in Demand Declining Market , Applied Mathematical sciences, vol.6,2012 no. 23,1121-1133.
[10] Shah Y.K and Jaiswal M.C (1977) ,An order-level inventory Model for a system with
constant rate of deterioration , Opsearch 14, 174-184.
[11] Sarker B. R , Jamal A.M.M ,Wang S., Supply chain models for perishable products under
inflation and permissible delay in payment.Computational Operation Research 27 (2000) 59-75.
P 206

DEVELOPMENT OF LABVIEW BASED ELECTRONIC NOSE

USING K-NN ALGORITHM FOR THE DETECTION AND
CLASSIFICATION OF FRUITY ODORS
N.Jagadesh babu
Assistant professor, EIE Department,
Gitam University, Visakhaptanam,A.P,India.
E-mail : jagadeshbabu.n@gmail.com
ABSTRACT
The basic objective of this paper is to development of
electronic nose system which can able to detect and classify
different fruits basing upon their odor with help of LabVIEW.
This system consists of two Figaro gas sensors (TGS 2620
and TGS 2602) which is used detection for odor and k-NN
Algorithm is used to classify different fruits.
Olfaction is ones sense of smell and a primary human
sensory system. The detection of odors has been applied to
many industrial applications, including indoor air quality,
health care, safety and security, environmental monitoring,
quality control of food products, medical diagnosis,
psychoanalysis, agriculture, pharmaceuticals, military
applications, and detection of hazardous gases, to name but
a few. The biological nose is an obvious choice for such
applications, but there are some disadvantages to having
human beings perform these tasks because they have to
face various difficulties such as fatigue, infections, mental
state, subjectivity, exposure to hazardous materials etc., due
to above reasons machines are preferred to do the above
applications which show high accuracy then human beings.
Keywords : Electronic nose, Virtual Instrumentation, K-NN
algorithm, Fruity Odors
I. NTRODUCTION
An electronic nose is a device intended to detect odors or
flavors. The expression electronic sensing refers to the
capability of reproducing human senses using sensor arrays
and pattern recognition systems. Since 1982 research has been
conducted to develop technologies[2], commonly referred
to as electronic noses that could detect and recognize odors
and flavors. The stages of the recognition process are similar
to human olfaction and are performed for identification,
comparison, quantification and other applications, including
data storage and retrieval. These devices have undergone
much development and are now used to fulfill industrial

needs.
Other techniques to analyze odors
In all industries, odor assessment is usually performed
by human sensory analysis, by chemo sensors, or by gas
chromatography. The latter technique gives information
about volatile organic compounds but the correlation
between analytical results and actual odor perception is not
direct due to potential interactions between several odorous
components.
Working principle
The electronic nose was developed in order to mimic human
olfaction that functions as a non-separative mechanism: i.e. an
odor or flavor is perceived as a global fingerprint. Essentially
the instrument consists of head space sampling, sensor
array, and pattern recognition modules, to generate signal
pattern that are used for characterizing odors. Electronic
noses include three major parts: A sample delivery system, A
detection system and A computing system.
Detection System:
This consists of a sensor set, is the reactive part of the
instrument. When in contact with volatile compounds, the
sensors react, which means they experience a change of
electrical properties. Each sensor is sensitive to all volatile
molecules but each in their specific way. Most electronic
noses use sensor arrays that react to volatile compounds on
contact: the adsorption of volatile compounds on the sensor
surface causes a physical change of the sensor. A specific
response is recorded by the electronic interface transforming
the signal into a digital value. Recorded data are then
computed based on statistical models.The more commonly
used sensors include:
Computing System:
They work to combine the responses of all of the sensors,
which represent the input for the data treatment. This part
of the instrument performs global fingerprint analysis
and provides results and representations that can be easily

P 207
interpreted. Moreover, the electronic nose results can be

correlated to those obtained from other techniques (sensory
panel, GC, GC/MS). Many of the data interpretation systems
are used for the analysis of results. These systems include
Artificial Neural Network (ANN), fuzzy logic, pattern
recognition modules, etc.
Perform an analysis:
As a first step, an electronic nose needs to be trained with
qualified samples so as to build a database of reference. Then
the instrument can recognize new samples by comparing
volatile compounds fingerprint to those contained in its
database. Thus they can perform qualitative or quantitative
analysis. This however may also provide a problem as many
odors are made up off multiple different molecules, this
may be possibly wrongly interpreted by the device as it will
register them as different compounds, resulting in incorrect
or inaccurate results depending on the primary function of a
nose.
these systems are more limited in their versatility than virtual

instrumentation systems. The primary difference between
hardware instrumentation and virtual instrumentation is
that software is used to replace a large amount of hardware.
The software enables complex and expensive hardware to
be replaced by already purchased computer hardware; e.g.
analog-digital converter can act as a hardware complement
of a virtual oscilloscope, a potentiostat enables frequency
response acquisition and analysis in electrochemical
impedance spectroscopy with virtual instrumentation. The
concept of a synthetic instrument is a subset of the virtual
instrument concept. A synthetic instrument is a kind of
virtual instrument that is purely software defined. A synthetic
instrument performs a specific synthesis, analysis or
measurement function on completely generic, measurement
agnostic hardware.
Applications:
Electronic nose instruments are used by research and
development laboratories, quality control laboratories and
process & production departments for various purposes,The
detection of lung cancer by detecting the VOCs (volatile
organic compounds) that indicate lung cancer.
The quality control of food products as it could be
conveniently placed in food packaging to clearly indicate
when food has started to rot,Possible and future applications
in the field of crime prevention and security
The ability of the electronic nose to detect odorless chemicals
makes it ideal for use in the police force, such as the ability
to detect drug odors despite other airborne odors capable
of confusing police dogs. However this is unlikely in the
mean time as the cost of the electronic nose is too great and
until its price drops significantly it is unlikely to happen. It
may also be used as a bomb detection method in airports.
Through careful placement of several or more electronic
noses and effective computer systems you could triangulate
the location of bombs to within a few meters of their location
in less than a few seconds.
II. VIRTUAL INSTRUMENTATION

Virtual instrumentation is the use of customizable software
and modular measurement hardware to create measurement
systems, called virtual instruments. Traditional hardware
instrumentation systems are made up of predefined hardware
components, such as digital multimeters and oscilloscopes
that are completely specific to their stimulus, analysis or
measurement function. Because of their hard-cored function,
P 208

Figure 2.1 2: Architecture of VI
Traditional instruments (left) and software based virtual

instruments (right) largely share the same architectural
components, but radically different philosophies.
Every
virtual instrument consists of two parts -software and
hardware. A virtual instrument typically has a sticker price
comparable to and many times less than a similar traditional
instrument for the current measurement task. However, the
savings compound over time, because virtual instruments are
much more flexible when changing measurement tasks.With
virtual instrumentation, software based on user requirements
defines general -purpose measurement and control hardware
functionality. Virtual instrumentation combines mainstream
commercial technologies, such as the PC, with flexible software
and a wide variety of measurement and control hardware, so
engineers and scientists can create user-defined systems that
meet their exact application needs. With virtual instrumentation,
engineers and scientists reduce development time, design higher
quality products and lower their design costs.
III. VIRTUAL INSTRUMENTATION DESIGN

The same design engineers that use a wide variety of
software design tools must use hardware to test prototypes.
Commonly, there is no good interface between the design

phase and testing/validation phase, which means that the
design usually must go through completion phase and enter
a testing/ validation phase. Issues discovered in the testing
phase require a design-phase reiteration.
wide band-gap insulators to metallic and superconducting.

Tin dioxide belongs to a class of materials that combines
high electrical conductivity with optical transparency and
thus constitutes an important component for optoelectronic
applications.
Virtual instrumentation is necessary because it delivers

instrumentation with the rapid adaptability required for
todays concept, product, and process design, development
and delivery. Only with virtual instrumentation can engineers
and scientist create the user defined instruments required to
keep up the worlds demands. To meet the ever-increasing
demand to innovate and deliver ideas and products faster,
scientists and engineering are turning to advanced electronics,
processors, and software.
The electrical resistance of the sensor is attributed to this

potential barrier. In the presence of a deoxidizing gas, the
surface density of the negatively charged oxygen decreases,
so the barrier height in the grain boundary is reduced .The
reduced barrier height decreases sensor resistance. The
relationship between sensor resistance and the concentration
of deoxidizing gas can be expressed by the following
equation over a certain range of gas concentration.
Sensors Configuration:
IV METHODOLOGY
Gas
Sensor-1
PC
TGS-2620
Gas
LabVIEW
and
NIcDAQ
k-NN Algorithm
Sensor-2
TGS-2602
Figure 3.1 1: Overview of Process
FIGURE 3.1 5: SENSORS WITH PCB BOARD
V. DATA ACQUISITION
Figure: overview photo
IV. GAS SENSOR

Tin dioxide is the inorganic compound with the formula
SnO2. The mineral form of SnO2 is called cassiterite, and
this is the main ore of tin. This colorless, diamagnetic solid
is amphoteric. The wide variety of electronic and chemical
properties of metal oxides makes them exciting materials
for basic research and for technological applications alike.
Oxides span a wide range of electrical properties from
Data acquisition is the process of sampling signals that

measure real world physical conditions and converting
the resulting samples into digital numeric values that can
be manipulated by a computer. Data acquisition systems
(abbreviated with the acronym DAS or DAQ) typically
convert analog waveforms into digital values for processing.
The components of data acquisition systems include:
Sensors that convert physical parameters to electrical signals.
Signal conditioning circuitry to convert sensor signals into a
form that can be converted to digital values.
Analog-to-digital converters, which convert conditioned
sensor signals to digital values.
NI cDAQ-9174:
Figure 3.1 6: NI cDAQ-9174 modules and chassis:

P 209
The NI cDAQ-9174 is a 4-slot NI Compact DAQ USB

chassis designed for small, portable, mixed-measurement
test systems. Combine the cDAQ-9174 with up to four NI C
Series I/O modules for a custom analog input, analog output,
digital I/O, and counter/timer measurement system. Modules
are available for a variety of sensor measurements including
thermocouples, RTDs, strain gages, load and pressure
transducers, torque cells, accelerometers, flow meters, and
microphones.
MATLAB Script Node:
Calls the MATLAB software to execute scripts. You must
have a licensed copy of the MATLAB software version 6.5 or
later installed on your computer to use MATLAB script nodes
because the script nodes invoke the MATLAB software script
server to execute scripts written in the MATLAB language
syntax. Because LabVIEW uses ActiveX technology to
implement MATLAB script nodes, they are available only
on Windows
VI. K-NN ALGORITHM

KNN stands for K-Nearest Neighbor algorithm. It is one
of the pattern recognition technique used for classifying
objects based on closest training examples in the feature
space. K-NN is a type of instance-based learning, or lazy
learning where the function is only approximated locally and
all computation is deferred until classification. The k-nearest
neighbor algorithm is amongst the simplest of all machine
learning algorithms: an object is classified by a majority
vote of its neighbors, with the object being assigned to the
class most common amongst its k nearest neighbors (k is a
positive integer, typically small). If k = 1, then the object is
simply assigned to the class of its nearest neighbor The same
method can be used for regression, by simply assigning the
property value for the object to be the average of the values
of its k nearest neighbors (A common weighting scheme is to
give each neighbor a weight of 1/d, where d is the distance
to the neighbor. This scheme is a generalization of linear
interpolation. The neighbors are taken from a set of objects for
which the correct classification (or, in the case of regression,
the value of the property) is known. This can be thought
of as the training set for the algorithm, though no explicit
training step is required. The k-nearest neighbor algorithm is
sensitive to the local structure of the data. Nearest neighbor
rules in effect compute the decision boundary in an implicit
manner. It is also possible to compute the decision boundary
itself explicitly, and to do so in an efficient manner so that
the computational complexity is a function of the boundary
P 210

complexity.
k-value Selection:
The best choice of k depends upon the data; generally, larger
values of k reduce the effect of noise on the classification,
but make boundaries between classes less distinct. A good k
can be selected by various heuristic techniques, for example,
cross-validation. The special case where the class is predicted
to be the class of the closest training sample (i.e. when k = 1)
is called the nearest neighbor algorithm. The accuracy of the
k-NN algorithm can be severely degraded by the presence
of noisy or irrelevant features, or if the feature scales are
not consistent with their importance. Much research effort
has been put into selecting or scaling features to improve
classification. A particularly popular approach is the use
of evolutionary algorithms to optimize feature scaling.
Another popular approach is to scale features by the mutual
information of the training data with the training classes.
Euclidean distance: The k-nearest-neighbor classifier is
generally uses the Euclidean distance between a test sample
and the specified training samples. Let xi be an input sample
with p features (xi1,xi2,,xip) , n be the total number of
input samples (i =1,2,,n) and p the total number of features
(j=1,2,,p) . The Euclidean distance d(xi,xt) between
sample xi and xt (t =1, 2,, n) is defined as
d (xi, xt) = (xi1-xt1)2 + (xi2-xt2)2 + ... +(xip- xti)2
Equation 3.1 1: Euclidean Distance
K-NN Example:
Figure 3.1-11: K-NN Example
The test sample (green circle) should be classified either to

the first class of blue squares or to the second class of red
triangles.
If k = 3 it is assigned to the second class because there are 2
triangles and only 1 square inside the inner circle.
If k = 5 it is assigned to the first class (3 squares vs. 2 triangles
inside the outer circle
Flow Chart of Process:
Figure 3.3 2: Block Diagram during Testing Phase
Front Panel:
Figure 3.2 1: Flow chart of Process
There are two phases in the process.

Training: uring this phase each fruit odors is sampled
using NI cDAQ from the sensors. Then the value of both
Figure 3.3 3: Front Panel during Training
sensors and type of fruit are stored in the spreadsheet.

Testing:During this phase a new sample (whose type of
fruit is to be determined) is acquired. Then its value is
compared with the other trained fruits (which are stored
in spreadsheet) using k-NN algorithm and the type of fruit
is shown. Building VI for Detection and Classification of
Fruit Odors and to implement K-NN Classifier Algorithm:
Fig. Figure 3.3 4: Front Panel during Testing
Figure 3.3 1: Block Diagram during Training Phase

Figure 3.3-5experiement photo resolution

P 211
As a part of this project so far we monitored odor for

different fruits using TGS 2620 and TGS 2602. We tabulated
the output voltages corresponding to their fruit odors at time
of training. Then type fruit is shown as output during testing
phase.
VII. CONCLUSION/RESULTS
We have successfully classified different fruits (like: Banana
and Lemon) with the help of k-NN algorithm in LabVIEW.
The conclusion of this work so far we monitored odor for
different fruits using TGS 2620 and TGS 2602. We tabulated
the output voltages corresponding to their fruit odors and
classification fruits at different stages (days) of training.
Then type of fruit is shown as output during testing phase.
Fruit
Banana
Lemon
Fruit
statuss
LED
TGS 2620
TGS 2620
Voltage
(V)
Voltage
(V)
Stage-1
1.708
1.159
Red/ON
Stage-2
1.716
1.161
Red/ON
Stage-3
10698
1.150
Red/ON
Stage-1
1.52
0.999
Green/ON
Stage-2
1.49
1.015
Green/ON
Stage-3
1045
1.005
Green/ON
Sample
Number
Instead of using PC and LabVIEW we can implement

microcontroller based portable electronic nose.
By improving the algorithm and addition of sensors we can
also use this project to checking freshness of food.
This paper can be made into automatic system which can be
used detecting of harmful gases.
REFERENCES
[1]

Kea-Tiong Tang,Shih-Wen Chiu, Chih-Heng-Ti Hsieh,

Yao-Sheng Liang and Ssu-Chieh Liu.
[2] Persaud, K; Dodd, G.H. Analysis of Discrination

Mechanisms of the Mammalian Olfactory System

Using a Model Nose. Nature 1982,299,352-355.
[3]
Alphus D. Wilson, Manuela Baietto.
[4]

Pattern Classification, by R.O.Duda, P.E.Hart and

D.G.Stork.
[5]
Statistical pattern Recognition by K. Fukunaga.
[6]

Nearest Neighbor Pattern Classification by T. M.

Cover and P. E. Hart.
[7]

Handbook of Machine Olfaction: Electronic Nose

Technology by Tim C. Pearce, Susan S. Schiffman, H.
Troy Nagle, Julian W. Gardner.
[8] LabVIEW-based Advanced Instrumentation Systems

by S. Sumathi, P. Surekha.
[9] Virtual Instrumentation using LabVIEW by Jovitha
Jerome.
http://www.scholarpedia.org/article/K-nearest_neighbor
VIII. FUTURE SCOPE

The algorithm can modify to Artificial NEURAL
NETWORKS (ANN) and implement same project with
better accuracy.
P 212

http://www.ni.com/
[10] http://www.howstuffworks.com/environmental/green science/pollution-sniffer.htm.
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NATIONAL INSTIUTE OF TECHNOLOGY

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Vol.-I | No.-I | January-June 2013

Science For Shaping

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NATIONAL INSTIUTE OF TECHNOLOGY

(An Institute of national importance)

EDITORIAL BOARD MEMBERS

NORTH - EASTERN REGIONAL SCIENCE CONGRESS

Professor Chandan Tilak Bhunia

The evaluation of research performance of Indian states by Dr. Gangan Prathap

Reviewing And Sggestions For Revamping Technical Higher Education In India

Imbalance in Technical Education-Regional by Bikash Sah, Nupur,

Biodiversity and conservation strategies of home garden crops in Manipur by

Metabolic Pathways: A review by Daizy Deb and Rhythm Upadhyaya

Icthyofaunal Diversity of Simen River in Assam and Arunachal Pradesh, India

Induced breeding of eel-loach Pangio pangia, (Hamilton 1822) by Kh. Geetakumari,

Fungal Airspora over onion field in Mnipur valley by A. Premila

Variation in Indoor and Outdoor Aeromycoflora of a ice Mill in Imphal by A. Premila

Applications of zeolites for alkylation reactions: catalytic and thermodynamic

Multichannel Transceiver System Design Using Uncoordinated Direct Sequence

Effect of demyelination on conduction velocity in demyelinating polyneuropathic

Enzyme-modified Field Effect Transistors (ENFETs) as Biosensors : A Research Review

Acetylcholine Gated Spiking Neuron Model by Soumik Roy, Meenakshi Boro,

Image Denoising Using Sparse and Overcomplete Representations -A Study

FOTOFUSION - An Analysis of Image Editing on Android Platform as an Application in

Denoising of Speckled Images by Sagarika Das

A Study of Randomness and Variable Key in Cryptography

Approach towards realizing error propagation effect of AES and studies

Two New Protocols for Improving Performance of Aggressive Packet Combining

Review and Security Analysis of an Efficient Biometric-Based Remote User Authentication

Evolution Strategy for the C-Means Algorithm: Application toMultimodal Image

A Deterministic Inventory Model for Deteriorating Items With Time Dependent

THE EVALUATION OF RESEARCH

invested in science and technology activity. The financial

paradigm [3] proposes that in any general situation where

III. THE RELATIVE SCIENTIFIC

with scalar properties and an intermediate term, quasity,

Tamil Nadu Is Ranked First On The Basis Of

Jammu & Kashmir

Andaman & Nicobar

Jammu & Kashmir

Jammu & Kasmir

Andaman & Nicobar Islands

International Journal on Current Science & Technology

K. C. Garg, and S. Kumar, Scientometric profile

International Journal on Current Science & Technology

G. Prathap, Quasity, when quantity has a quality all of

IMBALANCE OF TECHNICAL EDUCATION

Karnataka, Maharashtra and Tamil Nadu which does not

II. STRUCTURE OF TECHNICAL

of national importance and they enjoy greater autonomy

Industrial training institutes (ITI), which runs trade

ii. Polytechnics, they run diplomas to produce middle

In the Indian system, the completion of senior secondary

III. DISTRIBUTION OF DIFFERENT