Alternative To Master Plan Apporach

Introduction
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Chapter 1 INTRODUCTION
1.1
BACKGROUND
The UN HABITAT Report of 2007 (the year the world became fifty-percent urban),
states that majority of human beings are and would be living in cities in future. It is estimated
that the urban population would increase to over 400 million by the year 2011 and 533
million by the year 2021. Urbanization is set to continue at a fast pace in the coming decades.
Present day cities are facing challenges of transformation and management with respect to
globalization, competitiveness, sustainability, climate change, livability and inclusiveness.
According to the UN-HABITAT 2009 Report, demographic expansion and climate change
poses an unprecedented challenge to cities.
Urban areas are considered the engines of productivity and growth in the country. This is
manifest in the increasing contribution of urban sector to national income. In 1950-51 the
contribution of urban sector to India's GDP was estimated at only 29 per cent, which
increased to 47 per cent in 1980-81 and is have risen to 74 per cent at present. The cities are
growing and developing very fast. Urbanisation is an important aspect of the process of
socio-economic development and is also closely connected with problems pertaining to
migration from villages to towns, small towns to metropolises, levels of living in rural and
urban areas. The positive role of urbanisation is often over-shadowed by the evident
deterioration in the physical environment and quality of life in the urban areas caused by
widening gap between demand and supply of shelter for different sections of the population,
essential services and infrastructure. This results from increasing population, pressure on
urban centres and lack of capability to respond to infrastructural needs. The mounting
unemployment rate and insignificant improvement in the poverty levels manifests in the
growth in slums in urban areas. Moreover the informal sector and the associated problems
exist. Unplanned expansion has become a defining feature of urban areas in todays
developing world. The transformation has a direct bearing on the strategies that need to be
AlternativeApproachestoMasterPlanSchoolofPlanningandArchitecture
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adopted to combat the challenges. Cities need to organize, manage and facilitate growth in a
sustainable way apart from positioning themselves at global level.
The purpose of a Master Plan is to guide the process of planned development of an urban
area. The British town planning legislation has guided the process of master plans in India.
Traditional master plans have had the physical planning approach translated into spatial plans
i.e. envisaging spatial distribution of land uses for the cities in future. The plan includes the
space requirements for various uses and allocates land for the same. It is based on surveys
and studies on the present status and the future growth prospects, which direct the physical
development of the city. However in the last three decades, the master plans rarely could
achieve its targets. There were various impediments in the process. Master Plan as a tool for
development of cities have often been criticized for being restrictive and ineffective in terms
of process, content, implementation and monitoring programs. Additionally, the planning
process has also suffered from improper phasing of development, lack of financial support
and accountability, as well as inadequate monitoring or evaluation. The scope is confined to
broad proposals and allocation of land for various uses, as it is prepared with the objective of
guiding physical development. The plan is prepared envisioning development over a period
of 20-25 years, which is too long a duration considering the fast pace of development. The
vision statement and the demand assessment thereof do not keep pace with the real life
situation i.e. the actual growth.
The city has been considered as a two dimensional entity whereas in reality there are more
than one dimension. The built form of the city, the socio-economic perspectives and the
political scenario are part of the city. The city is composed of people and ideally it should be
for the people and by the people. Traditional planning has neglected the social, political and
economic dynamics shaping the city and driving change, as were the many actors and
interests involved, and the probability of conflicting interest. The plan has been top-down
and has predominantly ignored the peoples opinions in assessing the needs, the demands and
the development scenarios. The plan was powerful and became an end in itself. Planning is a
continuous process involving not only plan preparation but also implementation. Due to
ineffective implementation of plan, planning proposals have become irrelevant and
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meaningless. The discontinuity between plan preparation and plan implementation has
resulted in a widening gap between what has been proposed in master plan and what has.
Besides master plan approval is yet another cause of delay.
The 1st Habitat Summit on Failure of Master Planning in Urban India held in 2009 in Delhi
highlighted some of the key issues in the above respect such as no real needs assessment. The
ideas of livability and usability are largely ignored. The plan lacks stakeholder input and it is
too top-down. One size fits all approach, ignores unique cultural, economic and historical
identity of individual cities. The plans are too rigid and the pace of change in Indian cities
quickly renders the plans obsolete. There is no integration of center, state and municipal
planning efforts along with poor governance that impedes effective implementation. The
planning system has been unable to cope with the pace and manner of growth in Indian cities.
One of the fundamental premise of the Master plan is based on the western concept of
zoning which outlines a land-use pattern by dividing the city into zones. These zones are
seen as separate compartments, though with some interdependencies. Over the years, the
planning process has primarily focused only on expansion based strategies, often neglecting
the inner city areas which are a part of every Indian city. Our cities continue to swallow
agricultural hinterlands in this course of expansion.
The plan was also not linked to sectoral departments or to budgets and investments and the
institutional organisation and negotiations necessary to make it operable was seen as outside
of its scope. Master planning was also often separate from development control and did not
necessarily impact on these activities. In addition, both funds and institutional capacity to
give effect to the plans were lacking. The master plans had not paid any attention to linking
up of the plans to management and economic development. The positive role of urbanisation
is often over-shadowed by the evident deterioration in the physical environment and quality
of life in the urban areas caused by widening gap between demand and supply of shelter for
different sections of the population, essential services and infrastructure.
The Eleventh Five-year plan of our country has stressed on the need to address sustainability
and inclusion in our cities.
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In the European context, spatial planning has shifted from focusing purely on land use
towards an emphasis on the spatial integration of sectors and policies. Strategic spatial
planning has become significant over the past decade as a way of shaping urban growth. In
contrast to master planning, there is a strong emphasis on inclusive stakeholder participation
processes, and planning focuses only on key strategic elements. New forms of master
planning focused on urban design have also emerged.
The challenge of reorienting the urbanisation process, thus, lies in overcoming the
infrastructural deficiencies and taking the best advantage of economic momentum inherent in
urbanisation. A proper urban planning development approach must have a participatory
planning process apart from addressing the spatial context of the investments in the city. The
link between various levels of plans and the chain of policies-plans-projects need to be
emphasized. The balance between collective well being of people and resource management
needs to be the basis for socio-economic growth and environmental monitoring. This calls for
constant updated information for decision support and effectuation. The GIS or geographic
information systems serves as an apt tool, and also a critical bridge between environmental
conditions and urban planning.
The advent of sustainable, inclusive cities calls for comprehensive, forward-looking
strategies in which a more bottom- up than top-down type of planning can have a major
positive role to play. This includes provision of basic infrastructure like water, sanitation,
power and public transport, a lack of which is a significant factor behind urban poverty in the
developing world. If urban planning is to rise to this challenge, central and local government
must take on stronger roles, according to the report. Reformed urban planning systems must
fully and unequivocally address climate change, rapid urbanization, poverty, informality and
safety, and do so in a context-responsive way.
These efforts must be based on well-articulated national urban policies and adequate
capacity- building, which together must overcome the fragmented. Instead of being
manipulated by local elites, regulatory systems must adhere to the principle of equality
under the law. In their new role they must also be both protective and developmental as
well as participatory and socially inclusive.
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In response to these critiques, new approaches to planning have emerged. New forms of
planning are encapsulated in the Global Planners Network document on Reinventing
Planning, which defines principles for planning. These include, inter alia:
focus on sustainability:
integration between sectors and with budgets:
participatory planning, bringing in a wide range of stakeholders:
understanding markets and producing credible plans, backed by public investment

where appropriate:
recognition of the reality of informal settlements and slums:
development of contextually appropriate, affordable, strategic and effective forms of

planning and land use management: and
pro-poor and inclusive planning , recognizing diversity.
It is in this context, that it becomes essential to review the planning approach of our
country and arrive at alternative approaches so as to address the emerging scenario of
new challenges for planning our cities.
1.2
SCOPE OF THE STUDY
The Ministry of Urban Development, Government of India had commissioned a research

study of Alternate approaches to Master Plan to the School of Planning and Architecture in
April 2009. The scope of the project includes critical assessment of the Master Plans and
suggestions pertaining to alternative planning approaches to address the citys emerging
issues.
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1.3
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STUDY OBJECTIVES
1.
To identify indicators of appraisal for Master Plans and other Plans
2.
To critically analyze the relevance and assess the efficiency and effectiveness of the
Master Plan of the identified case study cities in the transforming economic and social
environment
3.
To suggest alternative planning approaches and framework that can address the city
planning issues and would achieve efficient, sustainable, inclusive development.
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1.4
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RESEARCH FRAMEWORK
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Chapter 2 BACKGROUND STUDIES

2.1 INDIAN PLANNING APPROACHES
2.1.1 A HISTORICAL PERSPECTIVE

India has a long history in the development of planned settlements. Guidelines for
their built form are well documented from as early as the Vedic era. At that time, settlements
focused on the shrine, citadel and granary. They had a defined perimeter, often walled for
security and were complementary to a large number of spontaneous settlements of the
territory. This scenario is also true of all great ancient civilisations and where often, planned
settlements were synonymous with planned colonisation. Perimeters, when expanded,
incorporated also market gardens and grazing grounds to ensure against long periods of seize
but almost without exception, ground plans or land plans were corollaries to conceptualised
built form. This form however did not apply to the habitation sectors of plebeians and even
of higher income groups and which grew without ground rules and as organically as
spontaneous settlements. Often, such sectors offered better maintained living than in planned
sectors and ever since there have been debates on the intensity of intervention needed in
settlements planned for occupation over a period of time.
With improving inter-settlement mobility and concomitant aggrandisement, several
innovative and larger planned settlements emerged. Even then, the horizons of sanitised built
form were predictable within the framework of settlement maintenance and managerial
optimality. The likes of Rome, Paris and London were few.
The industrial revolution, among other crisis actions, necessitated interventions through
public utilities as essential and inseparable part of settlement liveability. Ventilation, potable
water, safe disposal of liquid and solid waste, fire safety, drained lands and green lungs were
the prime catch words in an integrated process of both, redevelopment and development
within settlement or town limits. This soon caught on in India where the first efforts in
modern town planning originated with the appointment of sanitary commissions in 1864 in
each of the three presidencies of Madras, Bengal and Bombay, and which in due course
became the State departments of Public Health Engineering and/or of Health.
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It was from this period that local government systems for sanitising crowded urban
settlements were gradually being institutionalised in India. At the same time, insulated
sanitised towns and civil lines became forerunners of Improvement Trusts. This interplay is
best viewed in Bombay which got its Municipal Corporation in 1888 and its Improvement
Trust in 1898. The Improvement Trust Act was modeled not only on that of the Glasgow
City Improvement Act but also on the Bombay Port Trust Act of 1873. The formation of the
Trust was precipitated by the plague epidemic of 1896 and so arrest insanitary conditions, the
mandate included clearance of blighted areas, street improvement schemes, provision of
housing for displaced persons (through 4 storeyed tenements called chawls) and plots with
development control in reclaimed or other lands.
Under the Bombay Municipal Corporation Act of 1888, building regulations were introduced
to ensure adequate light and ventilation and limits on the quantum of built space on land. It
however, did not regulate the type of uses permitted both in development and redevelopment
zones. The need for orderly growth emerged at the turn of the century through debate
between the city fathers, industrialists and administrators and this led to the Bombay Town
Planning Bill of 1908 which became a provincial Act in 1915. A land use plan within city
limits was now possible if the Municipal Corporation asked for it but interestingly opposition
to land use zoning came from the land owning elite.
It is important to note that within the geographic configuration of India as today, the
population in 1901 was around 240 million of whom about 22 million lived in a little over
2200 urban settlements and the rest in nearly 5,70,000 rural settlements. Only Calcutta had
more than one million inhabitants and overall land was never considered a constraint,
especially for peripheral settlement expansion.
From the beginning of the century several improvement trusts were created notably Mysore
in 1903, Calcutta in 1911, Hyderabad in 1912 and Lucknow in 1919. The one in Hyderabad
was unique because it over spilled (through a fireman) for two Kilometres all round the city
limits. The one in Bombay also looked beyond the linear city for providing serviced land but
in 1933 its functions were taken over by the Municipal Corporation after an indictment for
mismanagement that pushed up the price of serviced plots in the high income Backbay
Reclamation Scheme. The Municipal Corporation could afford to take over development
functions of the Trust due to a comfortable fiscal base which gave them confidence for
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ground level actions without State provincial support. By 1960, most other trusts were taken
over by State appointed development authorities. The Delhi Improvement Trust which was
created in 1937 to counteract overcrowding was replaced in 1957 by a single land
development authority to arrest land speculation.
In 1915, the sociologist planner, Patrick Geddes on an invitation first from the Madras
Government and later by princely states and other presidencies, recommended
implementable Town Planning Schemes through beneficiary participation and within
regional frameworks. This was followed by the appointment of H.V. Lancaster as Town
Planning Advisor to the Government of India. Among his inputs was a concept plan for the
capital of India at New Delhi which blended with overspill growth of crowded Paharganj. In
contrast, the implemented hierarchal plan of Edwin Lutyens, the landscape architect was for
total insularity and for perpetuating imperial grandeur. This built space was occupied with
amazing ease by national level decision makers in the post 1947 era and today all
transformations (planned or otherwise ) to the imperial plan have been stopped through an
administrative diktat, despite rapid densification and redensification all round.
The term Master Plan as a genre for a time bound two dimensional framework for three
dimensional planned growth came into usage in this era. It emerged through enabling State
(provincial) town planning legislations notably in the erstwhile presidencies of Bombay
(1915) and Madras (1920) and also the erstwhile princely states of Hyderabad (1916) and
Mysore (1917). One of the better projected Master Plans is the one for Hyderabad after the
Musi river floods where an administrative visionary, Mirza Ismail with the help of the
legendary engineer, M. Vishweshwaraya restored Hyderabads regional primacy through an
implementable Master Plan. It, inter alia, studied natural water courses as a main input for
growth and at the same time catered for such force majeure situations through heavy State
expenditure but for the benefit of all sections of the population.
In the thirties, Otto Konigsberger, an architect planner was advisor to the erstwhile State of
Mysore and to other groups in India for directing urban form and growth. This implemented
plan for new Bhubaneswar as a State capital was also called a Master Plan but for a new area
of designed growth. It was not processed under Town Planning Acts just as the designed
capital of India by Lutyens a quarter century earlier and which was not referred to as a
Master Plan and was not processed under a Town Planning Act. This is also true of
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Chandigarh quasi designed holistically in the hope that it would be liveable in a predictable
manner twenty or thirty years down the line from that time.
The term Master Plan received wide attention in India with the outline Master Plan for
Greater Bombay in 1948 attributed to a team under the then city engineer, Modhak and to a
planning consultant, Albert Mayer. The Plan offered an umbrella to land use plans of wards
that constituted the Municipal Corporation of Bombay and for projects through Town
Planning Schemes. It specified optimality in new, reconstructed or upgraded built space or on
just urban land through expensive social and network infrastructure. It gave credence to the
guarded outward spread of the serviced city and for which resilience was built in thanks to
Bombays linear pattern. It however, had no real legal validity and was outdated by 1953.
The Master Plan was prepared at a time, when Europe was processing planned overspill
from the core to the fringe of a municipal entity or of contiguous municipalities (despite
varying success in new settlements development. More importantly the mindboggling rush to
primate settlements of the new liberated nations had not yet made its presence felt in India. In
retrospect, therefore, the outline Master Plan for Greater Bombay was for all purposes an
incremental growth plan with no major urban managerial crises to deal with. The context of
the Metropolitan Region Plan was a long way off and even the 1941 Abercrombie Plan for
Greater London offered no real replicable lessons.
In 1951, the population of India was about 357 million of which nearly 62 million lived in a
little more than 3,000 urban settlements and the rest in about the same number of rural
settlements as in 1901. Bombay, Delhi, Madras and Hyderabad joined Calcutta in the one
million plus bracket, referred to as Metropolitan areas in the census of 1991. The rush to
urban areas had thus just started through expansion of existing settlements, especially the
larger ones, which were best placed for secondary and tertiary sector growth. This growth
was facilitated through socio-economic investment oriented development added to law and
other functions of new federated union of States and Union Territories. In this liberated
setup, elected citizens to parliament and assemblies sought visible development within their 5
year term. In this process, the new philosophy of contexts and frameworks for planned
growth was given a short shift and a series of uncoordinated projects mushroomed across the
length and breadth of India. The gap between socio-economic investments oriented
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development on the one hand and spatial frameworks on the other widened when what was
really required was for the two to work in tandem.
In the West, the canvas for integrated growth was easier as post war reconstruction was
undertaken within a framework of zero or minus population growth rate. In the new liberated
nations, however, high population growth rates occurred along with the rush to larger urban
centres. Nowhere has this explosion or rather implosion (in Mumfordian language) been
more apparent than in Delhi where due to the partition of the country, decadal growth rates of
113 per cent and 63 per cent respectively were recorded between 1941 and 1951 and between
1951 and 1961, respectively. In the late 1980s, the government constituted National
Commission on Urbanisation stated that local government in India was not equipped to
manage urban services beyond a decadal growth rate of 30 per cent. A total breakdown of
services, therefore, precipitated the Master Plan for Delhi and which became legal in 1962.
This plan was preceded by an outline plan in 1958 and which indicated the directions of
spatial growth, primarily for purposes of advance action in terms of network infrastructure.
All new areas earmarked for urban use in the 1962 plan were to be acquired, serviced and
redistributed through auction or allotment with differential rates of interest. The plan, which
was the first of comprehensive plans in the country, transcended municipal boundaries and
ushered in the concept of city regions by interfacing with ring towns but within commuting
distance. The Plan was facilitated by three interlinking enactments of that era-namely the
Central Slum Improvement Act, 1956, the Municipal Corporation of Delhi Act, 1957 and the
Delhi Development Act, 1957.
The Master Plan for Delhi was prepared through Ford Foundation assistance by professionals
from the USA and the UK along with Indian counterparts qualified from those countries. The
Plan served as a prototype for a large number of Plans by States which did not have
traditional planned legislation support till that time. These plans were sustained by central
encouragement towards the socialisation of land and a liberal use of the Land Acquisition
Act of 1894. Over a period of time, however, the efficacy of rigid land use plans at the
metropolitan and city levels, bolstered by even more rigid and time consuming zonal and
sub-zonal plans have been questioned in favour of the flexible structure or advocacy plans for
guiding development and planned investments through projects. From Delhi, the Ford
Foundation was invited to Calcutta (now Kolkata), where the Delhi approach was all but
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reversed in favour of integrated projects in a loose framework called Basic Development

Plan. The term Master Plan was being equated to rigidity and was from this period being
dominated by the term Development Plan and which enabled the preparation of structure
plans, advocacy plans, and guided development plans and which were being equated to
flexibility.
It was the Bombay Town Planning Act, 1954 which referred to the preparation of a
Development Plan as a broader entity than just a Master Plan. After intensive surveys and
consultations, the Development Plan for Greater Bombay was sanctioned in 1964. This plan
was detailed and effective but it precipitated haphazard development on the periphery of
Greater Bombay. The need for a metropolitan region plan accordingly surfaced where the
boundaries of the region had to be fixed on the degree of physical and economic unity of an
area. The Maharashtra Regional and Town Planning Act of 1966 paved the way for the
publishing of the Bombay Metropolitan Region Plan 1970 and for a flexible structure plan
for directing investments in an integrated exercise of development and redevelopment over a
20 year period. This was largely due to the fact that the Corporation had not fully adjusted
itself in the use and development or redevelopment of densely parcelled land for flexible
metropolitan strategies by a State appointed statutory authority. The conflict between
Municipal Corporations with defined jurisdictions and Development Authorities with wider
adjustable jurisdictions is visible in all metropolitan areas and in several large cities. This
vexing issue has been resolved by the 74th Constitutional Amendment Act, 1992 which gives
added teeth to local bodies.
Through this brief historic perspective, it may be noted that India has come a long way from
projects aimed at postponing decay to Master Plans with boundaries limited to urban areas
and then to Comprehensive Development Plans for more than one contiguous local authority.
Such plans have been prepared for many cities and towns and are being made available for
all urban settlements with population over 20,000.
2.1.2 TERMINOLOGY
The planning profession emerged in response to the repercussions associated with the
growth of cities, i.e. increased density, pressure on existing infrastructure, rising demand of
services and utilities, decay of inner cities, etc. Local bodies at the city level recognized that
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they had a responsibility for contributing to the safety, health and welfare of their citizens.
Plans were formulated by the town referred to by various terminologies i.e. Master Plan,
Structure Plan, Perspective Plan, Development Plan, Strategic Plan, etc. The approach of the
plan, the contents and the level at which the problems have been addressed also vary. Plans
were formulated at various levels, for the city as a whole, for a part of the city i.e. zone, for a
neighbourhood and/or community and for the region or the hinterland of the city. A detailed
discussion on the typology of plans has been given as follows.
Master Plan
A Master Plan is a long-term plan prepared with the purpose of planned development
of cities. The document includes the space requirements for various uses and allocates land
for the same. It also spells out the policies, guidelines as per the vision, goal and objectives of
the plan. The plan is based on comprehensive surveys and studies on the present status and
the future growth prospects which direct the physical development of the city. The
implementation of master plan facilitates the orderly and planned development of cities in a
sustainable manner, which would ultimately result in good governance.
Planning legislations enacted by most of the states do provide for preparation of Master Plans
as an instrument to promote orderly growth and development of urban centres. Under this
premise large numbers of Master Plans or Development Plans have been prepared. Their
number has been estimated to be over1200 in 1995. The earliest Master Plans prepared were
for cities like Bombay, Delhi, Calcutta and Madras. Over the years, the growth of these cities
has been largely governed by the stipulations made in their master plans.
The focus of the Master Plan is primarily on land use planning. The Master Plans are detailed
out through zonal plans and layout plans. A Master Plan is a statutory instrument for guiding
planned development and regulating improvement of towns and cities over a period of 20-25
years and contributes to development conceptually rather than being operational. The Master
Plan approach has its limitations which are discussed in the subsequent section.
Zonal Plan
The Zonal Plans detail out the policies of the Master Plan and pertain to a zone as identified
by the Master Plan. The development schemes and layout plans indicating various use
premises conform to the Zonal Plans. The formulation of the Zonal Plan is stipulated to be
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within one year as is the case regarding Master Plan of Delhi. In the absence of a Zonal Plan
of any area, the development is in accordance with the provisions of the Master Plan.
Structure Plan
The Planning Advisory Group Report of 1965, United Kingdom, came up with a new
planning approach i.e. the Development Plan that included the Structure Plan and the Local
Plan. In India, Structure Plans were worked out for cities like Kolkata, Chennai etc. The
Structure Plan is the planning framework for an area and includes the distribution of the
population, activities, the relationship between land use patterns and development activities
and the network and systems of communication, utilities and services respectively. The Plan
is not restricted to any time period. Structure Plan is a spatial plan that delineates parts of the
city for different uses. The Plan does not strictly define the land use but gives the objectives
for deciding the land use. The land uses thus assigned depends on interpretation of the
objectives. The Structure Plan is a document containing broad based policies or proposals
which are likely to have a significant effect on the structure of the area, or help to conserve
an aspect of the structure. The Plan also includes the surveys supporting the plan, evaluation
and selection of alternatives of arriving at the plan. The Structure Plan need to synchronize
with the national and regional policies and has to be integrated with the structure plans for
adjoining areas; it means that aims, policies and proposals in a Structure Plan must be
coordinated with those for the adjoining areas. It provides a basis for coordinating decisions
between various committees of the planning authority and district councils who deal with
various components of development and other public bodies likely to be concerned with
important aspects of the plan. Since the plan deals with broad based policies and proposals, it
is flexible and parts of the plan can be amended while working out the details to adjust to
unforeseen situations at the time of plan preparation.
Perspective Plan
Perspective plan is a long term plan (20-25 years) that provides goals, policies, strategies and
general programmes of the urban local authority. The plan covers long term policies
regarding spatial, economic development, development of infrastructure and resource
mobilization and a policy framework to the short term plans. The basic purpose of a
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Perspective Plan is to provide policy framework for further detailing and it serves as a guide
for urban local authority in preparation of the Development plan.It provides a background to
the shorter term plans and serves as a guide for urban local bodies in preparation of the
Development Plan. The components of the Perspective Plan are spatial and economic
development policies, strategies and programmes of the local authority. The main function of
the Perspective Plans is to be in line with the Government of Indias objectives.
Development Plan
A development plan is a medium term plan (generally 5 years) prepared within the
framework of the approved perspective plan, providing to the people the comprehensive
proposals for socio-economic and spatial development of the urban settlement indicating the
manner in which the use of the land and development therein shall be carried out by the local
authority and other agencies.
Annual Plan
An annual plan conceived within the framework of development plan, is a plan containing
the details of new and ongoing projects that the local authority intends to implement during
the respective financial year and for which necessary fiscal resources shall be mobilized
through plan funds and other sources.
Comprehensive Development Plan

With regard to the above mentioned lacuna in Master Plans, the need for preparation of
detailed development plans has been realized. The development plans are worked on a
reduced time span as compared to the master plans, which to some extent has increased the
effectiveness of the plans. Comprehensive Development Plan (CDP) is one such effort
anchored on the Jawaharlal Nehru National Urban Renewal Mission, which aims at creating
economically productive, efficient, equitable and responsive cities. A CDP is both a
perspective as well as a vision document for future development of city. It defines the
potential of city and reflects its unique attributes in terms of comparative and competitive
advantages, values and preferences of the citys residence. It thus is a detailed strategic
document, which is done in consultation among the key stakeholders. The CDP also provides
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a city investment plan in lines of estimate of the level of investment. The preparation of CDP
is done keeping in mind the pattern of population growth and its special spread within the
city together with its economic base. The CDP includes the key sectors that drive the citys
economy. An integral focus of the CDP is a detailed infrastructure profile of the city. It
measures the gap between the demand and supply of different infrastructure services,
indicating the adequacy or inadequacy of infrastructural services in terms of coverage,
quantity and quality, thus attempting to identify the factors responsible for inadequate
development of infrastructure services. The CDP also focuses on techniques for
strengthening municipal governance, financial accounting and other bottle necks. Whereas
the emphasis of CDP is to integrate financial profile of a city plan, its investment plan with
that of the infrastructure profile of the city.
Although many Master Plans have been prepared, the results have been rather indifferent.
Based on the various experiences of preparing a Master Plan, a critique of the present
practice is presented in the following section.
2.1.3 CRITIQUE OF MASTER PLAN

Over a period of time, it has generally been felt that the Master Plans have not been
able to solve urban problems as they are unable to keep pace with urban growth. The gap
between plan, growth, and development need has been ever widening. Despite the fact that
major planning inputs have been directed towards the orderly planning and development of
urban centres in general and large cities in particular, these centres continue to be the
embodiments of concentration of poverty, misery and deplorable living conditions and are
growing in the most haphazard and disorderly manner. More than half of metro cities
population is the victim of most degraded living conditions and worst kind of pollution e.g.
slums. There is over crowding in building and overloading of services. Cities have
generated most brutal and inhuman living conditions for its residents. Cities and towns are
thus in crisis. The crisis has lead to increased level of operational inefficiency of urban
centres and inefficient use of natural and manmade resources leading to enormous loss to the
nation and inhabitants. Larger cities are growing at an alarming pace whereas smaller towns
are fast declining. City growth and development is assuming complex dimension beyond
normal comprehensions and controls. What is the root cause of these urban maladies? What
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could be the ways and means to stop the degeneration of urban quality of life? How cities can
be made efficient, so as to enable them to generate resources for the emancipation of India?
These are the few questions which have haunted the urban planners and the development and
management agencies. Apart from Planners, Politicians and Bureaucrats have also voiced
concerns that though the basic concept behind Master Plan is laudable, it has failed to
achieve the desired results. On the outset, the Master Plan has been criticised primarily on
three aspects the preparation process, the contents of the Plan and implementation. Reasons
for such failure have been identified to include the following:i)
Difficulty in projecting population, economic growth, social change, infrastructure

requirements etc. for a horizon of 20-25 years. A Master Plan which tries to predict
the end state fails to see the dynamic nature of human settlements, and becomes
rigid.
ii) Plans have been treated as advisory, rather than mandatory. Thus there is a lack of
statutory support to the Master Plan. The most important of these is perhaps the lack
of an adequate land policy in the absence of which, land acquisition becomes a long
and tedious process involving legal hurdles. (Calcutta is a notable example of
lengthy land acquisition processes hampering development.)
iii) Lack of coordination with the economic plan. The Five Year Plans allocate
resources for different sectors but are not generally location specific; conversely
Master Plans often fail to take into consideration sectoral outlays and targeted
growth potential of economic sectors within the urban plan region.
iv) Physical domain of the plan is often restricted to the urban boundary. This leaves out
the edges or the urban fringe, often the most dynamic areas of urban growth. By
extension, this also necessarily implies a lack of concern for rural urban linkages.
The example: Laldora or Abadi lands in Delhi.
v) Plans are often idealistic and beyond the resources of the local authority. They suffer
from a lack of financial programming and budgeting.
vi) Norms and standards are often borrowed from other plans and do not represent local
conditions. Thus standards become inappropriate or very high. (Perhaps, the most
glaring example of this is the Himachal Pradesh Bye laws which seem to be
almost a carbon copy of DDAs.)
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vii) Lack of coordination between various implementing agencies.

viii) Implementation not worked out in detail, especially in temporal scheme with phasing
diagrams detailed to zonal / local levels.
ix) Lack of concern for migrants and the informal sector. Squatter settlements are
deprived of essential services and rights to land ignored, because overwhelming
attention is given to landuse controls of plans which did not envisage migration, or
at least, not in the massive numbers currently prevailing.
The publication by the United Nations Economic and Social Commission for the Asia and
the Pacific entitled Guidelines: Sub-national area planning and sustainable development of
secondary cites in countries of Asia and Pacific - a methodological approach also lists out
the following as the drawbacks associated with the traditional Master Planning approach:
-
Large master plans are static in nature and take very long time to prepare
Master plans do not provide guidelines on the phasing or techniques of

implementation
Master plans do not evaluate the costs of the developments they propose or the
methods of financing them
Master plans are often based on unrealistic appraisal of the economic potential of
planning areas and, in some cases, on unrealistic needs
Master plans seldom provide a compelling rationale for detailed land use and land
use regulation or control
Community or elected representatives or NGOs are seldom meaningfully involved

in the planning process.
Planning Process
The Planning Process consists of the following stages;
Ist Stage Development aims and Objectives; the aims and objectives formulation exercise
comprises the following four steps:
1.
Identification of values cherished by the people, politicians and other groups of

people;
2.
Identification of aims incorporating the values;
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Identification of criteria that further defines each aim to form basis for formulation
of objectives; and
4.
Formulation of objectives which could be further defined as design objectives and

implementation.
2nd Stage; After identification of development aims and objectives, the next stage in the
process of planning is identification of projected requirements of various activities,
supporting infrastructure and land as the basic input for plan formulation. It is suggested that
a Development Integration Committee be constituted. The function of this committee is
suggested to be to:
1.
Discuss and advise on development aims and objectives
2.
Provide input on existing conditions, priorities and major programmes of each

department to form part of projected requirements; and
3.
Ensure coordination of inter-departmental interactions and cooperation pertaining to

plan formulation and integration.
3rd Stage; Plan formulation

Plan formulation consists of drawing up of alternative concepts of planning the settlement,
taking into account:
1.
aims and objectives
2.
projected requirements
3.
planning principles/theories
4.
planning techniques
5.
norms and standards
It is followed by a process of evaluation of the alternatives having regard to achievement of

aims and objectives; judicious utilization of land resources; environmental and fiscal
resources sustainability; and urban design quality.
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4th Stage; Plan Approval Process

Following the spirit of the 74th CAA, the plan approval process should be decentralized as
follows;
Table 2.1: Approving Authority for various levels of Plans
Plan
Approving Authority
Perspective Plan
State Government
Development Plan
Municipal Council/Corporation
Annual Plan
Municipal Council/Corporation
Schemes/Projects
Municipal Planner
Source: 74th Constitutional Amendment Act

5th Stage; Implementation
Implementation of development plans is generally through annual plans and projects. The
various steps for effective implementation include:
1.
Formulation of the annual plan and identification of projects for implementation

within the framework of approved development plan
2.
Identification of various agencies responsible for development promotion and

management
3.
Actions for implementation which include;

Public sector interventions
Private sector actions and
Joint Venture or public - private partnership.
Plan Preparation
It would be desirable to closely look at the mechanism of plan preparation in the context of
effectiveness and usefulness of Master Plan as an instrument to guide and channelise growth
and development of the urban centres. In the Indian context, plan preparation is often vested
in State Authorities which do not have deep knowledge of local conditions and accordingly
the city problems, structure, potential and areas requiring focus are not properly reflected in
the plan.
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In most of the cases accurate and appropriate base maps of cities are not available and the
Master Plans are prepared on base maps which are obsolete, outdated, inaccurate and do not
contain vital information required for proper plan preparation. Master Plan documents
prepared on inaccurate base map hampers its effective implementation. It may be one of
major causes of present malady which face our urban areas visavis their Master Plans.
Present system of planning is based on purely population projections. Attempts to restrict the
size of population of the city have created numerous complications in the city developmental
process. In order to make Master Plan really dynamic, capable of taking care of vibrant and
ever-changing economic forces it would be desirable that city plans is not based on restricted
population projections. In fact plan should have an inbuilt flexibility to take care of any
unforeseen changes that may occur in the city. Accordingly city population projection must
be supplemented by its economic potential i.e. capacity to generate employment etc., so that
it ensures gainful employment to its residents. Planners must also understand that city growth
cannot be stopped and the concept of a finite city is a myth. Accordingly, city plan must
provide for ever-growing and ever-expanding city which is capable enough to provide quality
of life to its inhabitants.
Process of Master Plan preparation also needs to be closely examined. Since the Plan is a
document essentially meant for promoting the orderly growth of urban centres and achieving
the welfare of its inhabitants, accordingly it will be desirable to ensure peoples effective
involvement. Planners must understand that cities are built by people and by planners and
cities exist for promoting the physical, social, economic welfare of people at all stages of
plan preparation would be a pre requisite for ensuring success to the plans and orderly
growth of cities and towns. Thus present system of calling objections on planning proposals
is highly defective and needs to be totally changed. In fact, it would be viable to adopt a
mechanism of wider consultations. On the analogy and pattern of preparation of Union
Budget city planners must initiate discussion with all sections of society including chambers
of commerce and industry, ordinary citizens, interest groups, NGOs, groups involved in
voluntary efforts to improve the city and other public and private sector agencies which from
an integral part of any city structure. This would help in crystallizing and needs and
aspirations of people about the present and future scenario of the city and should make
planning process much more realistic and closer to the vision of its residents.
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City plans do not accord any recognition to the informal sector, which despite the act
provides employment to number of people and is an integral part of city economy but still
considered as illegal. Ignoring the ground realities and planning without considering the
needs and requirements of this sector has lead to number of distortions emerging in the city.
The normal procedures of Legal framework providing for preparation of Master Plan are
cumbersome and time consuming. Law pertaining to Master Plan are not simple and they do
not allow adequate freedom to planners in plan preparation and plan interpretation. The law
does not have defined timelines at all stages and therefore the plan is not prepared on time
bound basis and should cut down all possible delays. Such a format will enable not only
speedier plan preparation but also their easy interpretation and effective implementation.
Plan Approval
Plan approval is as crucial as plan preparation and plan implementation. Delays in plan
approval have resulted in defeating the very purpose of Master Plans. Bombay Municipal
Corporation started reviewing the first Master Plan of Bombay in 1977. Draft Plan was
submitted to State government in 1985. In 1989, twelve years after the plan preparation, the
State government was still considering it. In most of the case, Master Plans become
operational after they are approved by the State government and due to long gap in plan
preparation and plan approval, a lot of unauthorized construction takes place in the area and
the city grows without a plan. By the time plan is approved, bulk of development has taken
place without the benefit of planning approval. Meanwhile those occupying the illegal
squatter settlements suffer severe hardships because of lack of infrastructure and services, as
well as uncertainty over their tenure rights, environmental conditions in and around the city
deteriorate rapidly with high degree of atmosphere and water pollution. Thus the city reels
under enormous developmental pressures. This could be avoided if gap between plan
preparation and plan approval is minimized and plans are made operational form the day
intention to prepare plan is notified. However, efforts need to be made that city development
does not suffer on the premise that plan document is still to be approved.
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Plan Implementation
The most important thing to understand is that Planning is a continuous process which
involves not only plan preparation but also includes plan approval and plan implementation.
Thus planning is not a one-dimensional exercise but a multidimensional approach involving
multipronged action to achieve the end results. In India rootcause of urban maladies have
been divorcing of plan preparation from plan implementation. Unless and until ways and
means are found to ensure effective implementation of plans, planning proposals would
become irrelevant and meaningless and plan document would be rendered ineffective. Plan
implementation would require earmarking of appropriate resources keeping in view the
development and investment requirements of area envisaged under the Master Plan. This has
so far been absent in India and thus, over the years, dichotomy has emerged between what
has been proposed in the Master Plan and what has happened on the ground. In large number
of cases investment opportunities have been made use of in contradiction to Master Plan
proposals which have lead to the emergence of developmental trends in the directions
contrary to that of Master Plans. It would be important to understand that city growth is
largely guided by the economic forces but economic forces are the outcome of investment
pattern adopted for a city. If investment strategy goes contrary to Master Plan indications
chaos is sure to prevail. Lack of financial resources on one hand and absence of dovetailing
of physical planning with fiscal planning has been largely responsible for lopsided and
unplanned growth of our urban areas. Orderly growth of urban centres would accordingly
call for making available adequate resources and adoption of investment strategy in
accordance with the direction indicated in the Master Plan proposals for its effective
implementation.
Plan implementation also would call for providing a legal backing to the plan document so as
to make it enforceable and mandatory. In most of the states like Punjab, Haryana, etc., there
is no legal framework for preparation and implementation of Master Plans and accordingly
these plans have assumed advisory role which have more often than not been conveniently
ignored by city and State authorities. Thus creating an appropriate legal framework would be
a prerequisite in ensuring effectiveness of Master Plan and development plan.
Not merely creating a legal framework will ensure effectiveness of a Master Plan but it has
to be supported by creating an effective and efficient machinery equipped with technical and
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other managerial resources and powers which would see that no distortion of Master Plan
proposals take place at the ground level. In most cases these implementing agencies are
conspicuous by their absence and where ever they exist they are not adequately equipped.
Action in this area would also be urbanity called for to ensure orderly growth.
Political will and administrative efficiency will largely govern and ensure orderly growth of
our cities and accordingly all Master Plans must be supported by local and State political will
so that it is accepted by one and all as a catalyst fort rational growth of urban centres. This
would help in ensuring effectiveness of Master Plan document in the long run.
Involvement of planners in the process of plan implementation would be a vital step in
ensuring efficacy of Master Plans. Planners have only been assigned the role of planning and
implementation is more often than not vested with agencies which are totally divorced from
planning inputs. Thus planning and implementation occurs in water tight compartments
without any co ordination and accordingly plan and ground realities which emerge over the
years are totally contradictory. Creation of effective linkages between planning and
implementation would heap in not only making planning mire realistic and closer to ground
realities but would go a long way in ensuring effectiveness of Master Plan as an instrument
meant for promoting orderly growth of our urban centres.
There are many criticisms that the Master Plan has received from various experts in the
planning field. These include the Town and Country Planning Organization (TCPO) of the
Government of India and the Institute of Town Planners, India (ITPI). A brief discussion of
the issues identified and recommendations given by these organizations with reference to the
Master Planning approach has been given as follows.
The TCPO had organized a workshop on the Master Plan Approach: Efficacy and
Alternatives in 1997 to discuss the inadequacies of the Master Plan and give
recommendations accordingly in order to improve the Planning framework. The report
identified a number of relevant issues in this context with respect to the Master Plan
approach, its implementation and management; and finally alternatives to the approach.
The salient features of the practices of Master Plan approach in various parts of the country
and abroad at that time are summarized below.
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The Master Plan approach based on British system underwent drastic change in the
mid sixties and after the evolution of planning approach in theoretical concept,
quantitative approach, models, simulation exercises and forecasting methods and
computer applications were gradually adopted by planners.
Majority of the Indian cities depicted the picture of unplanned urban outrages. It was
generally observed that such state of affairs in cities were not because the planners
were unaware of the advances in planning techniques abroad, but rather the
difficulties lay in the necessity for overhauling the institutional framework so that
new methods could be introduced and implemented.
It was realised that the sequence of development was as crucial as the plan itself.
There was no necessity to change the basic Master Plan system but a separate wing
for plan implementation and enforcement would prove to be a better institutional
arrangement.
The requirement for accurate mapping for plan preparation at various levels was
stressed. Suggestions were that the base maps of the towns should be delinked from
the cumbersome security procedure and should be easily available so as to quicken
the plan preparation process. Each State could establish urban and regional
information system cells which would take care of mapping requirements of the
planning exercises.
The plan making exercise was seen as a long drawn process that did not take the
implications of the land market into account. The public participation in plan
preparation exercise was ineffective and there was general lack of monitoring
mechanism.
The planning process was required to be decentralised. Conflicts in the role of

different acts and agencies at local level were to be resolved in time with the ground
realities. Land use and zoning regulation were considered to be too rigid causing
hindrances in development.
For planning of town the parameters like traffic and transportation, threshold limits
of resources like drinking water, management of services like drainage, refuse
collection, sanitation, land holding capacity, financial capability of the organisation,
environmental issues were required to be considered comprehensively and critically.
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The subject of town planning received a very low priority in the entire political and
administrative set up, despite the urban sector contributing nearly 60% of GDP.
The existing approach of the Master Plan had an overemphasis on the land use
contents of the plan. The need was to have closer integration between infrastructures
particularly telecom system, sanitation and other regional network. Since Master
Plan is not prepared within the framework of Five Year plan of the State it remains
non-plan which has low priority. Duration of plan should be curtailed from 20-25
years to 5-10 years as being practiced in other countries.
The present approach of Master Plan was considered highly conceptual and lacking
operational mechanism. It was conceived as a pre-emptive document based on the
material and information which is subject to verification on long intervals. The
theoretical approach should be used to devise a pragmatic framework. Theory is an
instrument by which plan can be made practical.
It was observed that the Laws and Acts needed to be updated to allow to incorporate
the fundamental institutional changes, the political ethos, liberalisation and de
licensing.
Regarding the Implementation and Management of Master Plans, the focus is on the set up
for implementation and management of Master Plan in the country. The following major
points have been brought out and are summarised below:
Preparation of plan involves about 10% of the work whereas implementation role is
90% in the plan and hence the crux of the plan is in its implementation.
The implementation of plan depends mainly on the political set up and the people
themselves as there is no effective way to device the aspiration/needs of the people.
The Delhi Development Act has no provision for regularly reviewing the Master
Plan
It was strongly stated that the planned approach to urban development needs to be
strengthened. The models followed in the advanced countries having cities without
plans are not suitable in Indian conditions. The need of the hour is to devise flexible
plans with short term perspective to cater to the political climate and changes in the
aspiration of the people. A strong planning body should be established at centre and
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State levels to guide the preparation of plans by the local authorities as envisaged
under 74th Constitution Amendment Act. Plans prepared by local bodies in close
cooperation of the line departments would be easy to implement. Perspective Plans
for a longer duration is not conducive for right implementation as the political
thinking changes and also change the public aspiration over a time and hence all
these plans are to be rolled over. Resources around the town should be taken into
consideration and on that basis some activities should be proposed for the area.
The plans and schemes should reflect the implications of liberalisation policies of
the government, incentive zoning measures and the performance controls to judge
their implementation process. The use of latest techniques of Geographic
Information system was proposed to be helpful in monitoring the implementation of
plan. Plan implementation should keep margin for unprecedented developments that
happen as a result of International Games like Asiad and South Asian Games in
different cities. In implementation of plan, values of the majority of the people i.e.
poor section should be reflected while at present values of high and middle class are
reflected more.
Land acquisition proceedings take pretty long time hampering the development
process.
In summary, more attention is given to the formulation of the plan and less attention to the
implementation.
The Urban Development Plans Formulation and Implementation Guidelines (UDPFI

Guidelines) prepared by team of experts at ITPI in 1996 have also discussed the various
drawbacks of the Master Plan, which are as follows:
It provides a long-term perspective of development, neglecting short-term actions

and objectives; consequently losing its effectiveness in a fast-changing scenario.
It is rigid and static because it is treated as an end product and not as a continuous
process.
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It takes a very long time in its preparation and approval, making it an out-of-date
document even before its implementation. As a consequence, there are frequent
changes in land use.
It lacks symbiosis of socio-economic dynamism and physical determination of a

city.
It lacks integration of physical and fiscal planning efforts.
The norms and standards for land use and provision of facilities are generally high
and very difficult to be achieved at the time of implementation.
The public participation in the planning process is not effective.
Monitoring and review mechanisms are neither regular nor effective.
It emphasises control rather than promotion of development.
Town planning and other related laws such as acquisition of land, are not suitably
amended to adjust to changing socio-economic, techno-economic changes and
development needs.
Development management is generally not efficient.
It hardly caters to the demands of informal sector.
In some cases political interference is observed which results in some irrational

proposals and implementation decisions.
Concluding Remarks
An overview of the current urban planning system as discussed above in this section
highlights few major issues that are mainly responsible for the redundancies in the Master
Plan process. These are summarised below:
Weak Information Base:
Development Plan preparation is undertaken with a very weak information base. As a
statutory requirement only the existing land-use survey is generally carried out. Up to date
information on employment, incomes, environment, household characteristics, transport,
housing etc., is neither readily available nor it is collected through surveys. State level
information systems such as Survey of industries, National Sample Survey, State Income
Estimates, and Employment Market Information do not readily provide city level data.
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Decennial Census is therefore generally the only source of information. As a result the
planning process leads to formulation of proposals based on axiomatic considerations.
Time Consuming Process:

Detailed land-use planning and plan finalization is a time consuming process leading to
delays on account of:
i)
Preparation of existing land use survey which is a mandatory requirement

necessitates fresh field surveys every time a Master Plan is prepared, as computer
based GIS which can update the land use based on development permission data
have not yet been adopted. Use of aerial photography or remote sensing in general is
also very limited.
ii)
As the Master Plan proposes reservation of lands for public purposes that are to be
compulsorily acquired, owners of such land oppose the plan tooth and nail. This also
leads to corrupt practices of changing land use proposals and cause delays.
iii)
Such changes in the plan are then challenged in the court of law causing further
delay.
A major portion of the 20 year plan period thus elapses before the plan becomes effective.
Delinked From Economic And Environmental Issues:

Due to inadequate database, economic and environmental considerations are seldom
seriously addressed in the plan formulation; if at all these issues are only mentioned without
any specific strategies. The impact of Master Plan proposals on land and housing market are
also not explicitly considered. The Master Plan, therefore, does not deal with problems
associated with land policy such as inappropriate regulation, lack of tenure security,
inadequate infrastructure capacity, inadequate information, inappropriate pricing and
taxation, and weak institutions and poorly co-ordinated actors in the land market which lead
to environmental problems through resource degradation, occupation of hazard prone-areas
and excessive urban sprawl (Bernstein, J.D., 1994).
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Unaffordable Infrastructure Investments:

The physical standards adopted in planning of densities, housing, services, etc. are very high.
Most Master Plans thus come out with unaffordable investment requirements without
providing for resources to implement the proposals. Local authorities however continue to
face the resource crunch and are unable to cope up with the needs of growing population and
maintenance of municipal services. Bombay Master Plan till 1991, used such maximum
density and FSI combination that the smallest legal house was unaffordable to the majority.
Growing population of urban areas is generally considered as the root-cause of all urban
problems and measures are suggested in Master Plans to contain population growth. Such
measures do not take into account macroeconomic forces and are often in the form of blanket
controls on location of economic activities which could have serious implications for the
well-being of the city and its people. The second Bombay Master Plan for 1981-2001 had
proposed a population of 9.8 million for 2001 when 1991 population itself had exceeded that
target.
Lack of Investment Strategies:

The strategies for raising resources required for plan implementation are never an integral
part of the plan. The Report on the Development Plan for Greater Bombay, 1964 ends with
the hope of raising financial resources for plan implementation by saying, with little
sacrifice on the part of all citizens and sympathetic attitude of State and Central Governments
towards Corporations problem this plan can be translated into reality.
Land use planning without any link with infrastructure investment leads to a situation
where the investment is driven by the demand of the already developed areas leaving new
expansion areas with inadequate investments. Financial management exercises (budget) are
often carried out by the local governments on yearly basis without any long-term investment
programming and they are not explicitly linked to Master Plan implementation.
Ineffective Public Participation:

These Plans also fail to effectively involve the citizen in the process of development
planning. In the present practice, public suggestion/ objections are invited by giving only a
public notice that too only after the draft plan is prepared. Even in this process the active
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participation is largely confined to land owners whose properties are adversely affected.
Recently however environmental groups which are not necessarily representative are also
becoming vocal. Public participation could be improved by wider publicity, holding of
seminars in local areas, etc. a more meaningful participation can be achieved by modifying
the planning process and involving citizens in local decisions. But a plan dealing with the
city of 20 years hence overlooking the numerous problems of here and now fails to
encourage the common citizen.
Lack of Monitoring Mechanism:

No institutional and information system mechanism generally exists for plan monitoring.
Since the budgetary system does not explicitly take into account the requirements of plan
implementation, problems of resources are not periodically highlighted. The data gathered
for development control are not effectively used to analyse the trend of development in
comparison with Master Plan provisions. Large scale deviations from Master Plan (including
unauthorized developments) therefore remain unresponded till the next Plan.In the absence of
adequate information system, planners ability to respond to changing circumstances gets
further limited. For a common land owner or citizens the Master Plan appears to be very
rigid. This does not however, imply that the plan is never modified. On the contrary the act
allows minor modifications. But in practice only the powerful manage to get such
modifications carried out which may not always be in the public interest.
Based upon the above discussion, it can be observed that planned intervention is imperative
in our urban areas in view of rapid urbanization, haphazard growth resulting in emergence of
slums, squatter colonies and misuse of land. Managing our future cities would depend on
how effective is this planned intervention. Master Plans and Development Plans evolved for
managing our cities have been critically appraised in terms of their contents, potentials and
weaknesses. Despite the fact that there are weaknesses, Master Plan has useful purpose to
serve. Master plan has served well so far as growth and development of cities is concerned;
the distortions in city growth are the result of factors which have lead to nonimplementation
of its proposals or where investment pattern was contrary to that envisaged in the Master
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Plan. Accordingly, we would have to ensure that planning is effectively supported by the
implementation process.
We have to find out ways and means to eliminate the areas of weakness of Master Plan so as
to make it more result oriented. Instead of making the plan highly comprehensive covering
all possible aspects like a mini national development plan, it should focus on critical and key
issues System of land use planning should be adequately supported by including social,
economic and environmental issues. Instead of concentrating on limiting the size, efforts
should be to promote orderly and organized growth of the city. Plan making should be
effectively integrated with the decision making process about budget, infrastructure,
development and service provision. Introduction of more flexibility in the planning process
would further enhance the effectiveness of Master Plan.
2.1.4 PLAN AND POLICIES

With India becoming an independent country in 1947, there was a pressure of urban
population, lack of housing and basic services in urban areas. The problem was compounded
by migration of people from Pakistan. At that time, the general perception of the policy
makers was that, India is pre-dominantly an agricultural and rural economy. Urbanisation
would lead to the drain of resources from the countryside to feed the cities. The positive
aspects of cities as engines of economic growth in the context of national economic policies
were not much appreciated at that time. Problems of urban areas were treated more as
welfare problems and sectors of residual investment rather than as issues of national
economic importance.
In line with a vision of Developed India, Pandit Jawaharlal Nehru, the First Prime Minister of
India, conceptualised the Planning Commission and the Five year plan with the help of the
Government and the eminent economists from different parts of the world. Subsequently, the
Planning Commission was set up by a resolution of the Government of India in 1950.
Considering the urgent need to prevent unregulated growth of the towns, the Five Year Plans
laid stress on the need to undertake town planning to provide for zoning and land use, control
of ribbon development, location of industries, clearance of slums, civic and diagnostic
surveys and preparation of Master plans. It has been observed that although a significant step
in urban development was undertaken in the plan vide Central assistance to the States for the
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preparation of Master Plans for selected areas, comprehensive action was not taken by the
States for the adoption and implementation of the Plans. The priority concern was not only to
stop the growing deterioration in the urban environment, reflected in key urban indicators on
housing conditions, pollution levels, traffic congestion, informal sector, among others, but
also to positively change the trend and ensure an improved, healthy and congenial
environment. It was envisaged that the wide and increasing gap between the demand and
supply of basic civic amenities like potable water, sanitation, transport and housing would be
reduced through creation of new assets, upgradation and renewal of existing assets, attaining
better operational and management efficiency and stimulating flow of resources into all
urban development activities. Since the setting up of the Planning Commission, Five Year
Plans have been brought out at regular intervals with different focus areas. A brief overview
of the various Five Year Plans is given below:
First Five Year Plan (1951-1956):

Emphasis was given on institution building and on construction of houses for Government
employees and weaker sections. The Ministry of Works & Housing was constituted and
National Building Organization and Town & Country Planning Organization were set up. A
sizeable part of the plan outlay was spent for rehabilitation of the refugees from Pakistan and
on building the new city of Chandigarh. Industrial Housing Scheme was also initiated. Centre
subsidized Scheme to the extent of 50% towards the cost of land and construction. A total
outlay of Rs. 136 crores was provided for the Plan.
Second Five Year Plan (1956-1961):

In the Second Five Year Plan, the scope of housing programme for the poor was expanded.
Industrial Housing Scheme was widened to cover all workers. Three new schemes were
introduced, namely, Rural Housing, Slum Clearance and Sweepers Housing. Town &
Country Planning Legislations were enacted in many States and necessary organisations were
also set up for preparation of Master Plans for important towns.
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Third Five Year Plan (1961-1966):

Co-ordination of efforts of all agencies and orienting the programmes to the needs of the
Low Income Groups. Scheme introduced in 1959 to give loans to State Governments for a
period of 10 years for acquisition and development of land in order to make available
building sites in sufficient numbers. Master Plans for major cities were prepared and the
State capitals of Gandhi Nagar and Bhubaneswar were developed in this Plan period. The
plan also gave thoughts about establishing a Central Housing Board.
Fourth Five Year Plan (1969-1974):

In the Fourth Plan, balanced urban growth was high priority. Also it stressed the need to
prevent further growth of population in large cities. The plan envisaged the creation of
smaller towns and by planning the spatial location of economic activity. Housing and Urban
Development Corporation (HUDCO) was established to fund low cost housing and urban
development programmes, promising a quick turnover. Scheme for Environmental
Improvement of Urban Slums was undertaken in the Central Sector from 1972-73, with a
view to provide a minimum level of services like water supply, sewerage, drainage and street
pavements in 11 cities having more than 8 lakhs population. The scheme was later extended
to 9 more cities.
Fifth Five Year Plan (1974-1979):

The Fifth Plan reiterated the policies of the preceding Plans. It proposed to promote smaller
towns in new urban centers in order to ease the increasing pressure on urbanisation. This was
to be supplemented with efforts towards augmentation of civic services in urban areas.
Emphasis was given on a comprehensive and regional approach to problems in metropolitan
cities. Task Force was set up for development of small and medium towns. The Urban Land
(Ceiling & Regulation) Act was enacted to prevent concentration of land holding in urban
areas and to make available urban land for construction of houses for the middle and low
income groups.
Mainly three new approach and programmes were started in this Plan. They are as follows:
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Minimum Needs Programme: Provision of house-sites and assistance for the

construction of dwellings for rural landless labourers were proposed in this
programme.
2.
Specific efforts were thought to reduce costs in public housing schemes by reviewing
standards and by using cheap and alternative building materials.
3.
The National Buildings Organisation, State Housing Boards and the HUDCO plans of
improved design types for use in the rural areas were proposed.
Sixth Five Year Plan (1980-1985):

Thrust was given on integrated provision of services along with shelter, particularly for the
poor. For the first time in the Five Year Plans concern on environment (Water and Air Act 1974) and upgradation of slum environment was taken into consideration. The Integrated
Development of Small and Medium Towns (IDSMT) was launched in towns with population
below one lakh. This was mainly for provision of roads, pavements, minor civic works, bus
stands, markets, shopping complex etc. with proposed setting up of new industries and
commercial and professional establishments in small, medium and intermediate towns.
For the first time strengthening of the existing institutions like Housing and Urban
Development Corporation (HUDCO) and the creation of new institutions like housing cooperatives and building societies was thought to be necessary. The expansion of the Housing
Development Finance Corporation (HDFC) type of activities was also considered. While
HUDCO was supposed to concentrate on the provision of subsidised finance to the poorer
sections of the society, the HDFC was to continue to cater to the clientele coming largely
from fairly well-to-do sections of the society.
Seventh Five Year Plan (1985-1990):

The Plan stressed on the need to entrust major responsibility of housing construction on the
private sector. A three-fold role was assigned to the public sector, namely, mobilization for
resources for housing, provision for subsidized housing for the poor and acquisition and
development of land. The National Housing Bank was set up to expand the base of housing
finance. NBO was reconstituted and a new organization called Building Material Technology
Promotion Council (BMTPC) was set up for promoting commercial production of innovative
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building materials. The private sector investment in housing during the Sixth Plan amounted
to Rs. 18,000 crores. Housing in the Seventh Plan period assumed investment of around Rs.
29,000 crores.
Urban Poverty Alleviation Scheme known as Urban Basic Services for the Poor (UBSP) was
launched. Follow-up of the Global Shelter Strategy (GSS), National Housing Policy (NHP)
was announced in 1988. Long term goal of the NHP to eradicate houselessness, Role of
Government, as a provider for the poorest and vulnerable sections and as a facilitator for
other income groups and private sector, by the removal of constraints and the increased
supply of land and services were thought.
Eighth Five Year Plan (1992-1997):

For the first time in the Five Year Plan it was felt that, the widening gap between demand
and supply of infrastructural services were badly hitting the poor. High population growth
rate in cities was resulting in accumulated backlog of housing shortages, resulting in
proliferation of slums and squatter. The response of the Plan to this scenario was the
launching of Urban Poverty and Alleviation Programme of Nehru Rozgar Yojana (NRY).
The Global Shelter Strategy adopted by the United Nations in November, 1988 called upon
different Governments to take steps for the formulation of a National Housing Policy (NHP1992) to achieve its goals. The basic objectives of the policy were:
- To assist all people and in particular the houseless, the inadequately housed and the
vulnerable sections, to secure for themselves affordable shelter through access to developed
land, building materials, finance and technology;
- To create an enabling environment for housing activity by eliminating constraints and by
developing an efficient system for the delivery of housing inputs.
Ninth Five Year Plan (1997-2002):

Key urban concern was the growing gap between demand and supply of basic services.
Steady growth in the housing stock was felt but, infrastructure and services, the gaps between
demand and supply was rising. The rural-urban continuum was decreasing the gaps between
rural and urban lifestyles. It was felt that effective urban strategies and programmes cannot
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be developed in isolation of those in the rural areas. Major sectoral objectives of the Ninth
Plan were:
Development of urban areas as economically efficient, socially equitable and

environmentally sustainable entities.
Accelerated development of housing, particularly for the low income groups and
other disadvantaged groups.
Development and up gradation of urban infrastructure services to meet the needs of a

growing population.
Promoting accessibility and affordability of the poor to housing and basic services.
Improvement of urban environment.
Promoting private sector participation in the provision of public infrastructure and of

the community and NGOs in urban planning and management of specific components
of urban services.
Democratic decentralization and strengthening of municipal governance.
Tenth Five Year Plan (2002-2007):

Urban Development Strategies outlined in the Tenth Plan stressed on improved quality of life
in urban areas with particular focus on the poor and other under-privileged section of the
population within an environmentally sustainable framework. The Approach Paper to the
Tenth Plan highlights the need for the development of medium-sized towns, which are
experiencing the most rapid population growth of all segments of the country and where
municipal structures and institutions are not strong enough to cope with the challenges
(Planning Commission, 2001). The broad objective was to secure balanced development
between large, medium-sized and small industries and between rural and urban areas. The
main constituents of the developmental policy were establishment of new industries away
from large and congested cities; adoption of the concept of region in the planning of large
industries and strengthening economic inter-dependence between towns and the surrounding
rural areas. The repeal of the Urban Land (Ceiling and Regulation) Act of 1976 had been a
significant step towards reform in the urban land market.
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JnNURM (Jawaharlal Nehru National Urban Renewal Mission): The Tenth Plan also
emphasised on the urban and rural infrastructure under the consideration of achieving the
millennium goals as one of its objective and other objectives related to poor and urban life.
This new Mission stands apart from the earlier projects for its emphasis on urban
infrastructure renewal. With optimism towards reform and funding for 63 cities, it stresses on
providing better infrastructure and basic services to the urban poor. A detailed section on the
JnNURM is dealt separately under Section 2.1.5.
PURA (Providing Urban-Amenities in Rural Areas): Announced by the President on the eve
of 54th Republic day of India, the mission aimed at providing amenities similar to urban areas
to the rural people. It was cited as a Cluster based approach to achieve uniform development
for rural areas. PURA was to be implemented in 4,130 rural clusters across the country
within a span of 5 years.
Eleventh Five Year Plan (2007-2012):

This is the current Plan period. The economy was in a much stronger position at the
beginning of this Plan period than it was a few years ago. The growth performance in the first
four years of the Tenth Plan averaged at 6.3%. The economy was in a state of take-off and
large investments were underway. The macroeconomic fundamentals were sound. Indian
economy was getting integrated with the global economy. It was expected that the upward
trend would continue throughout the eleventh plan period and give further boost to the
economic growth.
Major challenges that were considered while formulating the Eleventh Plan were:
Development of urban areas as economically efficient, socially equitable and

environmentally sustainable entities.
Regaining and sustaining agricultural growth
Increasing manufacturing competitiveness
Harnessing human resources
Providing essential public services for the poor
Environment protection
Improving rehabilitation and resettlement practices
Improving governance and ensuring fiscal discipline
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Major objectives of the Eleventh Plan are:

Income & Poverty
Accelerate GDP growth from 8% to 10% and then maintain at 10% in the 12th Plan
in order to double per capita income by 2016-17
Increase agricultural GDP growth rate to 4% per year to ensure a broader spread of
benefits
Create 70 million new work opportunities.
Reduce educated unemployment to below 5%.
Raise real wage rate of unskilled workers by 20 percent.
Reduce the headcount ratio of consumption poverty by 10 percentage points.
Infrastructure
Ensure electricity connection to all villages and BPL households by 2009 and roundthe-clock power.
Ensure all-weather road connection to all habitation with population 1000 and above
(500 in hilly and tribal areas) by 2009, and ensure coverage of all significant
habitation by 2015
Connect every village by telephone by November 2007 and provide broadband

connectivity to all villages by 2012
Provide homestead sites to all by 2012 and step up the pace of house construction for
rural poor to cover all the poor by 2016-17
Environment
Increase forest and tree cover by 5 percentage points.
Attain WHO standards of air quality in all major cities by 2011-12.
Treat all urban waste water by 2011-12 to clean river waters.
Increase energy efficiency by 20 percentage points by 2016-17.
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Table 2.2: An overview of the major programmes

1952
Launching of Community Development Movement
1957
Concept of Panchayati Raj evolved
Second Five
Year Plan
Third Plan
Fourth Plan
Fifth Plan
5000 National Extension Service Blocks created

Extensive Land Reform measures undertaken
Environmental Improvement of Urban Slums
HUDCO was established.
Emphasis on fulfilling minimum needs
Direct, targeted Poverty Alleviation Programmes started
Sixth Plan
Integrated Rural Development Programmes (IRDP) universalized
Seventh Plan
Indira Awas Yojana for provision of housing to SCs/STs

73rd and 74th Constitutional Amendments
Legislation for establishment of 3-tier Panchayati Raj system
Eighth Plan
National housing Policy 1992

Employment Assurance Scheme started to provide 100 days work in a year.
National Social Assistance Programmes started
Urban Reform Incentive Fund or URIF
Ninth Plan
Tenth Plan
Development and upgradation of infrastructure & services.

JnNURM (Jawaharlal Nehru Urban Renewal Mission)
PURA (Providing Urban amenities in Rural Areas)
Swarna Jayanti Shahari Rozgar Yojana
Eleventh Plan
National Rural Eemployment Guarantee Scheme

National Rural Health Mission
Bharat Nirman
Source: http://www.planningcommission.nic.in/
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Housing Policy
After independence, housing was accorded a relatively low priority in the national
development programme in India, presumably with the objective of keeping it basically a
private sector activity. The low budgetary support given to the housing sector is evident from
the fact that the First Five Year Plan of India allocated 7.4% of the total plan resources for
housing; the share of housing in the subsequent plan resources ranged between 1.2% and
4.9%. The governmental agencies, however, played a strong supporting role for the provision
of housing for the poorer sections of society, including allocation of land. Over the years
there has been a gradual shift in the role of the Government from a provider to a
facilitator, ensuring access to developed land, basic services, building materials,
technology, construction skills and finance so that housing can be undertaken as a people's
programme. The facilitating approach aims at fostering strong public-private partnerships
with the provision of appropriate incentives to the private sector, promotion of housing
finance institutions, propagation of alternate building materials and technologies and
extension of support to NGOs, CBOs, co-operatives and the private sector.
The Government of India and the State Governments have adopted a two-pronged approach
to housing development for the poor in the past, i. e., sites and services and permanent
housing. Under sites and services, basic infrastructure facilities like drinking water, internal
roads, approach roads, drainage, community toilet, etc., were provided to develop layouts.
The beneficiaries were also given construction assistance for erecting a small shelter. The
permanent housing programme, which has replaced sites and services, was initially confined
to those beneficiaries who could avail loan facility. Later, several modifications have come
up in the programme to address the housing needs of different target groups. The broad
elements of the approach of the Government of India to tackle the problem of housing the
poor are: special programmes/targeted subsidy to the poor and vulnerable groups, loan
assistance to governmental agencies/beneficiaries at below-market interest rate for housing
and at normal rate for infrastructure through the Housing and Urban Development
Corporation (HUDCO), creation of housing assets as part of employment and income
generation programmes, promotion of cost-effective and eco-friendly building materials and
technologies and creation of an enabling environment for private sector initiative. Indira
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Awas Yojana (IAY) is an example of housing for targeted groups in rural areas through
employment creation. It is explained in the following section.
Indira Awaas Yojana (IAY)

Indira Awas Yojana (IAY) was intended to assist certain vulnerable target groups in housing
activities. The programme applied to categories such as Scheduled Caste (SC)/Scheduled
Tribe (ST) households who were victims of social atrocities, SC/ST households headed by
widows and unmarried women, SC/ST households affected by flood, fire accident,
earthquake, cyclone and similar natural calamities, freed bonded labourers, families/widows
of personnel from defence services/para-military forces killed in action, ex-servicemen and
retired members of para-military forces, persons displaced on account of developmental
projects, nomadic, semi-nomadic and de-notified tribals and families with disabled members,
subject to the conditions that those households belonged to below poverty line category. As
per the Government of India guidelines, IAY houses have been allotted in the name of the
female member of family or alternatively in the joint name of both wife and husband. The
programme was fully subsidised by the Government of India.
Cost-effective & Eco-friendly Technologies

Building materials account for about 60% of basic inputs in any housing programme and
their costs can go as much as 75% of the cost of a house for low-income groups. There is a
growing concern that persisting shortage of cost-effective building materials for the vast
majority of population is a serious impediment to improving the housing conditions of the
people. While popular traditional materials are short in supply, high demand for them has
resulted in their high prices and taking them out of the reach of the poor. Most of the new
alternate materials developed in recent past are cost-effective and environment-friendly. But
they are yet to be translated into marketable products for mass application. Excepting cement
and steel, all other materials required for housing are likely to have constraints of supply.
Keeping the above aspects in view, the Government of India and State Governments have
been promoting research in the fields housing and construction activities. This has led to a
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number of new alternative building materials and techniques aimed at reducing the cost of
house construction and improving the performance of conventional building materials and
techniques. Energy-efficient manufacturing processes and use of renewable raw material
resources of wastes and by-products of industry, agriculture and forestry, etc., have resulted
in Cost-Effective and Eco-Friendly (CEEF) products. As it was seen that the use of CEEF
building materials and techniques was hampered by the general lack of understanding on part
of beneficiaries due to ignorance and illiteracy, the Government has initiated a massive
programme of demonstration, education and counselling for the poor. Rural masons are
considered as the rural housing engineers by the beneficiaries and therefore, care was taken
to train and motivate masons in addition to beneficiaries.
National Housing and Habitat Policy 1998

In 1994, India adopted the National Housing Policy (NHP), which recognises the key role of
the Government as facilitator rather than provider of housing services. The National Housing
& Habitat Policy-1988 (NH&HP) is a continuation of the NHP. It calls for a housing
revolution in the country and focuses on the changed roles of various stakeholders in the
housing development process in the new economic environment of liberalisation and
globalisation. The policy emphasises the need to persuade the private and cooperative sectors
to take greater initiatives in the promotion and development of housing through fiscal
concessions and other incentives. Though the move towards disassociation of governmental
agencies from direct construction is being witnessed since the early 70s; the NH&HP calls
for a continued positive role by the Government in housing of the poor. Rapid growth of
population and increased urbanisation on one hand and escalating land prices on the other are
responsible for widening the gap between demand for and supply of housing units. These
factors squeeze the poor off land and marginalise them in urban housing markets.
Recognising this, the NH&HP suggests a number of areas of intervention for governmental
agencies to promote affordable housing for the poor, including availability of sites, housing
loans at below-market rates, low-cost building materials and civic services.
The broad aims of the National Habitat and Housing Policy-1998 (NH&HP) are:
Creation of surpluses in housing stock either on rental or ownership basis;
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Providing quality and cost-effective housing and shelter options to the citizens,
especially the vulnerable groups and the poor;
Guiding urban and rural settlements to ensure planned and balanced growth and a
healthy environment;
Making urban transport as an integral part of the urban Master Plan;
Using the housing sector to generate more employment and to achieve skill
upgradation in housing and building activities;
Promoting accessibility of dwelling units to basic facilities like sanitation and

drinking water;
Removing legal, financial and administrative barriers for accessing land, finance and
technology for housing;
Forging strong partnerships between private, public and co-operative sectors in

housing and habitat projects.
The National Urban Housing and Habitat Policy, 2007 intended to promote sustainable
development of habitat in the country with a view to ensuring equitable supply of land,
shelter and services at affordable prices to all sections of society. The Policy has suggested
-
Formulating and updating Development Plans/Master Plans, Zonal Plans and Local
Area Plans with adequate provision for the homeless as well as slum dwellers;
Preparing Master Plan and Metropolitan Plans in consonance with the concerned
District Plan and Regional Plan.
Identifying city specific housing shortages and prepare city level Urban Housing &
Habitat Action Plans for time bound implementation;
Promoting planning and development of industrial estates along with appropriate

labour housing colonies serviced by necessary basic services.
Incorporating provisions of model building bye-laws prepared by Town & Country

Planning Organisation (TCPO) and National Building Code in their respective
building bye-laws including provisions for innovative energy conservation practices
and mandatory rain water harvesting for specified owners of buildings.
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Although the National Housing and Habitat Policy emphasised the facilitating role of the
Government in housing, the public sector agencies are not absolved of the responsibility of
providing housing to those segments of the people who cannot be served by the market.
However, a new approach is called for issues such as beneficiary consultations on the
location, design and cost aspects of shelter, affordable shelter options for the very poor,
integration of income generation and housing, eligibility criteria for availing housing finance
and providing a collateral for the same, easier availability of plots and houses from public
and private providers, assistance for house construction, speedy approvals for construction of
infrastructural services, simplification of documentation and procedures, etc. Housing
subsidies often benefit the salaried employees of the organised sector including the
Government and the recipients of tax concessions for housing investment. Implicit subsidies
to beneficiaries of social housing schemes arise from loan waivers, low cost recovery rate,
concessional interest and inefficiencies absorbed by the agencies. The schemes involving a
combination of concessional loan and subsidy affected the extension of viable finance on
non-subsidised terms, based on rigorously enforced cost recovery.
With the Union Budgets for 1998-1999 and 1999-2000 according a new thrust to housing in
the National Agenda for Governance, the Central and State Governments initiated a reform
agenda for housing sector. The reform areas included the following:
Public-Private Partnerships to ensure a fair return on investment to the private land

owners/developers through guided development and availability of serviced sites for
allotment to low income families at affordable prices. Fiscal incentives and provision
of infrastructure can induce private sector entrepreneurs to housing including that for
the poor;
Measures to control the continuing spiral of land prices, speculation, shortage of

developed land, and increasing pace of unregulated and environmentally damaging
land development;
Increased availability of developed land through measures such as reservation of 5%

of the land in larger layouts as land bank for economically weaker sections and lowincome groups, land pooling, land readjustment, etc., steep vacant land tax, etc.;
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Restructuring of Housing Finance Institutions (HFIs) to meet the housing finance

needs of the formal sector as well as the poor and the informal sector. A revision of
current eligibility norms that inhibit the flow of a significant proportion of funds from
the formal sector to the poorer sections of the population is called for;
Establishment of linkage with informal credit systems along with grant of security of
tenure to slum-dwellers and reforms related to land title, building regulations, etc.,
with a view to assisting the poor with access to institutional finance for housing;
Community resource mobilisation through schemes such as Insurance-Linked

Savings-cum-Loan-cum-Subsidy scheme for shelter for the poor engaged in informal
sector activities. Under the scheme for a nominal one-time premium of Rs.150 per
house, the houses are insured for Rs.25,000 against damages due to fire, lightning,
flood, storms, tempests, cyclones, etc.;
Increased involvement of NGOs/CBOs/Cooperatives to promote self-help, mutualhelp, thrift and credit, self-management, community empowerment, etc. There is a
need for shifting to community-based non-subsidised loan mechanism, as adopted by
Self Employed Womens Association (SEWA) in Gujarat State, targeted at poor and
sustained by beneficiary savings for shelter and group guarantee;
Promotion of high density housing in selected areas in cities through appropriate

amendments to zoning and land use regulations to obviate the necessity of costly land
acquisition and to avoid high infrastructure costs;
Adoption of small lot zoning in parts of large lot layouts making it mandatory on the
part of developers to divide part of the lands being developed into small plots to make
them available to poor beneficiaries;
Promotion of rental housing through the balancing of landowner and tenant interest so
that supply of rental housing at affordable rents is ensured and there is an incentive
for people to build houses for themselves and for others;
Propagation of cost-effective and eco-friendly building materials and technologies

and up-scaling of innovative products to make them marketable and amenable for
mass application;
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Municipalisation of programmes of poverty alleviation and slum-upgradation in

urban areas to make elected Municipalities responsible for these functions and
mobilise local support and effort.
National Mission on Sustainable Habitat (NMSH)

The National Action Plan on Climate Change (NAPCC) was released by the Prime Minister
on 30th June 2008. It outlines a national strategy that aims to enable the country adapt to
climate change and enhances the ecological sustainability of Indias development path. It
stresses that maintaining a high growth rate is essential for increasing living standards of the
vast majority of people of India and reducing their vulnerability of the impacts of climate
change. Eight National Missions, form the core of the National Action Plan, representing
multi-pronged, long term and integrate strategies for achieving key goals in the context of
climate change. These Missions are:
National Solar Mission,
National Mission on Enhanced Energy Efficiency,
National Mission on Sustainable Habitat (NMSH),
National Water Mission,
National Mission for Sustaining the Himalayan Eco-system,
National Mission for a Green India,
National Mission for Sustainable Agriculture and
National Mission on Strategic Knowledge for Climate Change.
The aim of the NMSH is to make habitat sustainable through improvements in energy
efficiency in buildings, management of solid waste and modal shift to public transport.
The Mission promotes energy efficiency as an integral component of urban planning and
urban renewal through three initiatives.
(i) Promoting Energy Efficiency in the Residential and Commercial Sector: The residential
sector accounts for around 13.3% of total commercial energy use in India. Electricity
consumption in the residential sector is primarily for lighting, space conditioning,
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refrigeration, and other appliances. The commercial sector comprises various institutional
establishments such as banks, hotels, restaurants, shopping complexes, offices, and public
buildings. Electricity consumption has increased at the rate of 7.4% annually, during 19902003 in the commercial sector. Energy use in residential and commercial buildings also
varies significantly across income groups, building construction typology, climate, and
several other factors. There exists significant scope to reduce energy use, while also
providing the requisite energy services in case of both existing & new constructions.
The Energy Conservation Building Code, which address the design of new & large
commercial buildings to optimize their energy demand, will be extended in its application
and incentives provided for retooling existing building stock.
(ii) Management of Municipal Solid Waste (MSW): Municipal Solid Waste (MSW)
generation reflects not just income levels, but also lifestyle choices. Recycling of materials is
an important option for reducing environmental pressures. India has a significantly higher
rate of recycling of materials in MSW than developed countries. GHG emissions from MSW
in India are also much lower than in developed countries. Recycling of material and Urban
Waste Management will be a major component of ecologically sustainable economic
development. A special area of focus will be the development of technology for producing
power from waste. The National Mission will include a major R&D programme, focusing on
bio chemical conversion, waste water use, sewage utilization and recycling options wherever
possible.
(iii) Promotion of Urban Public Transport: An increase in the demand for transportation
services for both passengers and freight is inevitable, given economic growth and increase of
population. The total number of registered motor vehicles in India has increased from 21.4
million in 1990 to 72.7 million in 2003 at a CAGR of 9.9%, with the two wheeler segment
comprising of motorcycles, scooters, and mopeds growing most rapidly amongst
personalized modes of transportation. Road based transportation is the main source of GHG
emissions in the transportation sector. Better urban planning and modal shift to public
transport with long term transport plans will facilitate the growth of medium and small cities
in ways to ensure efficient and convenient public transport.
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In addition, the Mission will address the need to adapt to future climate change by improving
the resilience of infrastructure, community based disaster management and measures for
extreme weather events. Capacity building would be an important component of this
Mission. The Mission will also have, on its research agenda, socio-economic impact of
climate change including impact on health, demography, migration, patterns and livelihoods
of coastal communities.
National Urban Sanitation Policy (NUSP)
In order to improve the sanitation facilities in urban areas of the country, the Ministry of
Urban Development, Government of India organized a workshop on November 12, 2008 to
launch National Urban Sanitation Policy (NUSP) aiming at sanitising all cities and towns of
the country. The new urban sanitation policy will focus on cleanliness of the cities and
towns. Apart from it, the policy will provide affordable sanitation facilities for poor people of
urban areas. The main components of the policy are financial assistance for states in
developing and implementing innovative strategies to accord priority to urban sanitation and
city level plans and Detailed Project Reports (DPRs), promoting Public Private Partnership
(PPP), awareness generation on public health and sanitation, knowledge development on
sustainability issues and capacity building for delivery of sanitation services. The Asian
Development Bank and the World Bank will be funding the sanitation projects.
Vision:
The Vision of the NUSP is: All Indian cities and towns become totally sanitized, healthy and
liveable and ensure and sustain good public health and environmental outcomes for all their
citizens with a special focus on hygienic and affordable sanitation facilities for the urban
poor and women.
Key Sanitation Policy Issues:

In order to achieve the above Vision, following key policy issues have been identified by the
NUSP:
1.
Poor Awareness: Sanitation has been accorded low priority and there is poor
awareness about its inherent linkages with public health.
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Social and Occupational aspects of Sanitation: Despite the appropriate legal

framework, progress towards the elimination of manual scavenging has shown
limited success. Little or no attention has been paid towards the occupational hazard
faced by sanitation workers daily.
3.
Fragmented Institutional Roles and Responsibilities: There are considerable gaps and
overlaps in institutional roles and responsibilities at the national, state, and city levels.
4.
Lack of an Integrated City-wide Approach: Sanitation investments are currently

planned in a piece-meal manner and do not take into account the full cycle of safe
confinement, treatment and safe disposal.
5.
Limited Technology Choices: Technologies have been focussed on limited options

that have not been cost-effective, and sustainability of investments has been in
question.
6.
Reaching the Un-served and Poor: Urban poor communities as well other residents of
informal settlements have been constrained by lack of tenure, space or economic
constraints, in obtaining affordable access to safe sanitation. In this context, the issues
of whether services to the poor should be individualised and whether community
services should be provided in non-notified slums should be addressed. However
provision of individual toilets should be prioritised. In relation to Pay and Use
toilets, the issue of subsidies inadvertently reaching the non-poor should be addressed
by identifying different categories of urban poor.
7.
Lack of Demand Responsiveness: Sanitation has been provided by public agencies in

a supply-driven manner, with little regard for demands and preferences of households
as customers of sanitation services.
Policy Goals:
The overall goal of this policy is to transform Urban India into community driven, totally
sanitized, healthy and liveable cities and towns. The specific goals are:
Awareness Generation and Behaviour Change
Achieving Open Defecation Free Cities:
Re-Orienting Institutions and Mainstreaming Sanitation
Sanitary and Safe Disposal
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Proper Operation & Maintenance of all Sanitary Installations
Implementation Support Strategy
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Social Policy
In essence, social policy, or rather, the complex web of related policies, schemes and
institutions that are concerned with the social conditions of economic activity reflects the
broad social contract between capital and labour. In developing economies this refers to the
social contract between capital and labour specifically for the management of the
development project. The latter in turn has been defined for much of the past half century, as
the project of increasing material welfare for most of the citizenry through economic
development, using the agency of the nation state. For many developing countries, including
India, this project remains partially or largely unfulfilled. Although this state of incompletion
still has not prevented it from being very nearly abandoned in several instances.
The second important, and related, role of social policy is of course that of legitimisation, not
only of the State, but of the development project itself. This need for legitimisation arises
both for the long run process and in terms of short run crisis management. Thus, over the
long run, or planning horizon, it is especially important in growth trajectories that rely on
high investment and savings rates, thereby suppressing current consumption in favour of high
growth for larger future consumption, and which therefore imply sacrifices typically made by
workers and peasants. In such a scenario, social policy that is directed towards providing
basic needs and social services to those who are otherwise deprived of the gains from
economic growth in terms of increased current consumption would be not just important but
even necessary to ensuring social stability and continuity of the process itself.
Affecting the conditions of labour such that there is an increase in the aggregate social
productivity of labour, rather than simply increases in labour productivity in particular
sectors which reflect different technological choices. It is now widely recognised that the
universal provision of good education and basic health services is an important condition for
raising aggregate labour productivity levels. But even other aspects of social policy, such as
working conditions, access to other public services, etc., play important roles in this regard. It
is even being accepted that the latter can in turn influence technological choices themselves,
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and nudge growth trajectories towards high road paths rather than low road strategies which
are chiefly dependent upon cheap labour.
Social policy in the Indian development process

Political theorists may be tempted to draw insights from the rather haphazard pattern of
social policy implementation in India, finding in its very lack of direction and vision some
association with the chaotic democratic polity within which it occurred, and the variegated
demands which were sought to be fulfilled at different points of time. Most social policy
provisioning has not been universal in terms of actual effects, even when it has been declared
as such. Rather, it has been directed to specific (and restricted) target groups. And almost
always, these groups included those with sufficient political voice, such as urban organised
workers, or increasingly in the 1990s, particular caste groupings. There have also been much
trumpeted attempts to include (in however limited a fashion) a small proportion of those who
naturally appear to be deserving, such as households below the poverty line, women from
lower income groups, and so on. However, because such provisioning, whether in terms of
protective legislation or in terms of actual resource transfers, has been extremely limited
relative to the scale of requirement, it has meant that social policy has not been a basic
instrument of development strategy in the manner outlined in the previous section. Rather, it
has emerged essentially in the form of ad hoc responses to particular demands emanating
from groups that (at least temporarily) have acquired some degree of political voice.
The more significant forms of social policy in the Indian context have included: agrarian
reform; food procurement and distribution; education; employment creation through public
works; affirmative action in the form of reservation for public services employment and
educational institutions; antipoverty programmes directed towards small asset creation or
micro credit; changes in forms and structures of governance through decentralisation and
some devolution of resources.
The social policy in India, while achieving some limited successes in terms of management
of the contradictions and instabilities emerging from the development process, has
nevertheless been inadequate in terms of the basic functions. Furthermore, the recent changes
in social policy and public intervention that have been associated in India with the
globalisation phase of neoliberal economic reform may have actually undermined some of
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the gains that were achieved earlier. This is because recent macroeconomic tendencies have
been associated with greater inequality and fragility of incomes, which has in turn certain
important social implications. Thus, the process of economic liberalisation along with the
pattern of government spending has been associated with a multiplication of the real incomes
of richer groups. Financial liberalisation has involved an explosion in financial sector
activities and incomes in this sector. Increasingly, professional incomes in finance approach
the levels in developed countries, even while real wages in the rest of the economy stagnate
and general employment becomes more precarious. Other white-collar services, and related
incomes from activities such as construction, trade, advertising and so on which feed on the
boom in consumption of higher income groups, have also increased dramatically. Trade
liberalisation has brought growing access to a much wider range of consumption goods and
international brand names to the Indian upper and middle classes. The apparently insatiable
hunger for imported goods is evident from the fact that non-oil imports have continued to
increase hugely despite the ongoing recession in domestic manufacturing industry.
Along with this, there has come a cultural revolution of the sort described above, which is
also fed by the emergence of satellite television and huge increases in advertising budgets of
companies operating in the Indian market. This has greatly increased the role of the
demonstration effect in the consumption patterns of Indian upper and middle income groups.
And this Cultural Revolution has been associated with a much more open display of
conspicuous consumption than was traditionally prevalent in Indian society. The implications
of the spread of such communications and the effects of post-modern advertising trends in
rural India in particular, have been inadequately studied. In the large metropolises and cities
of the country, such a tendency towards open display of wealth and conspicuous
consumption has been a feature that has been more and more evident over the past two
decades. But observers have noted this tendency in rural India as well, in forms that were not
previously so obvious, and found in it a reflection of the reduced interaction between the
various rural classes, and a diminished concern on the part of rural elites towards the poorer
sections, that used to mark the more paternalistic relations of the past. As the social relations
fragment and become more contractual, they also lose the few elements of cohesiveness that
make location-specific communities functional.
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It does not take a vast amount of sociological insight to realise that this combination of
greater material insecurity in terms of both lower real incomes and more precarious
employment opportunities for a very large section of the population, with the explosion of
conspicuous consumption on the part of a relatively small but highly visible minority, can
have very adverse social and political consequences. These consequences tend to be
exacerbated by the cultural influences that come across as hegemonic, and which
increasingly determine the aspirations of the youth in particular. Thus, as mentioned above,
there is a premium not only on the joys of material consumption but also on individualism,
the greater proliferation of the idea that success (which essentially is measured in terms of
material advancement) reflects individual talent and achievement rather than any wider social
processes, and that it can often be achieved only in competition with ones peers.
The alienation that comes from lack of such success - or even from success, which is deemed
to be inadequate given the ambition - can only too easily directed towards any apparent or
potential competitor in such a system, or even to those who are not in competition but simply
represent a group that can be attacked with relative ease. The current streak of venom that is
being directed towards various minority groups can be seen as one expression of this trend.
So the inability to confront those who are actually benefiting from the system, or even the
lack of desire to do so given that they still have the power to distribute some amount of
material largesse, means that they cannot be the objects of any aggressive vent for frustration.
Rather, the outlet is increasingly found in terms of growing antagonism, increasingly finding
violent expression, towards other categories of people who are nearer home, closer in terms
of lifestyle and more susceptible to such attack. It is worth noting that often these groups are
already the most disadvantaged and materially weak sections of society.
Thus, increasingly, the pattern of economic growth as well as the inability of extant social
policy to ameliorate or reduce the consequent inequalities has therefore meant that the
management of social tensions has become an even more difficult task for the Indian State. In
such a context, the need for sensitive and proactive social policy has become even more of a
pressing need than at any time in the past.
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Economic Policy
The economy of India is the eleventh largest economy in the world by nominal GDP and the
fourth largest by purchasing power parity (PPP). Following strong economic reforms from
the socialist inspired economy of a post-independence Indian nation, the country began to
develop a fast-paced economic growth, as free market activities started for international
competition and investment, in the 1990s. In the 21st century, India is an emerging economic
power with vast human and natural resources, and a huge knowledge base. Economists
predict that by 2020, India will be among the leading economies of the world.
India was under social democratic-based policies from 1947 to 1991. The economy was
characterised by extensive regulation, protectionism, public ownership, pervasive corruption
and slow growth. Since 1991, continuing economic liberalisation has moved the country
towards a market-based economy. A revival of economic reforms and better economic policy
in 2000s accelerated India's economic growth rate. In recent years, Indian cities have
continued to liberalise business regulations. By 2008, India had established itself as the
world's second-fastest growing major economy. However, the year 2009 saw a significant
slowdown in India's GDP growth rate to 6.8% as well as the return of a large projected fiscal
deficit of 6.8% of GDP which would be among the highest in the world.
India's large service industry accounts for 55% of the country's Gross Domestic Product
(GDP) while the industrial and agricultural sector contribute 28% and 17% respectively.
Agriculture is the predominant occupation in India, accounting for about 52% of
employment. The service sector makes up a further 34%, and industrial sector around
14%.The labour force totals half a billion workers. Major agricultural products includerice,
wheat, oilseed, cotton, jute, tea, sugarcane, potatoes, cattle, water buffalo, sheep,goats,
poultry and fish.[23] Major industries include telecommunications, textiles,chemicals, food
processing, steel, transportation equipment, cement, mining, petroleum, machinery,
information technology enabled services and software.
India's per capita income (nominal) is $1,030, ranked 139th in the world, while its per capita
(PPP) of US$2,940 is ranked 128th. Previously a closed economy, India's trade has grown
fast. India currently accounts for 1.5% of World trade as of 2007 according to the WTO.
According to the World Trade Statistics of the WTO in 2006, India's total merchandise trade
(counting exports and imports) was valued at $294 billion in 2006 and India's services trade
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inclusive of export and import was $143 billion. Thus, India's global economic engagement
in 2006 covering both merchandise and services trade was of the order of $437 billion, up by
a record 72% from a level of $253 billion in 2004. India's trade has reached a still relatively
moderate share 24% of GDP in 2006, up from 6% in 1985
In the late 80s, the government led by Rajiv Gandhi eased restrictions on capacity expansion
for incumbents, removed price controls and reduced corporate taxes. While this increased the
rate of growth, it also led to high fiscal deficits and a worsening current account. The
collapse of the Soviet Union, which was India's major trading partner, and the first Gulf War,
which caused a spike in oil prices, caused a major balance-of-payments crisis for India,
which found itself facing the prospect of defaulting on its loans. India asked for a $1.8 billion
bailout loan from IMF, which in return demanded reforms.
In response, Prime Minister Narasimha Rao along with his Finance Minister and current
Prime Minister of India Dr.Manmohan Singh initiated the economic liberalisation of 1991.
The reforms did away with the Licence Raj (investment, industrial and import licensing) and
ended many public monopolies, allowing automatic approval of foreign direct investment in
many sectors. Since then, the overall direction of liberalisation has remained the same,
irrespective of the ruling party, although no party has tried to take on powerful lobbies such
as the trade unions and farmers, or contentious issues such as reforming labour laws and
reducing agricultural subsidies. Since 1990 India has a free-market economy and emerged as
one of the fastest-growing economies in the developing world; during this period, the
economy has grown constantly, but with a few major setbacks. This has been accompanied
by increases in life expectancy, literacy rates and food security.
While the credit rating of India was hit by its nuclear tests in 1998, it has been raised to
investment level in 2007 by S&P and Moody's. In 2003, Goldman Sachs predicted that
India's GDP in current prices will overtake France and Italy by 2020, Germany, UK and
Russia by 2025 and Japan by 2035. By 2035, it was projected to be the third largest economy
of the world, behind US and China. India is often seen by most economists as a rising
economic superpower and is believed to play a major role in the global economy in the 21st
century. In 2009 India purchased 200 Tons of Gold for $6.7 billion from IMF as a total role
reversal from 1991.
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Industry and Services

Industry accounts for 28% of the GDP and employ 14% of the total workforce. However,
about one-third of the industrial labour force is engaged in simple household manufacturing
only. In absolute terms, India is 16th in the world in terms of nominal factory output.
Economic reforms brought foreign competition, led to privatisation of certain public sector
industries, opened up sectors hitherto reserved for the public sector and led to an expansion
in the production of fast-moving consumer goods. Post-liberalisation, the Indian private
sector, which was usually run by oligopolies of old family firms and required political
connections to prosper was faced with foreign competition, including the threat of cheaper
Chinese imports. It has since handled the change by squeezing costs, revamping
management, focusing on designing new products and relying on low labour costs and
technology.
Textile manufacturing is the second largest source for employment after agriculture and
accounts for 26% of manufacturing output. Ludhiana produces 90% of woollens in India and
is also known as the Manchester of India. Tirupur has gained universal recognition as the
leading source of hosiery, knitted garments, casual wear and sportswear. Dharavi slum in
Mumbai has gained fame for leather products. Tata Motors' Nano was an attempt for the
world's cheapest car.
India is fifteenth in services output. It provides employment to 23% of work force, and it is
growing fast, growth rate 7.5% in 19912000 up from 4.5% in 195180. It has the largest
share in the GDP, accounting for 55% in 2007 up from 15% in 1950.
Business services (information technology, information technology enabled services,
business process outsourcing) are among the fastest growing sectors contributing to one third
of the total output of services in 2000. The growth in the IT sector is attributed to increased
specialisation, and an availability of a large pool of low cost, but highly skilled, educated and
fluent English-speaking workers, on the supply side, matched on the demand side by an
increased demand from foreign consumers interested in India's service exports, or those
looking to outsource their operations. The share of India's IT industry to the country's GDP
increased from 4.8 % in 2005-06 to 7% in 2008. In 2009, seven Indian firms were listed
among the top 15 technology outsourcing companies in the world. In March 2009, annual
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revenues from outsourcing operations in India amounted to US$60 billion and this is
expected to increase to US$225 billion by 2020.
Organised retail such as supermarkets accounts for 24% of the market as of 2008.
Regulations prevent most foreign investment in retailing. Moreover, over thirty regulations
such as "signboard licences" and "anti-hoarding measures" may have to be complied before a
store can open doors. There are taxes for moving goods to states, from states, and even
within states.
Agriculture
India ranks second worldwide in farm output. Agriculture and allied sectors like forestry,
logging and fishing accounted for 17% of the GDP in 2009, employed 52% of the total
workforce and despite a steady decline of its share in the GDP, is still the largest economic
sector and plays a significant role in the overall socio-economic development of India. Yields
per unit area of all crops have grown since 1950, due to the special emphasis placed on
agriculture in the five-year plans and steady improvements in irrigation, technology,
application of modern agricultural practices and provision of agricultural credit and subsidies
since Green revolution in India. However, international comparisons reveal the average yield
in India is generally 30% to 50% of the highest average yield in the world.
India is the largest producer in the world of milk, cashew nuts, coconuts, tea, ginger, turmeric
and black pepper. It also has the world's largest cattle population: 193 million. It is the
second largest producer of wheat, rice, sugar, cotton, silk, peanuts and inland fish. It is the
third largest producer of tobacco. India is the largest fruit producer, accounting for 10% of
the world fruit production. It is the leading producer of bananas, sapotas and mangoes.
India is the second largest producer and the largest consumer of silk in the world, with the
majority of the 77 million kg (2005) production taking place in Karnataka State, particularly
in Mysore and the North Bangalore regions.
Banking and Finance

The Indian money market is classified into: the organised sector (comprising private, public
and foreign owned commercial banks and cooperative banks, together known as scheduled
banks); and the unorganised sector (comprising individual or family owned indigenous
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bankers or money lenders and non-banking financial companies (NBFCs)). The unorganised
sector and microcredit are still preferred over traditional banks in rural and sub-urban areas,
especially for non-productive purposes, like ceremonies and short duration loans.
Prime Minister Indira Gandhi nationalised 14 banks in 1969, followed by six others in 1980,
and made it mandatory for banks to provide 40% of their net credit to priority sectors like
agriculture, small-scale industry, retail trade, small businesses, etc. to ensure that the banks
fulfil their social and developmental goals. Since then, the number of bank branches has
increased from 10,120 in 1969 to 98,910 in 2003 and the population covered by a branch
decreased from 63,800 to 15,000 during the same period. The total deposits increased 32.6
times between 1971 to 1991 compared to 7 times between 1951 to 1971. Despite an increase
of rural branches, from 1,860 or 22% of the total number of branches in 1969 to 32,270 or
48%, only 32,270 out of 5 lakh (500,000) villages are covered by a scheduled bank.
The public sector banks hold over 75% of total assets of the banking industry, with the
private and foreign banks holding 18.2% and 6.5% respectively. Since liberalisation, the
government has approved significant banking reforms. While some of these relate to
nationalised banks (like encouraging mergers, reducing government interference and
increasing profitability and competitiveness), other reforms have opened up the banking and
insurance sectors to private and foreign players. More than half of personal savings are
invested in physical assets such as land, houses, cattle, and gold.
Natural Resources
India's total cultivable area is 1,269,219 km (56.78% of total land area), which is decreasing
due to constant pressure from an ever growing population and increased urbanisation. India
has a total water surface area of 314,400 km and receives an average annual rainfall of 1,100
mm. Irrigation accounts for 92% of the water utilisation, and comprised 380 km in 1974,
and is expected to rise to 1,050 km by 2025, with the balance accounted for by industrial and
domestic consumers. India's inland water resources comprising rivers, canals, ponds and
lakes and marine resources comprising the east and west coasts of the Indian ocean and other
gulfs and bays provide employment to nearly 6 million people in the fisheries sector. In
2008, India had the world's third largest fishing industry.
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India's major mineral resources include coal, iron, manganese, mica, bauxite, titanium,
chromite, limestone and thorium. India meets most of its domestic energy demand through its
92 billion tonnes of coal reserves (about 10% of world's coal reserves).
India's huge thorium reserves about 25% of world's reserves are expected to fuel the
country's ambitious nuclear energy program in the long-run. India's dwindling uranium
reserves stagnated the growth of nuclear energy in the country for many years. However, the
Indo-US nuclear deal has paved the way for India to import uranium from other countries.
India is also believed to be rich in certain renewable sources of energy with significant future
potential such as solar, wind and bio fuels (jatropha, sugarcane).
Industrial Policy
In the post-World War II period India was probably the first non communist developing
country to have instituted a full-fledged industrial policy. The purpose of the policy was to
co-ordinate investment decisions both in the public and the private sectors and to seize the
commanding heights of the economy by bringing certain strategic industries and firms
under public ownership.
This policy programme was clearly greatly influenced both by close association of the top
Indian leaders with Fabian Socialism and UK labour party thinkers like Harold Laski. It also
drew inspiration from what was then regarded as highly successful Soviet planning for
industrial development. Indeed, emulating the Soviet Union, industrial strategy in India was
formulated and implemented in the form of five-year plans. This classical Indian Statedirected industrialisation model held sway for three decades, from 1950-1980. The model
began to erode in the 1980s. Following a serious external liquidity crisis in 1991 the model
appeared to be fundamentally changed, if not abandoned altogether.
The Indian industrial policy, as embodied in the Five Year Plans, has long been the subject of
intense criticism from the influential neo-liberal critics of the countrys development. As
Bradford DeLong, 2001, puts it:
The conventional narrative of Indias post-World War II economic history begins with a
disastrous wrong turn by Indias first prime minister, Jawaharlal Nehru, toward Fabian
socialism, central planning, and an unbelievable quantity of bureaucratic red tape. This
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license raj strangled the private sector and led to rampant corruption and massive
inefficiency. As a result, India stagnated until bold neo-liberal economic reforms triggered by
the currency crisis of 1991, and implemented by the government of Prime Minister
Narasimha Rao and Finance Minister Manmohan Singh, unleashed its current wave of rapid
economic growth growth at a pace that promises to double average productivity levels and
living standards in India every sixteen years.
1.
The Nehru-Mahalanobis model: The Classical Indian Industrial Policy Framework

1950-1980
In keeping with the ideals of the top leadership, the Indian five-year Plans were designed to
bring about economic and social development within a socialist framework. The plans
pursued multiple objectives of industrialisation, raising per capita incomes and achieving
equity in the distribution of gains from economic progress. They also sought to reduce the
existing concentration of economic power and to achieve a better regional distribution of
industrial development. As far as economic strategy is concerned, the following elements
were the most important during the 1950s, 1960s, and most of the 1970s:
The Indian planners emphasised the role of heavy industry in economic development
and sought to build up as rapidly as possible the capital goods sector.
The plans envisaged a leading role for the public sector in this structural
transformation of the economy.
Major investments in the private sector were to be carried out, not by the test of
private profitability, but according to the requirements of the overall national plan.
The plans emphasised technological self-reliance, and for much of the period, an
extreme inward orientation in the sense that if anything could be produced in the
country, regardless of the cost, it should not be imported.
In implementing this industrial strategy, and particularly in making the private sector
conform to the requirements of the plans, the government used a wide variety of measures.
The most important of these were:
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Industrial licensing: For much of the period, this entailed that any Enterprise which
wished to manufacture a new article or sought a Substantial expansion of its existing
capacity had to obtain a licence from the relevant government authority.
Strict regime of import controls
Subsidisation of exports through special measures
Administered prices
Investments by multinationals were generally subject to strict controls.
Jawaharlal Nehru was an architect of new institutions in all spheres, including notably those
for the development of scientific and technical infrastructure, which latter blossomed into the
information and communications technology industry.
Industrial Policy 1991

Pandit Jawaharlal Nehru laid the foundations of modern India. His vision and determination
have left a lasting impression on every facet of national endeavour since Independence. It is
due to his initiative that India now has a strong and diversified industrial base and is a major
industrial nation of the world. The goals and objectives set out for the nation by Pandit Nehru
on the eve of Independence, namely, the rapid agricultural and industrial development of our
country, rapid expansion of opportunities for gainful employment, progressive reduction of
social and economic disparities, removal of poverty and attainment of self-reliance remain as
valid today as at the time Pandit Nehru first set them out before the nation. Any industrial
policy must contribute to the realisation of these goals and objectives at an accelerated pace.
The present statement of industrial policy is inspired by these very concerns, and represents a
renewed initiative towards consolidating the gains of national reconstruction at this crucial
stage.
In 1948, immediately after Independence, Government introduced the Industrial Policy
Resolution. This outlined the approach to industrial growth and development. It emphasised
the importance to the economy of securing a continuous increase in production and ensuring
its equitable distribution. After the adoption of the Constitution and the socio-economic
goals, the Industrial Policy was comprehensively revised and adopted in 1956. To meet new
challenges, from time to time, it was modified through statements in 1973, 1977 and 1980.
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The Industrial Policy Resolution of 1948 was followed by the Industrial Policy Resolution of
1956 which had as its objective the acceleration of the rate of economic growth and the
speeding up of industrialisation as a means of achieving a socialist pattern of society. In
1956, capital was scarce and the base of entrepreneurship not strong enough. Hence, the 1956
Industrial Policy Resolution gave primacy to the role of the State to assume a predominant
and direct responsibility for industrial development.
The Industrial Policy Statement of 1973, inter alia, identified high-priority industries where
investment from large industrial houses and foreign companies would be permitted. The
Industrial Policy Statement of 1977 laid emphasis on decentralisation and on the role of
small-scale, tiny and cottage industries. The Industrial Policy Statement of 1980 focused
attention on the need for promoting competition in the domestic market, technological
upgradation and modernisation. The policy laid the foundation for an increasingly
competitive export base and for encouraging foreign investment in high-technology areas.
This found expression in the Sixth Five Year Plan which bore the distinct stamp of Smt.
Indira Gandhi. It was Smt. Indira Gandhi who emphasised the need for productivity to be the
central concern in all economic and production activities.
These policies created a climate for rapid industrial growth in the country. Basic industries
were established on account of them. A high degree of self-reliance in a large number of
items - raw materials, intermediates, finished goods - had been achieved. New growth centres
of industrial activity had emerged, as had a new generation of entrepreneurs. A large number
of engineers, technicians and skilled workers had also been trained.
The Seventh Plan recognised the need to consolidate on these strengths and to take initiatives
to prepare Indian industry to respond effectively to the emerging challenges. A number of
policy and procedural changes were introduced in 1985 and 1986 under the leadership of Shri
Rajiv Gandhi aimed at increasing productivity, reducing costs and improving quality. The
accent was on opening the domestic market to increased competition and readying our
industry to stand on its own in the face of international competition. The public sector was
freed from a number of constraints and given a larger measure of autonomy. The
technological and managerial modernisation of industry was pursued as the key instrument
for increasing productivity and improving our competitiveness in the world.
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Land Policy
Urban Land Policy
Some of the crucial problems that the many cities of various States in India face are
extremely inadequate shelter opportunities, inadequate land for provision of social facilities
and lack of resources for local infrastructure. Although provision of infrastructure helps
increase the land values, the private land market tends not to provide adequately for
infrastructure like roads, parks, schools, hospitals etc. This leads to "inefficient" land use
patterns. Further the legal private land market for variety of reasons tends not to cater to the
low income sections resulting in "inequitable" distribution of land and shelter opportunities.
Thus on account of both efficiency and equity goals of urban development it is imperative to
have a land policy that will intervene in the private land market.
The Urban Land Policy of any State is one of the most important Policies that would define
the very nature and structure of development of urban areas in their respective States. The
policies are not uniform throughout the country but vary from State to State based on the
priorities and objectives of the State. In the following section, the urban land policy of
Gujarat and Maharashtra has been studied and analysed as examples.
Objectives of Urban Land Policy

The Urban Land Policy Committee (Ministry of Health) appointed by the Government of
India in 1965, articulated the following Land Policy Objectives (Planning Commission,
1983);
To achieve optimum social use of urban land;
To make land available in adequate quantity, at right time and for reasonable prices to
both public authorities and individuals;
To encourage cooperative community effort and bonafide individual builders in the

field of land development, housing and construction;
To prevent concentration of land ownership in a few private hands and especially to

safeguard the interests of the poor and under - privileged sections of the urban
society.
To use land as a resource for financing urban development by recouping the unearned
income which otherwise accrues to private land owners. (Fifth Five Year Plan)
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To encourage the socially and economically efficient allocation of urban land such
that urban development is done in a resource conserving manner and that the
magnitude of land used is optimal.;
To promote flexibility in land-use in response to changes resulting from a growing

city.
The most important experiment of large scale public acquisition of land for urban
development has been that of Delhi Development Authority (DDA). However the results
have been quite contrary to the expectation. It has not been possible for DDA to provide land
at affordable prices to low income beneficiaries resulting in large scale jhuggi jhopdi
colonies. In the absence of price signals land has been sub optimally used, resulting in over
provision to powerful groups, and DDAs policy to auction very few plots at a time and
treating the maximum price quoted in such biding as the real market price has in fact meant
artificially increasing the land price through deliberate scarcity. The rephrasing of the
objective identified by the Urban Land Policy Committee in 1965 by the Task Force in 1983
is therefore indicative of the realisation of severe limitations of large scale public ownership
of land as a means of achieving the land policy objective.
Land Development Strategies proposed in the Regional Plan of Mumbai Metropolitan
Region
The Regional Plan 1973 (BMRPB, 1974), did not explicitly spell out a comprehensive land
policy. The recommendations of the Plan summarised below also reflect the dominant
thinking of the period:
1.
In the absence of any land use zoning, every piece of land competes with every other
for claiming the floating value for the most remunerative use. Land use zoning must
therefore be strictly resorted to, to localise floating values for different purposes and
to ensure that adequate and suitable lands would be available for housing at the price
level of housing lands.
2.
The price of residential land must somehow be maintained at a level at which it

would be suitable for middle and low income housing. The only way in which this
could be done would be by taking resort to public control of lands by their bulk
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acquisition. Short of acquisition, no other measures are possible to make available

adequate supply of land for low income group housing at the right price.
3.
The entire development value of all lands would have to be frozen. But until that is
done, bulk acquisition of large areas by a public authority would be the only course
available within the framework of the existing laws. This would ensure that land
required for the housing of low income group people can be subsidised from the
profits realised from the sales of other types of land, namely, industrial and
commercial lands and housing lands sold for higher income group housing, and
4.
Leasehold tenure is preferred to freehold tenure as leasehold tenure enables effective

control on use of land through restrictive covenants and provides rights of revision of
lease rent.
National Urban Transport Policy

Background
India is poised for rapid economic growth. Such future growth will largely come from the
secondary and tertiary sectors of the economy, i.e., the industrial and service sectors. Since
economic activities in these sectors primarily take place in urban areas, the state of our towns
and cities is crucial to Indias future growth. Further, Indias urban population is currently
around 30% of its total population. As such, it is projected that Indias urban population
would grow to about 473 million in 2021 and 820 million by 2051, as against only 285
million in 2001. Hence, cities must not only meet the mobility needs of the current
population but also provide for the needs of those yet to join the urban population. For urban
areas to be able to support the required level of economic activity, they must provide for the
easy and sustainable flow of goods and people. Unfortunately, however, such flow of goods
and people has been facing several problems. It was realized that unless the above problems
are remedied, poor mobility can become a major dampener to economic growth and cause
the quality of life to deteriorate. A policy is, therefore, needed on the approach to dealing
with this rapidly growing problem as also offer a clear direction and a framework for future
action. As a result, the National Urban Transport Policy (NUTP) was launched in 2006. Most
prominent issues identified by the policy are discussed as follows:
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Accessing jobs, education, recreation and similar activities is becoming increasingly time
consuming. The primary reason for this has been the explosive growth in the number of
motor vehicles, coupled with limitations on the amount of road space that can be provided.
The cost of travel, especially for the poor, has increased considerably. This is largely
because the use of cheaper non-motorised modes like cycling and walking has become
extremely risky, since these modes have to share the same right of way with motorized
modes. Further, with population growth, cities have tended to sprawl and increased travel
distances have made non-motorized modes impossible to use. This has made access to
livelihoods, particularly for the poor, far more difficult.
Travel in the city has become more risky with accident rates having gone up from 1.6 lakh
in 1981 to over 3.9 lakh in 2001. This again has tended to impact the poor more severely as
many of those killed or injured tend to be cyclists, pedestrians or pavement dwellers.
Increased use of personal vehicles has led to increased air pollution.
Need for a National Policy

Although the responsibility for management of urban areas (and thus urban transport) rests
with the State governments, a Central policy was considered necessary as:
Several key agencies that would play an important role in urban transport planning work
under the Central government, with no accountability to the State government.
Several Acts and Rules, which have important implications in dealing with urban transport
issues, are administered by the Central Government
A need exists to guide State level action plans within an overall framework.
The launching of the JnNURM provided a timely platform for providing significant
financial support from the Central Government for investments in urban transport
infrastructure. As such, this offered an opportunity for a meaningful national policy that
would guide Central financial assistance towards improving urban mobility.
A need to take up coordinated capacity building, research and information dissemination to
raise the overall level of awareness and skills.
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Vision of NUTP
To recognize that people occupy center-stage in our cities and all plans would be for their
common benefit and well being
To make our cities the most livable in the world and enable them to become the engines of
economic growth that power Indias development in the 21st century
To allow our cities to evolve into an urban form that is best suited for the unique geography
of their locations and is best placed to support the main social and economic activities that
take place in the city.
Objectives
The objective of this policy is to ensure safe, affordable, quick, comfortable, reliable and
sustainable access for the growing number of city residents to jobs, education, recreation and
such other needs within our cities. This is sought to be achieved by:
Incorporating urban transportation as an important parameter at the urban planning stage
rather than being a consequential requirement
Encouraging integrated land use and transport planning in all cities so that travel distances
are minimized and access to livelihoods, education, and other social needs, especially for the
marginal segments of the urban population is improved
Improving access of business to markets and the various factors of production
Bringing about a more equitable allocation of road space with people, rather than vehicles,
as its main focus
Encourage greater use of public transport and non-motorized modes by offering Central
financial assistance for this purpose
Enabling the establishment of quality focused multi-modal public transport systems that are
well integrated, providing seamless travel across modes
Establishing effective regulatory and enforcement mechanisms that allow a level playing
field for all operators of transport services and enhanced safety for the transport system users
Establishing institutional mechanisms for enhanced coordination in the planning and
management of transport systems
Introducing Intelligent Transport Systems for traffic management
Addressing concerns of road safety and trauma response
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Reducing pollution levels through changes in traveling practices, better enforcement,

stricter norms, technological improvements, etc.
Building capacity (institutional and manpower) to plan for sustainable urban transport and
establishing knowledge management system that would service the needs of all urban
transport professionals, such as planners, researchers, teachers, students, etc
Promoting the use of cleaner technologies
Raising finances, through innovative mechanisms that tap land as a resource, for
investments in urban transport infrastructure
Associating the private sector in activities where their strengths can be beneficially tapped
Taking up pilot projects that demonstrate the potential of possible best practices in
sustainable urban transport
Realizing the Policy Objectives

The objectives of this policy were to be achieved through a multi-pronged approach which is
elaborated as follows:
Integrating land use and transport planning
Equitable allocation of road space
Priority to the use of public transport
Priority to non-motorized
transport
Parking
Freight traffic
Legal and Administrative Issues
Capacity building
Use of cleaner technologies
Innovative financing mechanisms using land as a resource
Association of the private sector
Public awareness and cooperation
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In order to demonstrate the potential benefits from the policy measures suggested herein, the
Central Government would take up pilot projects in a sample set of cities drawn from
different regions and different city types so that tested models of best practices can be
established for replication in other cities. The BRT projects initiated in few cities like Delhi
are among these pilot projects.
2.1.5 REFORMS
The major planning reform at the urban level was the 74th Constitutional Amendment
Act (CAA). The UDPFI guidelines prepared by the Institute of Town Planners India for the
Ministry of Urban Affairs and Employment is also a very important document that was used
by various State Town Planning Departments for guiding the urban development. They
provided a framework for amending town planning laws of different States to ensure
inclusive planning and participatory framework. The functional domain of Municipalities
was also increased through the 12th schedule of 74th CAA. This schedule provides a list of 18
functions which includes planning, planning for economic and social development, urban
forestry, protection on environment and promotion of ecological aspects, poverty alleviation,
etc. The Urban Local Bodies are also assigned the task of preparing Development Plans
within the framework of Perspective Plan and also facilities preparation of local plans / plans
of projects and schemes within the framework of approved Development Plan/ Annual Plan.
The other major reform was the preparation of City Development Plans (CDP) as part of
Jawaharlal Nehru National Urban Renewal Mission. They are discussed in detail in the
subsequent sections.
Recognising the neglect of integrated urban development planning by the local authorities,
the constitution (74th) amendment act has included urban planning including town planning
and planning for economic and social development among the legitimate municipal
functions and made the constitution of District and Metropolitan Planning committees
mandatory. Article 243 ZD of the constitution provides for the consolidation of the plans
prepared by the Panchayats and Municipalities in a district and preparation of district
development plan by district planning committee in every district. Article 243 ZE of the
constitution prescribes for the preparation of development plans for designated metropolitan
areas/region s by Metropolitan planning committees. With the enactment of municipal
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legislations by state/union territory governments in conformity with the provisions of the 74th
Amendment Act by 31st May, 1994, it is now expected that integrated urban development
planning with a view to achieving desired social and economic development goals will
receive serious attention of national, state and local governments.
74th Constitutional Amendment Act
The 74th Constitutional Amendment Act, 1992 envisages a series of fundamental reforms in
the system of municipal governance in the country. It provides a constitutional form to the
structure and mandate of local bodies to enable them to function effectively as democratic
and self-governing institutions at the grassroots level. First, it mandates that where a local
government is dissolved. It shall be reconstituted by holding elections within six months.
This is to ensure the continuity of elected municipal government and active participation by
elected representatives of people in the planning, management and delivery of civic services.
Secondly, a framework is provided for earmarking of governmental functions for urban local
bodies through the 12th Schedule of the constitution (Appendix 1). Third, the State are
required to set up Finance Commissions to recommend to their Legislatures regarding the
devolution of State resources to local bodies including state-local revenue-sharing formulae
and other measures to improve the functioning of local bodies. Lastly, the constitution of
Metropolitan and District Planning Committees with critical role assigned to elected
representatives of people in the preparation and monitoring of socio-economic development
plans is mandatory.
As far as the concept and methodology of preparation of development plans are concerned,
the Constitutional (74th) Amendment Act makes some significant contributions. It provides
that the District Planning Committee in formulating the draft district development plan shall
have regard to:
-
matters of common interest between the Panchayats and Municipalities including

spatial planning;
sharing of water and other physical and natural resources;
integrated development of infrastructure and environmental conservation;
extent and type of available resources, whether financial or otherwise.
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Similarly, the 74th Amendment Act prescribes that the Metropolitan Planning Committee
shall take into account the following in the preparation of a draft Metropolitan Development
Plan:
-
plans prepared by the Municipalities and Panchayats in the metropolitan area;
sharing of water and other physical and natural resources;
integrated development of infrastructure and environmental conservation;
overall objectives and priorities set by the Government of India and the sate
government concerned;
extent and nature of investments likely to be made in the metropolitan area by

governmental agencies;
other available resources, financial and otherwise.
As may be seen from the above descriptions as to the content and manner of preparation of
District and Metropolitan Development Plans, the concept of integrated development
planning is embedded into the Constitution of India through the 74th Amendment Act. No
longer will the tools of traditional Master Plans dealing primarily with detailed land use
aspects and with little regards to (i) National, State, Regional and Local development goals
fixed by various levels of government; (ii) integration of urban and rural development and
also sectoral and spatial plans in regional context; (iii) implications of urban development for
the usage of environmental resources such as water, air and land, and (iv) financial and nonfinancial resources for the implementation of the development plans be adequate.
The constitution (74th ) Amendment Act further provides that (i) not less than four-fifths of
the total number of members of a District Planning Committee should be elected from
amongst members of the Panchayats at the district level and of the Municipalities in the
district in proportion to the ratio between the rural and urban population of the district, (ii)
not less than two-thirds of the members of Metropolitan Planning Committees should be
elected from amongst the elected members of the Municipalities and Chairpersons of the
Panchayats in the metropolitan area, in proportion to the ratio between the population of the
Municipalities and the Panchayats in the area, (iii) while preparing plans, the District and
Metropolitan Planning Committees shall also consult institutions and organization as may be
specified by the Governor and (iv) the draft District and Metropolitan Development Plans
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shall be forwarded by the Chairpersons of the concerned Committees to the State

Government. Points (i) and (ii) emphasise the democratization and participatory aspects of
the local planning process and that the needs of people, particularly the poor and socially
disadvantage have to be kept foremost in planning. In (iii), a broad scope for securing
professional inputs from experts in the planning and development fields is provided. Point
(iv) implicitly describes a need for integration of top-down and bottom-up planning processes
and a responsibility on part of the State Government to ensure that the district and
metropolitan development plans conform to the broad developmental priorities fixed by the
Central and State Governments.
The provisions in the 74th Constitution Amendment Act regarding development planning as
discussed above are bound to have far reaching implications for urban and
metropolitan/regional planning in the years to come. The Act poses special challenges to the
planners and development administrators to rethink about the entire sub-national planning
process and a need to part with the conventional ways.
Reforms in planning of regional areas took place through the 74th Constitutional Amendment
Act (CAA) which provided a framework for planning of Metropolitan Area through
formulation of Metropolitan Planning Committee (MPC). The Regional Plan was perceived
to solve the problems of both urban and rural areas falling in the region. Other issues like
sharing of resources, finances, regional infrastructure and environment, etc. are also taken
care of in the plan.
74th CAA also envisages District Planning Committee (DPC) which would implement the
plans prepared by urban and rural local bodies and have an integrated plan for the district.
District Development Plan is prepared with a framework of 20-25 years. DPC is prepared
through a participating planning framework in urban and rural areas. It deals with the matters
of common interest between the Panchayats and Municipalities including spatial planning,
sharing of water and other physical and other resources, integrated development of
infrastructure and environmental conservation.
Jawaharlal Nehru National Urban Renewal Mission (JnNURM)

There had been a wide gap between the requirement and allocation of funds. The assistance
provided by the Central government has been unevenly spread and thus failed to bring about
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any noticeable improvement in urban infrastructure. Due to the shortcomings in the existing
programs, the Central government had drawn up a comprehensive program of urban renewal,
in keeping with the commitment given in the Common Minimum Program of the UPA
Government. In this revised strategy, a two-track approach has been envisaged. In the first
prong of the strategy, the Jawaharlal Nehru National Urban Renewal Mission (JnNURM)
had been sanctioned to provide financial support of about Rs. 50,000 Crores to 63 cities for
upgradation and improvement of infrastructure in a planned and integrated manner. The
programme phased over a period of seven years, comprises the cities that are the State
Capitals, cities with one million plus population and some selected cities of religious, tourist,
cultural and heritage importance. It is expected that these cities will have a demonstration
effect on others. In the second prong of the strategy, the need for other cities and towns,
which are not included in the mission, would be addressed through another scheme of
assistance known as Urban Infrastructure Development Scheme for Small and Medium
Towns (UIDSSMT)
Introduction to JnNURM
The aim of JnNURM is to encourage reforms and fast track planned development of
identified cities and its focus is to be on efficiency in urban infrastructure and service
delivery mechanisms, community participation, and accountability of ULBs towards citizens.
The JnNURM tries to provide integrated development of infrastructure services in cities that
is covered by its program and tries to ensure adequate funds to fulfil deficiencies and secures
effective linkages between asset creation & asset management, and provision of services for
the urban poor. Generally JnNURM has two strategy levels. One is for 63 cities and the other
one is for other cities, relating to basic services to the urban poor and relating to integrated
Housing & Slum Development Program (IHSDP).
Objectives of the Mission
Focused attention to integrated development of infrastructure services in cities covered

under the Mission
Establishment of linkages between asset-creation and asset-management through a slew

of reforms for long-term project sustainability
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Ensuring adequate funds to meet the deficiencies in urban infrastructural services
Planned development of identified cities including pre-urban areas, outgrowths and urban
corridors leading to dispersed urbanisation
Scale-up delivery of civic amenities and provision of utilities with emphasis on universal
access to the urban poor
Special focus on urban renewal program for the old city areas to reduce congestion
Provision of basic services to the urban poor including security of tenure at affordable
prices, improved housing, water supply and sanitation, and ensuring delivery of other
existing universal services of the government for education, health and social security.
Redevelopment of old cities
Table 2.3: Categorization of Cities under JnNURM
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Components of JnNURM
Urban Renewal (Houses at affordable costs for slum dwellers, Slum improvement and
rehabilitation projects, Projects involving development/improvement/ maintenance of
basic services to the urban poor)
Water Supply (including Desalination & Sewerage)
Solid Waste Management
Storm Water Drains (Construction and improvement)
Urban Transport
Parking spaces on PPP basis
Development of heritage areas
Prevention & rehabilitation of soil erosion
Preservation of water bodies
Civic amenities like community halls
Power and telecommunication work
Rolling stock like buses and tram
Health and educational institution (Community Primary Health Centre Buildings can be
provided)
Wage employment and staff component
Steps in the JnNURM process City Development Plan, Detailed Project Report and
Memorandum of Agreement
The objective of the Mission would be met through the following strategies:
Preparation of City Development Plans (CDPs)
Detailed Project Reports (DPR)
Signing of Memorandum of Agreement (MoA) between the Centre, State, and

Urban Local Body (ULB)
Every city is expected to formulate a City Development Plan (CDP) indicating policies,
programs and strategies, and financing plans. The CDP would include identification of
projects leading to the formulation of Detailed Project Reports (DPRs). The Urban Local
Bodies (ULBs) / Parastatal agencies have to prepare DPRs for undertaking projects in the
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identified spheres. The projects should be planned so as to optimise the life-cycle costs. A
revolving fund would be created to meet the Operation and Maintenance (O&M)
requirements of assets created, over the planning horizon. In order to seek JnNURM
assistance, projects need to be developed in a manner that would ensure and demonstrate
optimisation of the life-cycle costs over the planning horizon of the project. On approval of
the CDPs and DPRs, the State Government and ULBs including Parastatal agencies, where
necessary would execute a Memorandum of Agreement (MoA) with the Government of India
(GoI) indicating commitment along with a timeline to implement identified reforms. It is
expected that the JnNURM assistance would serve to catalyse the flow of investment into the
urban infrastructure sector across the country. In order to optimise the life-cycle costs over
the planning horizon, private sector efficiencies can be inducted in development,
management, implementation and financing of projects, through Public Private Partnership.
Key Role of CDP in JnNURM Process

A City Development Plan (CDP) is an action plan for equitable growth in a city, developed
and sustained through public participation to improve the quality of life for all citizens. A
City Development Plan (CDP) is both a perspective and a vision for the future development
of a city. It presents the current stage of the citys development where is the city now? It
sets out the directions of change where does the city want to go? It identifies the thrust
areas what does the city need to address on a priority basis? It also suggests alternative
routes, strategies, and interventions for bringing about the change what interventions
should be made in order to attain the vision? It provides a framework and vision within
which projects need to be identified and implemented. It establishes a logical and consistent
framework for evaluation of investment decisions.
The CDP is therefore the crucial link that weaves together the three basic elements of the
mission - namely integrated development of infrastructure, basic services for the poor and
adoption of urban sector reforms, into an integrated whole. It lays the foundation from which
would follow DPRs not only for the mission period but also for the near future (the next
decade or so). The quality of the CDP, therefore, is one of the most imperative links on
which the success of the mission would depend. It may also be used by the city to promote
itself to potential investors.
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Components of a CDP
The main components of a CDP include:
A detailed analysis of the current situation with particular emphasis on the

demography, economy, finance, infrastructure, physical, environmental and
institutional aspects that gives an insight into where the city is today
A vision that is shared and collective and discusses the future growth of the city.
This would describe where the city wants to go
A strategy that qualifies the vision, evaluates options, takes into consideration views
of the citizens and says how the city would move from here to there
A City Investment Plan and a financing strategy that talks of the financial
resources needed by the city to attain its vision
An important component of the CDP is a continuous participatory consultative process

involving the entire gamut of stakeholders of the city, throughout its preparation. The vision
and strategies presented in the CDP should therefore be one that has been arrived at with a
consensus from the stakeholders
The CDP Process

The CDP process has established a creative dialogue between Government Departments, and
between Government Departments and Citizens, and identified the priority activities to be
undertaken to improve service provision / management in the city. These dialogues would
develop into sustainable partnerships for strategic development of the city in the future. This
process also resulted in the formulation of Strategic Action Plan and City Assistance
Programme incorporating sectoral investments for economic growth and poverty reduction.
The CDP also took into consideration the works and plans of other government and quasigovernment agencies contributing towards the growth and development of the city. The key
steps involved in the CDP process include:
Formation of Program Steering Committee (PSC) at the apex level
Constitution of Working Groups
Stakeholder workshops and Meetings
Visioning Exercise
Situation Analysis
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Formulation of Goals & Strategies
Capital Investment Plan and Project Scheduling
Approval by the CDP by the Council along with Draft MoA
Action & Operating Plan indicating the policy and reform measures for improved service
provision and delivery.
Fig 2.1: The CDP process
Program
Program steering
steering committee
committee
meetings
meetings
Working
Working groups
groups meetings
meetings
Technical
Technical Committee
Committee meetings
meetings
Stakeholder
Stakeholder consultations
consultations
Media
Media reports
reports
CDP
CDP for
for Implementation
Implementation
Formulation
Formulation of
of
City
City Vision
Vision and
and Goals
Goals
Preparation
Preparation of
of two
two pronged
pronged
strategies
strategies for
for achieving
achieving the
the
vision
vision
Reform
Reform Agenda
Agenda &
& action
action plan
plan
Capital
Capital Investment
Investment program
program
Prioritization
Prioritization of
of Sectors
Sectors for
for
intervention
intervention
Water
Water Supply
Supply &
& Sewerage
Sewerage
Storm
Water
Storm Water
Traffic
Traffic and
and Transportation
Transportation
Solid
Solid Waste
Waste Management
Management
Sectoral
Sectoral vision
vision formulation
formulation
Source: JnNURM Toolkit
Institutional Arrangement under JnNURM

At the National level, the JnNURM is steered by the National Steering Group (NSG),
headed by the Minister for Urban Development. As a coordinating arm of the Government of
India (GoI), the NSG will review the progress of the mission along with the agenda for
reforms. In the tier beneath the NSG, are two Sub Mission Directorates one for Urban
Infrastructure and Governance and the other for Basic Services to the Urban Poor. The
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former is under the charge of the Ministry of Urban Development (MoUD) and the latter
under the Ministry of Housing, Urban Employment and Poverty Alleviation (MoHUEPA).
Each of these Sub-Missions has separate Central Sanctioning and Monitoring Committees.
These committees are responsible for sanctioning and monitoring of projects and associated
reforms.
At the State level, are State Level Steering Committees who would screen and prioritise
identified projects? The projects would be implemented by State Level Nodal Agencies
(SLNA). At each of the three tiers of governance, i.e. Central, State and Local, advisory
assistance and support is provided by expert groups and agencies and the Technical
Advisory Group (TAG). The TAG is headed by a Technical Advisor drawn from Civil
Society with proven experience in mobilizing collective action for reforms in urban
governance.
The cities eligible for seeking financial assistance under JnNURM are compulsorily required
to formulate a City Development Plan (CDP) indicating policies, programs, strategies and
financial plans. The CDP should also be linked to the Reform Agenda.
The Reform Agenda would include the strategy to implement reforms, in a phased manner.
The CDPs would facilitate identification of projects and ULBs are required to prepare
Detailed Project Reports (DPRs). The funds for identified projects across cities would be
disbursed to the ULB/ Parastatal agency through the designated SLNA as soft loan or grantcum-loan or grant. The SLNA / ULB in turn, would leverage additional resources from other
sources. Immediately after the launch of the Mission, the states and ULBs were sensitised
about JnNURM through seven regional workshops spread over seven major zones of the
country central, north, south, east, west, northwest, and northeast. A city represented each
zone.
The CDP makes basic policy choices and provides a flexible framework for adapting to deal
with emerging challenges over time. It emphasises on issues of priority, local concerns for
liveability, and the implied requirements in terms of:
Enhancing city productivity;
Reducing poverty;
Improving urban governance; and Enhancing financial sustainability
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Progress in Reform Agenda

The push of the JnNURM is to confirm and certify enhancement and development in urban
governance and service delivery, so that ULBs become financially sound and sustainable for
undertaking new program. It is also foreseen that, with the charter of reforms that are
followed by the State governments and ULBs, a stage will be set for PPPs (refer Fig 2.2).
(1) Mandatory Reforms at the Level of ULBs and Para State Agencies
(a) Adoption of modern accrual-based double entry system of accounting in ULBs and Para
State agencies.
(b) Introduction of a system of e-governance using IT applications, such GIS and MIS for
various services provided by ULBs and Para State agencies.
(c) Reform of property tax with GIS. It becomes a major source of revenue for ULBs and
arrangements for its effective implementation so that collection efficiency reaches at least 85
per cent within next seven years.
(d) Levy of reasonable user charges by ULBs and Para states with the objective that the full
cost of O&M or recurring cost is collected within the next seven years.
(e) Internal earmarking, within local bodies, budgets for basic services to the urban poor.
(f) Provision of basic services to the urban poor including security of tenure at affordable
prices, improved housing, water supply and sanitation. Delivery of other existing universal
services of the government for education, health and social security is ensured.
2) Mandatory Reforms at the Level of States

(a) Implementation of decentralisation measures as envisaged in 74th Constitutional
Amendment Act. The State should ensure meaningful association and engagement of
ULBs in planning the function of Para State agencies as well as the delivery of services to the
citizens.
(b) Repeal of Urban Land Ceiling and Regulation Act
(c) Reform of Rent Control Laws balancing the interests of landlords and tenants.
(d) Rationalisation of Stamp Duty to bring it down to no more than 5 per cent within next
seven years.
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(e) Enactment of the Public Disclosure Law to ensure preparation of medium-term fiscal
plan of ULBs and Para State agencies and release of quarterly performance information to all
stakeholders.
(f) Enactment of the Community Participation Law to institutionalise citizens participation
and introduce the concept of the Area Sabha in urban areas.
(g) Assigning elected ULBs with city planning function Over a period of seven years.
Expected Outcomes of JnNURM
Modern and transparent budgeting, accounting, financial management systems designed

and adopted for all urban service and governance functions
City-wide framework for planning and governance will be established and become
operational
All urban residents will be able to obtain access to a basic level of urban services
Financially self-sustaining agencies for urban governance and service delivery will be
established, through reforms to major revenue instruments
Local services and governance will be conducted in a manner that is transparent and
accountable to citizens through e-governance applications.
Implications of CDP and Master Plan on Development

In India, the projects which envisaged under the first major national urban renewal program
since independence, namely JnNURM, is implemented through the City Development Plans
(CDPs), which are essentially city level capital investment plans, prepared largely
independently of the citys Master Plan. This is because the City Master Plans do not have
any financial plan attached to them and have very poor reflection of socio-economic
concerns. The Master plans have nearly no relationship with the governance structures. In
essence, preparation of City Master Plans become a statutory exercise that freezes lands and
makes them unavailable for development and by that declaring large parts of city activities
and large parts of city population illegal or informal.
One Professor and Chairman of the Centre for Policy Research, New Delhi said that: In any
city in India big or small, if the question is asked who is in charge of the city? the answer is
painfully simple no one. But this was not always the case. Before independence even
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during the period of limited participation grudgingly allowed by our colonial masters, the
Municipalities and Corporations were indeed in charge of the cities. However after
independence, the leadership which had risen to provincial and national levels by climbing
the ladder of local self-government were themselves responsible for dismantling that ladder
step by step. The phenomenon of para statals, development authorities and special purpose
agencies took charge of one city after another. The 73rd and 74th Amendments were an
attempt to reverse the trend and enable rural and urban local bodies to re-emerge as
institutions of self-government. Assuming the intent of the JnNURM Mission is to build
further on this process, in effect this has not happened. If the same question who is in charge
of the city is asked now, perhaps the answer may well be, consultants and developers.
Whatever experiences the country gathered in inclusive planning and socially sensitive urban
management during the seventies through programmes like environmental improvement of
slums and urban basic services have been forgotten in the wake of globalisation and the
determined pursuit of foreign investments and capital accumulation from real estate
development.
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Fig 2.2: Mandatory Reforms under the JnNURM
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2.2 INTERNATIONAL PLANNING APPROACHES

Planning approaches differ between cities across the world. Though broadly the plans
guide the development of the cities, the apprach varies and the plan is either a master plan, or
a strategic development plan with the vision, aim, objectives, process and contents varying
according to the city characteristics and the requirements. The study includes discussion of
the various planning approaches of the international cities.
The cities selected for the
purpose of background study are Singapore, New York, Karachi, London, Sydney, and
Shenzhen.
2.2.1 SINGAPORE
Singapore is an island country in the Southeast Asian region of the Asian continent
and continues to be among the top five busiest ports in the world. A city-state, Singapore is
the world's fourth leading financial centre and a cosmopolitan world city, playing a key role
in international trade and finance. Singapore is the fourth wealthiest country in the world in
terms of GDP (PPP) per capita. Despite Singapore's small size, it has the world's ninth largest
foreign reserves. Singapore has a population of 5 million people and an area of 710.2sq.km.
Fig 2.3: Location of Singapore
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The country is the second most densely populated in the world with a density of 7022
persons/sq. km. The modern day Singapore represents a modern economy focused on
industry, education and urban planning which is the result of a state-led drive for
industrialization based on plans and foreign direct investment. Singapore has the best quality
of life in Asia and eleventh in the world. It has the sixth- highest percentage of foreigners in
the world (42%), which makes up 50% of the service sector.
Master Plan of Singapore 2008
Vision, aim and objectives: Singapore is an economically vibrant city and the most liveable
city of Asia. However the key challenges are to sustain the economic growth , ensure the
high quality of life and retain character and identity in the city in the face of the scarcity of
land, growing population and rising aspirations.
The challenge is aimed to be met by two plans i.e. the Concept Plan, the strategic land use
and Transportation Plan to guide the development for the future. The Master Plan of
Singapore 2008 is the statutory land use plan that guides physical development for the next
10 to 15 years with the mission of making Singapore a great city to live, work and play.
Singapores Urban Redevelopment Authority (URA) under its Ministry of National
Development is Singapores national planning and conservation authority and has formulated
the Master Plan. Singapore is committed to promoting sustainable development. Its InterMinisterial Committee on Sustainable Development (IMCSD), which was established in
2008, enables integrated approaches across Ministerial boundaries to formulate strategies for
sustainable growth.
Planning process and contents: The intentions of the concept plan are translated into
detailed landuse plans for the different planning areas to form the Master Plan. The Concept
Plan is reviewed every 10 years. In the current review of the Master Plan, the detailed land
use plans for the different planning areas were amended and updated wherever necessary to
reflect the land use intentions of the latest concept plan. After incorporating relevant
feedback from the public exhibitions, the amended plans are formalised as the Master Plan
2008.
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The contents and provisions of the Master Plan are applied to guide physical development
through development control. The master plan of Singapore is divided into two sections,
section -1 which deals with the definition of terms, applicability and development charges.
The second section deals with the zoning and plot ratio. The zoning notations in the Plan
reflect the permissible predominant use of land within the demarcated area with the examples
of development.
Singapores Land Transport Authority (LTA) was established in 1995 by integrating four
separate land transport departments in order to comprehensively plan, control, and manage
relevant policies. The LTA aims to provide a high quality transport system, enhance citizens
quality of life, and maintain Singapores economic growth and global competitiveness.
Urban renovation and development of new and satellite towns are encouraged; 20 such towns
have been constructed. New towns are connected to public transportation and Singapores
city center. The key planning strategies for promoting sustainability are:
Safeguarding land to support economic growth also includes seam less expansion of
the city to cater to financial and business services, tourism and housing.Land is also
safeguarded for high valueadded industries like pharmaceuticals, electronics,
biomedical sciences and chemicals and new growth sectors such as aerospace and
medical travel also for the expansion of the ports, airport and large infrastructure.
Being flexible over the short term that implies putting to interim use vacant state
owned buildings but still in good condition. Land that is not immediately required for
development is also put to interim use.
Providing a quality living environment that includes provision of housing choices and
types. Housing layouts are planned as total living environments, with comprehensive
amenities to meet residents needs especially recreation and relief from the urban
setting.
Maintaining environmental quality through a comprehensive and integrated approach

with the collaboration of government agencies is promoted. Putting in place stringent
pollution controls are in place to protect water and air quality and locating pollutive
infrastructure away from residential areas.
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Integrating transport with land use planning - an integrated approach for land use and
transportation planning is added for a balanced distribution of home and workplaces
so as to reduce the travel demand and ensure that new development areas are well
served by transportation. Higher density housing and commercial developments are
planned around and integrated with rail transit.
Retaining precious built heritage and protecting natural heritage Nearly 7000
buildings have been conserved and nature reserves and nature areas. Wherever
possible, nature areas are incorporated into parks so that they can be retained and and
made accessible for future generations to enjoy.
The master plan has got other detailed and special control plans i.e.:
1. Parks and water bodies plan - Singapores high density, built-up areas enabled
preservation of open spaces, natural parks, and greenery. As much as 10 percent of
Singapores land is designated as green space. The Parks and Water bodies Plan reflect the
existing and proposed green spaces and water bodies. These include parks, open spaces,
interim greens, park connectors, promenades, nature reserves, nature areas and water bodies.
2. Landed housing areas plan - The government aims to supply affordable housing to its
citizens. The Housing and Development Board (HDB) under the Ministry of National
Development plans and develops public housing and facilities in new towns. As land is
limited, high density development and high-rise buildings are promoted for commercial,
business, and residential uses. The Landed Housing Areas Plan is drawn up to help retain the
character of landed housing estates. By safeguarding these estates, we can ensure a variety of
housing mix, to meet the needs and aspirations of Singaporeans who want to live in landed
housing.
3. Building height plan - Singapore promotes high density development. For example, the
Central Business District (CBD) of Singapore has Floor Area Ratios (FARs) up to 13.
Ongoing development near Marina Bay next to the CBD aims to produce high density; mixed
use development with FARs up to 20.49 Marina Bay will be more than a commercial center.
It will also offer housing, shops, hotels, recreational facilities, and community zones such as
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green areas and open spaces. Areas with special height controls are depicted on the plan.
Areas without special height controls are subject to prevailing development control
guidelines. For example, residential development will follow the GPR / Storey Height
Typology for flats and condominium as shown in Table 1. For other land uses without
stipulated building height controls, the permissible height will be subject to evaluation.
4. Street block, urban design area, conservation and monuments plan - The Street Block
Plan guides the layout or form of development within identified development areas. Urban
Design AreaSpecific areas have been identified for special Urban Design guidelines. These
guidelines provide an integrated approach to urban design in accordance with the long-term
planning intention and ensure integration of old and new development, conservation areas &
Monuments. Conservation areas and Monuments are depicted on the plans. The use of
conservation buildings is guided by the Master Plan land use and any additional buildings or
additions and alteration works to Conservation buildings are subject to prevailing restoration
guidelines.
5. Activity generating uses plan - Areas where activity-generating uses (such as shops and
food outlets) are to be provided are depicted on the plan. The uses are to be located on the 1st
storey and the basement level of developments along major pedestrian routes in Central Area.
2.2.2 NEW YORK

New York City situated in the state of New York is the centre of the New York
Metropolitan area. It is a global city, highly populated having about 40% of the state of New
York's population. The city has been growing rapidly with an increase in population from 7.3
million in 1990 to 8.3 million in 2008. It is estimated that the population will reach between
9.2 and 9.5 million by 2030. With a land area of 790 square km, the city consists of five
boroughs: The Bronx, Brooklyn, Manhattan, Queens and Staten Island. New York City is the
most densely populated major city in the United States with a density of 10,606 persons per
sq. km. The New York metropolitan area spread over 17,400 sq km has a population of 19.1
million.
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Plan of New York City 2030

Vision, aim and objectives: The theme of the plan of New York City for 2030 is A
Greener, Greater New York. The plan has no visions specified. The American Express, 19
April 2004 states that for a city with a past as brilliant and a future as promising as New
York's, it's troubling that there's no vision in place for how the city is to be developed. At the
moment, the city treats each potential development on an ad hoc basis, with no consistent
view toward how a new building will fit into the neighbourhood and the city at large. And
real-estate developers have learned to exploit the zoning system--a system which, they argue
with some justification, is outmoded and archaic.
Fig 2.4: Location of New York

However, it identifies the challenges and puts forth
strategies to address the challenges and also
manage the citys growing needs within a limited
amount of land. Three main challenges have been
identified: growth, an aging infrastructure, and an
increasingly precarious environment including
climate change. The Plan aims at a holistic,
comprehensive and coherent approach considering
the scale, intricacy, and interdependency of the
physical challenges. The basic premises of the plan
is that economic opportunity can and must come
out of growth; that diversity of all kinds can and
must be preserved; that a healthy environment is
not a luxury good, but a fundamental right essential
to creating a city that is fair, healthy, and
sustainable. The plan also aims at reinforcing the
strengths of the city i.e. concentration, efficiency,
density, diversity; in its people, and above all in its unending sense of possibility.
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Planning process and contents: The plan includes the following:
1. Land for the purposes of housing, open space, brown fields;
Housing
The aim for housing is to create homes for almost a million residents, while making houses
more affordable and sustainable. The policy is to expand the supply potential by 300,000 to
500,000 units by reducing the price of land, while directing growth toward areas served by
public transportation. This transit-oriented development will be supported by public actions
to create new opportunities for housing, such as ambitious rezoning in consultation with local
communities, maximizing the efficiency of government-owned sites, and exploring
opportunities with communities to create new land by decking over highways and rail yards.
The strategies put forth i.e. rezoning, maximizing affordability on public land, looking at new
areas of opportunity, developing innovative financing programs, expanding the use of
inclusionary zoning, and supporting home ownership would have to be adjusted as the
market changes, and new approaches may need to be added. The strategies for housing are
detailed out as under:
Continue publicly-initiated rezoning by pursuing transit-oriented development, reclaiming
underutilized waterfrontsand increasing transit options to spur development
Create new housing on public land by expanding co-locations with government agencies and
adapting outdated buildings to new uses
Explore additional areas of opportunity by developing underused areas to knit
neighbourhoods together, capturing the potential of transportation infrastructure investments
and by decking over rail yards, rail lines, and highways
Expand targeted affordability programs by developing new financing strategies, expanding
inclusionary zoning, encouraging homeownership and preserving the existing stock of
affordable housing throughout New York City
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Open Space
The aim for Open space is to ensure that all residents of the city live within a 10 minute walk
of a park by 2030. The endeavour is to bring a park or a playground over a quarter acre
within half a mile of 99% residents.The approach and the policies are:
1. Upgradation of the land already designated as play space or parkland and make it
available to new users.
2. Expanding the usable hours at existing high-quality sites and
3. Re-conceptualization of the streets and sidewalks as public spaces that can foster the
connections that creates vibrant communities.
Investments were thus planned for new recreational facilities across every borough, opening
hundreds of schoolyards as local playgrounds, reclaiming underdeveloped sites that were
designated as parks but never finished, and expanding usable hours at existing fields by
installing additional lights and turf fields.
The strategies formulated for open space were:
Make existing sites available to more residents through opening of schoolyards across the
city as public playgrounds,increasing options for competitive athletics and completing
underdeveloped destination parks
Expand usable hours at existing sites by providing more multi-purpose fields and installing
new lighting
Re-imagine the public realm by creating or enhancing a public plaza in every community and
greening the cityscape.
Brownfields
The policy for Brownfield sites was to clean up all contaminated land in New York city so
that they can contribute to the future land challenges. Brownfields are lands that could be reenvisioned to meet the citys infrastructure, manufacturing and community needs. The
savings from coordinated planning of the sites can be re- invested into amenities like more
public space and affordable housing, fulfilling the promise that an abandoned, contaminated
lot can be transformed into a true public place. The existing brownfield cleanup programs
need to be made faster, more efficient, and more responsive to New Yorks unique
development challenges. It was proposed that city-specific remediation guidelines would be
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developed, new time-saving strategies would be piloted for testing, and a new City
brownfields office would be created to accelerate redevelopment.
The strategies for brownfields were:
Make existing brownfield programs faster and more efficient by adopting on-site
testing to streamline the cleanup process, creating remediation guidelines for New
York City cleanups, establishing a City office to promote brownfield planning and
redevelopment
Expand enrollment into streamlined programs through expanding participation in the

current State Brownfield Cleanup Program (BCP), creating a City program to oversee
all additional cleanups and providing incentives to lower costs of remediation
Encourage greater community involvement in brownfield redevelopment by

Encouraging the State to release community-based redevelopment grants, providing
incentives to participate in Brownfield Opportunity Area(BOA) planning and
launching outreach effort to educate communities about brownfield redevelopment
Identify remaining sites for cleanups through creating a database of historic uses
across New York City to identify potential brownfields and limiting liability of
property owners who seek to redevelop brownfields.
2. Water
The policies put forth for the water quality and network responds to the two primary water
challenges: to ensure that drinking water is pure and reliable, and to ensure that the
waterways surrounding the city are clean and available for use by the residents. Water
includes both water quality and water network. With nearly 600 miles of waterfront,
waterfront revitalization has been a guiding principle of the last five years, across all five
boroughs. The aim was to open 90% of the waterways to recreation by preserving natural
areas and reducing pollution and develop critical backup systems from the aging water
network to ensure long term reliability.
The strategic plan for ensuring water quality is given below:
Continue implementing infrastructure upgrades by developing and implementing

Long-Term Control Plans and expanding wet weather capacity at treatment plants
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Pursue proven solutions to prevent stormwater from entering the system through
increase use of High Level Storm Sewers (HLSS), capture the benefits of our open
space plan and expanding the Bluebelt program
Expand, track, and analyze new Best Management Practices (BMPs) on a broad scale
by forming an interagency BMP Task Force, pilot promising BMPs, requiring
greening of parking lots, providing incentives for green roofs and protecting wetlands
Ensure the quality of drinking water by continuing the Watershed Protection

Program, constructing an ultraviolet disinfection plant for the Catskill and Delaware
systems and building the Croton Filtration Plant
Create redundancy for aqueducts to New York City by launching a major new water
conservation effort, maximizing existing facilities and evaluating new water sources
Modernize in-city distribution by completing Water Tunnel No. 3, completing a

backup tunnel to Staten Island and accelerating upgrades to water main infrastructure
3. Transportation
New Yorks success has always been driven by the efficiency and scale of its transportation
network. But for the last 50 years, New York has underinvested. Despite dramatic progress, a
full state of good repair across our transit and road networks was not achieved as yet. More
significantly, virtually all subway routes, river crossings, and commuter rail lines will be
pushed beyond their capacity in the coming decadesmaking transportation our greatest
potential barrier to growth.
A sweeping transportation plan that would enable the city to meet the needs through 2030
and beyond is proposed. Transportation addresses the issue of congestion, and conditions of
transport systems.
That includes strategies to improve the transit network, through major infrastructure
expansions, improved bus service, an expanded ferry system and the completion of our bike
master plan. The growing gridlock on the roads should also reduce through better road
management and congestion pricing, a proven strategy that charges drivers a daily fee to use
the citys densest business district.
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The strategic plan for transportation includes:
Building and expanding transit infrastructure by increasing capacity on key congested

routes, providing new commuter rail access to Manhattan and expansion of transit
access to underserved areas
Improve transit service on existing infrastructure by improving and expanding bus

service, improving local commuter rail service, improve access to existing transit and
addressing congested areas around the city
Promote other sustainable modes through expanding ferry service and promoting
Cycling
Improve traffic flow by reducing congestion through congestion pricing, managing

roads more efficiently, strengthening enforcement of traffic violations and facilitating
freight movements
Achieve a state of good repair on our roads and transit system by closing the
Metropolitan Transportation Authoritysstate of good repair gap and reaching a state
of good repair on the citys roads and bridges
Develop new funding sources by establishing a new regional transit financing

authority
4. Energy
The city faces rising energy costs, air pollution, and greenhouse gas emissions from a lack of
coordinated planning, aging infrastructure, and growth. The target is to provide cleaner, more
reliable power for the citizens by upgrading the energy infrastructure. This would require a
two-pronged strategy to increase the clean supply and lower the consumption despite the
growthsomething that no city or state has done before. Thus smart investments in clean
power and energy- saving technologies are required to reduce the electricity and heating bills
by billions of dollars while reducing the greenhouse gas emissions by nearly 27 million
metric tons per year. Thus addition of new, clean power plants through guaranteed contracts
needs to be encouraged, repowering of the most inefficient plants need to be promoted, and
build a market for renewable energies to become a bigger source of energy. This new supply
would also enable to retire the oldest, most polluting power plants, cleaning the air and
reducing greenhouse gas emissions.
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The plan for energy thus includes the following strategies:
Improving energy planning by establishing a New York City Energy Planning Board
Reducing New York Citys energy consumption by reducing energy consumption by

City government, strengthening energy and building codes for New York City,
creating an energy efficiency authority for New York City, prioritizing five key areas
for targeted incentives, expanding peak load management and launching an energy
awareness and training campaign
Expanding the citys clean power supply by facilitating repowering and construct
power plants and dedicated transmission lines, expanding Clean Distributed
Generation (Clean DG), supporting expansion of natural gas infrastructure and
fostering the market for renewable energy
Modernize electricity delivery infrastructure by accelerating reliability improvements

to the citys grid, facilitating grid repairs through improved coordination and joint
bidding and supporting Con Edisons efforts to modernize the grid
5. Air Quality
Despite recent improvements, New York City still falls short in meeting federal air quality
standards. This is most apparent in the persistently high rates of asthma that plague too many
neighborhoods. must also address our other major sources of emissions: buildings and power
plants. That means switching to cleaner fuels for heating and retiring polluting plants. Our
open space initiatives such as tree plantings will move us the rest of the way toward
achieving the cleanest air of any big city in America. The aim is thus to achieve the cleanest
air quality of any big U.S.city.
The plan for air quality is thus to:
Reduce road vehicle emissions by capturing the air quality benefits of our
transportation plan, improving fuel efficiency of private cars, reducing emissions
from taxis, black cars, and for-hire vehicles, replacing, retrofitting, and refuelling
diesel trucks and decreasing school bus emissions
Reduce other transportation emissions by retrofitting ferries and promoting use of

cleaner fuels, seeking to partner with the Port Authority to reduce emissions from
Port facilities and reducing emissions from construction vehicles
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Reduce emissions from buildings by capturing the air quality benefits of our energy
plan, promoting the use of cleaner burning heating fuels, pursuing natural solutions to
improve air quality, capturing the benefits of our open space plan, reforesting targeted
areas of our parkland, increasing tree plantings on lots
Understand the scope of the challenge by launching collaborative local air quality
study
6. Climate Change
The sheer scale of the New York city means that the city emits nearly 0.25% of the worlds
total greenhouse gases. Greater changes are ahead in terms of warmer, more unpredictable
weather and rising sea levels. Scientists have predicted that unless greenhouse gas emissions
are substantially stemmed by the middle of the century, the impacts of climate change will be
irreversible. Coastal cities like New York are especially vulnerable to rising sea levels and
intensifying storms. The target is to reduce global warming emissions by more than 30%. All
of New Yorks strategiesfrom reducing the number of cars to building cleaner power
plants to addressing the inefficiencies of our buildings would help to reduce emissions. The
climate change strategy is the sum of all of the initiatives in this plan.
The plan for climate change adaptation includes strategies for:
Creating an intergovernmental Task Force to protect the citys vital infrastructure, by
working with vulnerable neighborhoods to develop site-specific strategies and launch a
citywide strategic planning process for climate change adaptation
One of the biggest challenges to long-term planning in government is that the terms of
elected leaders rarely extend into the long term. It means that time will be up before the job is
finished, which in some cases limits the desire or ability to embark on multi-year efforts. But
we rarely appreciate the extent to which long-term challenges require near-term action to
solve or avoid them. As a result, this plan requires fast implementation.
The Plan is the result of a collaborative effort between the government agencies i.e. the
Mayors Sustainability Advisory Board, composed of some of the citys leading
environmental, business, community, and legislative leaders,, civic organizations, academic
experts i.e. scientists and professors at the Earth Institute at Columbia University, New York
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University, the City University of New York, community groups, consultants, representatives
of organized labour and the private sector, elected officials and the residents of New York.
The plan includes the targets, policies, strategies as well as the projects. The plan has
linked up the policies with the plan and the projects. Projectising the plan helps in
implementing the plan. The plan is monitored to check whether, the implementation
status in terms of progress of the projects, are as per the plan.
2.2.3 KARACHI
Karachi, located in Pakistan is the capital of the province of Sindh. It is the largest
city, main port, the financial capital of the country and a premier centre of banking, industry,
and trade. Karachi city is now among the ten top ranking largest cities in the world with a
population of 18.5 million (2007) and is spread over 3,530 sq.km. Karachi has the largest
metropolitan area in the world and is ranked as a Beta world city. It is the fastest growing
mega city of Pakistan with the population expected to reach 27 million by 2020.
Fig 2.5: Location of Karachi
As
base,
revenue-generating
Karachi
contributes
almost to the extent of about

65% of the total revenues.
The metropolitan economy
is
fast
growing
impressive
rate,
at
an
probably
somewhat higher than the

national GDP growth rate of
6-7 percent per annum. The
main
economic
sectors
contributing to the citys

GDP
are:
trade
and
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commerce, manufacturing, transport, including ports, air port and shipping, real estate,
construction, and services.
It is a cosmopolitan city, inhabited by people with culturally enriched background and a
sense of social commitment. Karachi, with its enormous potential to serve the country, is
now emerging as a globalized complex in competition with other regional centers of similar
order.
The Karachi Strategic Development Plan 2020 (KSDP-2020)

The City District Government Karachi (CDGK) has formulated the Karachi Strategic
Development Plan 2020 (KSDP-2020), under Sindh Local Government Ordinance, 2001
(SLGO). The spatial coverage of the KSDP-2020 extends over the whole City District of
Karachi, consisting of 18 administrative towns, 6 cantonments, and the Federal and
Provincial governments land-holding agencies. The towns are territorially further sub-divided
into 178 Union Councils. The operational time span for the plan extends to the year 2020
within the scope of Pakistan's Vision 2030. This period has been assigned in view of the
feasibility of achieving the plan objectives, and making available the required resources in
the foreseeable future. During the course of planning, consultation and input from the landowning agencies, stakeholders, utility agencies, and technical committees comprising
professionals and subject experts were sought through a series of discussions.
Vision, aim and objectives: The aim was to steer and guide the growth of country's
commercial and business capital and to set out a strategic framework and overall
development direction and future pattern of the city over the next 13 years and beyond. The
CDGK has a vision of making Karachi a world-class city and attractive economic centre with
a decent life for Karachiites. The vision recognizes the need to stimulate economic growth
and create an inclusive city that provides opportunity and a better life for all its citizens. The
vision thus challenges the leaders, institutions and citizens of Karachi to change the way the
city works and does business. The Guiding Principles of the vision are:
Sustainable growth that is economically feasible, environmentally viable, socially and
culturally acceptable
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Creating an inclusive city, social justice and poverty reduction

Safeguarding quality of life, people are at the centre of the vision
The KSDP-2020 sets out the following objectives:
Finding out Karachi's advantages and potential which could be a driving
force for future development;
Promoting a holistic vision which can integrate various development activities

towards sustainable growth;
Identifying key issues in social, economic, environment and urban infrastructure

sectors, which constrain the desired development of the city, since the solution of the
issues is a pre-requisite to realize the vision;
Setting out strategic framework against the backdrop of current conditions and
formulating strategy for its achievement;
Framing
Putting in place an effective, collaborative institutional arrangement having
out
the
development
plan
components
or
action
program;
participation of all stakeholders and citizen's participation, for successful delivery of

KSDP-2020.
Planning process and contents: The strategic framework set out in this section examines
the vision against the backdrop of current conditions and presents a strategy The process of
KSDP-2020 preparation included, as a first step, a review and analysis of the existing
conditions, bringing out the multifaceted dimension of the prevailing urban crisis. Two basic
surveys, (a) a sample socio-economic survey and (b) a land use survey, were carried out for
analysis of the existing trends. The strategic framework set out in this section examines the
vision against the backdrop of current conditions and presents a strategy for its achievement.
The trends in the various sectors that impact the urban population, urban economy, land use,
housing, infrastructure, institutional, fiscal and financial arrangements were focused, and a
series of sectoral reports were prepared for the inputs into the strategic plan.
During the course of planning, consultation and input from the land-owning agencies,
stakeholders, utility agencies, and technical committees comprising professionals and subject
experts were sought through a series of discussions.
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Population
Karachi is now among the ten top ranking largest cities in the world. In 2005, the population
of Karachi was estimated at 15.1 million which is expected to reach 27.5 million mark by
2020.
Land Use
The vision and the strategy, anticipate a range of spatial changes, as the Karachis population
grows (15.2 million in 2005 to 27.55 million by 2020), and the metropolitan economy gains
momentum, along with sizeable growth in commercial and industrial activity. The spatial
needs for commerce, industry, housing and infrastructure development will be provided
through a set of policies and programs. Mixed use developments are promoted in designated
areas and in new development areas especially mix of offices, neighborhood-scale retail and
residences in new development areas so that people can live and shop near where they work.
As the trend of increasing car ownership continues, especially amongst the middle and high
income populations, promoting pedestrian-oriented developments would help reduce some of
vehicular movements that would otherwise be generated if one had to drive everywhere.
There should be an effort to encourage the concentration of local economic and commercial
activities to create more efficient town centers, leaving more room for the location of urban
amenities.
Housing
Housing needs of the population of the size of Karachi are very large as well as pressing. The
phenomenal growth rate, as shown by the addition of a high number of households annually,
has generated a very high demand for affordable houses for the middle and low-income
groups. Addressing the housing backlog and the challenges it poses, is on a priority agenda
of the federal and provincial governments. Pakistans National Housing Policy 2001, and the
Mid-Term Development Framework (MTDF) 2005-10 refers to the increasing housing
backlog and emphasizes the need to address the issue of inadequate supply of developed
land. It lists poor land administration and limited supply of housing finance among the main
issues identified.
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A significant aspect of the housing sector is current state of the housing schemes launched
during the last 30 years to meet the housing shortage in Karachi. Despite the development
work and allotment of plots was completed long ago, the schemes still remain largely
unoccupied and uninhabited. In the formal sector, the backlog delivery will be affected
through a range of measures designed to substantially augment the housing supply.
The required measures are:
a) Densification through consolidation and infill
b) Accelerating the occupancy in new developed yet unoccupied housing schemes
c) Waterfront development with high-rise in designated areas along the coast
d) Providing mixed land uses and high density growth in suitable location of the metropolitan
area
e) Promoting new economic centers together with affordable housing sectors for all incomegroups
f) Appropriate land use and infrastructure improvements in the inner city including the CBD,
and area upgradation program including the public servant housing in government-owned
housing estates.
Infrastructure
Water
Improvements in the system depend on public financing, for the existing tariffs only generate
insufficient revenues to cover operational and maintenance costs. Enhancement of tariffs is
clearly linked to the economic structure of consumer population besides improvement in
service delivery. Efficiency of the delivery system is intricately tied up with the financial
viability and related management issues.
Sewerage
The net sewage flow is estimated at 388 MGD. System performance is marred by glaring
deficiencies. The collection network has a low coverage and lacks major interceptors and
sufficient treatment capacity. Most sewage flows into the nullahs and rivers which run as
open sewers through the urban area, causing highly obnoxious, insanity conditions with
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serious health risks and unpleasant environment for the residents of adjoining
neighbourhoods. Three sewered areas of central and southern Karachi are connected by
Trunk Sewers and interceptors to existing treatment plants. Other areas are sewered but
discharge directly into nallah, rivers or the sea without treatment. The main problems in the
system are low coverage of the collection network, lack of major interceptors, insufficient
treatment capacity, and low operational efficiency of existing treatment plants.
Storm Water Drainage

Karachi recorded an annual average monsoon rainfall varying 125-250 mm whereas winter
rainfall is about 25 mm. There are two main non-perennial rivers, the Malir and Lyari rivers,
crossing the thickly populated city areas before falling into Arabian Sea.
Solid Waste Management (SWM)

Karachis 15.2 million persons and substantial manufacturing and construction sectors
produced approximately 9000 metric tons of household, commercial, industrial, construction
and institutional solid waste per day in 2005. The collection process is not very well
developed. There are no garbage transfer stations, so the small vehicles manoeuvre narrow
roads of the city. Estimates indicate 60% of the waste is collected and transferred to landfill
sites. The remaining forty percewnt is recycled, burnt, dropped in drains and sewers, or eaten
by cattle. The strategies for SWM directly address the challenge and will provide the
intended service delivery improvements:
Strategy 1: Strengthening the Legal Policy Framework
Strategy 2: Rebuilding and Strengthening the SWM Institutions
Strategy 3: Replacing Municipal Infrastructure
Strategy 4: Improving Primary Waste Collection and Integrating the Informal Sector
Strategy 5: Optimizing Private Sector Involvement
Strategy 6: Engaging the Public
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Social Services Component

Health Services
Analysis of the health care situation in Karachi showed that the majority of health related
problems are basic in nature and that there is a clear need to support, bolster and maintain
prevention programs against communicable diseases. Millennium Development Goals for the
health sector also focus on reducing child mortality, improving maternal health and
combating HIV/AIDs, malaria and other communicable diseases.
Citys future health service needs will require the construction of new facilities at all levels
of the health care system. In particular, it will require a large number of new primary health
care centres, the majority of which will be located in newly developing areas of the city.
Education
Despite the above mentioned situation, the present educational facilities, particularly at
school level remain inadequate for the rapidly growing population. Approximately 75% of all
children needing basic education are enrolled in the primary schools, while about 60-65
percent receive education at the secondary level.
In several areas the number of schools is very low; the socio-economic status of a vast
section of the population such as the people living in the katchi abadis and other low-income
areas, denies them the opportunity of school education. As for the quality of education, the
public sector institutions lag behind the private sector. However, the public education is
much more affordable than the private schools.
Transportation
Karachi has no comprehensive transportation plan or integrated multi-modal plan. Traffic
engineering capacity exists, but occurs on an ad hoc. Traffic management institutions are
weak and rules are out of date. There are three CDGK agencies concerned with roads and
transport, and their roles and responsibilities are not clearly defined.
The government does not invest in transit. Many bus owners respond well to the profit
motive, but there is no supporting infrastructure or coordination. There has yet to be any
serious thought about, much less investment in, mass transit. Of 24.2 million trips taken
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every day in Karachi, the public transport (buses) is deemed to provide 50-60 percent of all
trips, para-transit (taxis and rickshaws) and private cars account for about 20 percent of the
trips. Pedestrian trips represent about 20 percent of all the trips.
Inter / Intra-city bus terminal facilities, based on the catchments have been earmarked in
various potential zones. Multimodal transport facility is proposed in the CBD. Likewise,
provision of multi-level car parking garages in various areas and close to the transit stations
to ensure park & ride facilities, cargo village etc., have been envisaged in the land use
planning process. It is mandatory for all civic/ land owning agencies to make adequate
provision for transport infrastructure facilities in conformity with the CDGKs land use plan.
The policy objectives for development of the transport sector plan are to provide safe and
efficient mobility for people and goods,
improve public mass transportation system,
targeting affordability and convenience, traffic engineering improvement measures and

traffic management techniques, integration of traffic police and enforcement with city traffic
planning and management through rationalization of related fundamental structure under a
central transport authority, strengthen existing transportation infrastructure and services by
considering various alternatives, analyze thoroughly any road building program if it would
remove congestion and would not induce more traffic, minimize single-occupancy vehicle
use, improve pedestrian safety and facilities, development of transport related GIS data-base,
development and adoption of standard and manuals for Traffic & Transportation Engineering
Works & Service, evolving a comprehensive transportation plan development and modeling
to address vehicular traffic, public mass transportation (bus line and railbased), parking to
provide for development of roadway and public transport/mass transit infrastructure
development priorities for long range, reduce congestion in the CBD areas through a
combination of rationalized parking, traffic management, pedestrianization, land use control
and transit improvements, develop transport infrastructure to support planned land use
changes, especially strengthening links between CBD and polycentric commercial centre
nodes, improve safety, energy efficiency and air quality. seek improvements through strong
private sector participation and formulate strategy for management and operation of local
bus terminals.
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Urban environment
Karachis urban environment has deteriorated considerably over the past 2-3 decades. With
expansion of the built-up area and continuous densification the built environment has been
marred by intense congestion, lack of cleanliness, unsanitary conditions, and poor
maintenance of public infrastructure, over-construction and enormous encroachment of footpaths, streets, roads and public amenity open spaces. Environmental problems are more
intense and uncontrollable in poor areas, such as katchi abadis and in low-income or high
density areas. Solid waste collection is also neglected in poor areas where most garbage is
littered around in the streets and lanes.
Water quality and water pollution are important environmental concerns. There occurs
widespread contamination with pathogenic organism in water from the system supply lines
largely due to faulty pipe connections and infiltration of sewage water during idle hours.
Most water available in Karachi does not meet the water quality standards of WHO.
Air pollution is a serious environmental problem in the Karachi city. Automobile exhaust,
industrial emissions, open burning of garbage, domestic and commercial fuel sources cause
high increase in air. Contaminants i.e. TSP, Nox, Lead, So2,and Co. Rapid increase in the
vehicular traffic has produced high pollution levels along city roads and road intersections
where these far exceed the limits set by the WHO and National Environment Quality
Standards of Pakistan.
Coastal Development
Coastal development is a special area requiring a plan carefully integrated with the overall
metropolitan planning and has to be based on well defined land use and urban design
principles. The infrastructure requirements of the coastal zone should be clearly specified
along with their impact and linkages with the city. Therefore the coastal development should
be an integral component of the citys overall development strategy.
Heritage Sites
Karachis cultural heritage is tangibly manifest in its historic architecture, the heritage
buildings that link the city to its historic past. There are about 600 heritage buildings,
concentrated mainly in the inner city, and are protected sites under the Sindh Cultural
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Heritage Act 1994. Many of these buildings have deteriorated over the years and are in
urgent need of repairs. In addition to regular renovation and preservation of the heritage
buildings, development in areas adjacent to these sites has to be consistent with conservation
in accordance with the criteria and zoning bylaws. Public awareness regarding these
buildings as historic assets is an essential element in promotional activities targeting
conservation and environmental improvements. In case of buildings under private ownership,
offer of various incentives should encourage owners to protect their historic properties.
CDGK shall facilitate the preservation and protection of the historic buildings by establishing
rehabilitation standards and preservation techniques, developing a building permit process to
monitor construction and repair work done on historic properties, promoting compatible land
use in ambient space adjacent to historic building and in historic neighborhoods, encouraging
to institute a tax credit program to encourage private property owners to protect their historic
properties,
promoting Cultural Karachi for cultural tourism and establishing a Cultural
Karachi Board with representation of urban design professionals.
Natural Hazards and Disasters

Karachi remains at risk from natural disasters i.e. earthquakes, tsunami waves, and the
cyclonic storms. Karachi and the region around it has been affected by earthquakes, mostly
of low and moderate intensity. Only a few had high intensity, which also generated tsunami
waves in 1819, 1943, 1945 and 1956, causing much destruction of life and property along the
coastal areas of Pakistan. Karachi is vulnerable to devastating tropical cyclones that originate
in the Arabian Sea and may strike Karachi with ferocity and heavy rainfall and with
disastrous consequences of heavy downpours, flash-floods, loss of life and property. To
minimize the effects of such natural disasters on human population and property, a disaster
preparedness and relief management plan is an obvious necessity. Such a plan will be
concerned with monitoring the natural phenomena causing disasters, an effective warning
system, to forewarn the people about the likelihood of occurrence of severe cyclonic storms,
floods, earthquakes and tsunamis, using credible predictive techniques shall be established. A
disaster warning system and identification of most vulnerable zones and a relief delivery
system are the other key aspects of disaster management.
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2.2.4 LONDON
Fig 2.6: Location of London
London is the largest and most
populous metropolitan area and the capital
of the United Kingdom (UK). The city is a
leading global city being the world's largest
major business and financial centre, and has
the largest city GDP in Europe. Greater
London with a population of 8.27 million
and an area of 1706.8 sq. km includes 32
London boroughs as well as the City of
London, i.e. London's core, the 'square
mile'. It has an area of 2.9 sq. km and
is
the historic core of London around which the modern conurbation grew and has held city
status since time immemorial. The city has a high density of 4761 persons/sq. km. Greater
London covers the 32 London boroughs and the Corporation of London.
The London Plan

The London Plan is the spatial development strategy for Greater London. The London Plan
itself is a statutory document setting out an integrated social, economic and environmental
framework for the future development of London, looking forward 1520 years.The Plan
integrates the physical and geographic dimensions of the other strategies, including broad
locations for change and providing a framework for land use management and development,
which is strongly linked to improvements in infrastructure, especially transport.
Vision, aim and objectives: to develop London as an exemplary, sustainable world city,
based on the three balanced and interwoven themes of strong, long-term and diverse
economic growth, social inclusivity and fundamental improvements in the environment and
use of resources.
The London Plan provides the London wide context within which individual boroughs must
set their local planning policies, sets the policy framework for the Mayors involvement in
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major planning decisions in London, sets out proposals for implementation and funding and
is Londons response to European guidance on spatial planning and a link to European
Structural Funds. The Plan enables a strategic approach to be taken to the key issues facing
London. It provides a clear framework, within which all the stakeholders in Londons future
can plan their own activities to best effect, enables Londoners to participate in shaping the
future of their city mostly at the sub-regional level, ensures that policies are coherent and
integrated, across issues and between places and sends a strong message to the world that
London has a vibrant and confident view of its future.
The objectives of the plan are as under:

Objective 1: To accommodate Londons growth within its boundaries without encroaching
on open spaces.
Objective 2: To make London a better city for people to live in
Objective 3: To make London a more prosperous city with strong and diverse economic
growth
Objective 4: To promote social inclusion and tackle deprivation and discrimination
Objective 5: To improve Londons accessibility
Objective 6: To make London a more attractive, well-designed and green city.
The spatial strategies for development are:
Support for and co-ordination of sub-regional initiatives, bridging the gap between
Londonwide and more local actions.
Recognition of the governments and the wider regional priority for regeneration of
East London, especially the Thames Gateway and LondonStanstedCambridge
growth areas.
Further development in the Central Activities Zone and associated Opportunity Areas
to intensify and accommodate substantial growth, especially in economic activity
Major development in other Opportunity Areas, with an overall priority to the east of
London along the Thames Gateway, and an expansion of some central London
activities into parts of the City fringe, Isle of Dogs and Stratford
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Enhancing and diversifying the role of town centres across London in places with
good public transport access.
Appropriate intensification and mix of uses, with a special focus on the Areas for
Intensification that are well served by public transport
Integrating spatial policies with policies for neighbourhood renewal, better health,
improved learning and skills, greater safety and better employment and housing
opportunities in the Areas for Regeneration
Significant improvements in access, services and sustainability in suburban areas.
Managing and promoting the Strategic Employment Locations as Londons strategic

reservoir of industrial capacity.
Planning Process and contents: The process and contents of the London Plan are discussed
as follows:
Transport
The transport policies seek to assist in achieving spatial development priorities by integrating
development with existing and future public transport infrastructure and services as well as
exploiting existing areas of good public transport accessibility. Future public transport
improvements include those that support the development of East London, growth in Central
London, Opportunity Areas and Areas for Intensification and better access to town centres
and Areas for Regeneration. The aim was to achieve sustainable transport in London. The
strategies are substantial new and improved transport infrastructure through high levels of
growth , improved public transport to support opportunity areas and areas for intensification,
particularly in east London, access improvements to and within town centres and their
residential hinterlands by public transport - including by improved bus services, walking and
cycling - and between town centres by improved bus services, more frequent rail services
and, where appropriate, new tram and bus transit schemes and improved, sustainable
transport between suburban centres, particularly by enhanced bus services, walking and
cycling and by greater integration between bus, rail and underground services.
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Housing policies
There were 3.1 million households in London in 2001. Based on the latest available
projections and estimates, Londons population increase of 800,000 to 2016 could lead to an
increase of 336,000 households over the next 15 years a total of around 3.4 million. This
assumes constant household size and it is equivalent to 22,400 additional households a
year.In line with the concept of a sustainable and compact city, future residential
development needs to be located so as to maximise the use of scarce land, to conserve energy
and to be within easy access of jobs, schools, shops, and public transport. The provision of
new housing should also help support economic growth and offer a range of choices for new
households, including affordable housing. UDP policies should identify the needs of the
diverse groups in their area. They should address the spatial needs of these groups, and
ensure that they are not disadvantaged both through general policies for development and
specific policies relating to the provision of social infrastructure, the public realm, inclusive
design and local distinctiveness.
Inclusivity
Twelve per cent of Londons population is aged 65 or over and three per cent of Londons
total population is over the age of 80. Many womens experiences of London are affected by
concerns about the gender pay-gap, childcare, health facilities and personal safety,
particularly in the public realm but also on public transport. Women are significant
contributors to Londons economy. They represent 46 per cent of all taxpayers in London.
However, on average in London, women earn only 77 per cent of mens earnings per hour.
This means less ability to buy a home, fewer saving for retirement and personal investment.
The lives of women living in London depend crucially on public policy and the future of
Londons public services. Women make up over 67 per cent of the workforce in the public
services sector and are the greatest users of public services.
Nearly a third of all Londoners are from black and minority ethnic groups. While they share
many of the generic needs of all Londoners, or have additional needs concomitant with their
gender, age, sexuality or disability, at the same time, many black and minority ethnic groups
have distinct spatial needs.
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Health
UDP policies should promote the objectives of the NHS Plan, Local Delivery Plans and
Modernisation Programmes and the organisation and delivery of health care in the borough.
This should be in partnership with the strategic health authorities, primary care trusts and
Local Strategic Partnerships and with voluntary and community organisations involved in
delivering health services.
Education facilities
UDP policies should reflect the demands for preschool, school and community learning
facilities, taking into account GLA demographic projections, and should ensure adequate
provision in partnership with the local education authority, local strategic partnership and
users. By 2016, Londons school age population is projected to increase by almost eight per
cent. Just over half of this total growth of 140,000 is expected to be in outer London.
Realising the value of open space

Open space is an integral part of the spatial character of the city. Londons Green Belt and
Metropolitan Open Land form the basic structure of Londons strategic network of open
spaces. Open spaces that are of local importance form part of the wider network of open
spaces, which in turn is part of the vital and distinctive attraction of London. The Mayor will
work with partners to identify any strategic deficiency in the provision of publicly accessible
open space.
Biodiversity and nature conservation

The planning of new development and regeneration should have regard to nature
conservation and biodiversity, and opportunities should be taken to achieve positive gains for
conservation through the form and design of development. Where appropriate, measures may
include creating, enhancing and managing wildlife habitat and natural landscape. Priority for
habitat creation should be given to sites which assist in achieving the targets in Biodiversity
Action Plans (BAPs) and sites within or near to areas deficient in accessible wildlife sites.
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Efficient use of water

The amount of water that is lost through leakage in the supply network in the London area is
currently estimated to be around 25 per cent14 of the total amount of supplied water. It is a
figure that should be reduced. London and neighbouring regions to protect and conserve
water supplies in order to secure Londons long term needs by ensuring that adequate
sustainable water resources are available for major new development, minimising the use of
treated water, maximising rainwater harvesting opportunities using grey water recycling
systems, reaching cost-effective minimum leakage levels, keeping under review the need for
additional sources of water supply.
Planning for waste

In order to meet the national policy aim that most waste should be treated or disposed of
within the region in which it is produced (regional self-sufficiency) the Mayor will work in
partnership with the London boroughs, the Environment Agency, statutory waste disposal
authorities and operators to ensure that facilities with sufficient capacity to manage 75 per
cent (16 million tonnes) of waste arising within London are provided by 2010, rising to 80
per cent (19 million tonnes) by 2015 and 85 per cent (22.5 million tonnes) by 2020. An early
alteration to this plan will seek to bring forward regional self sufficiency targets for
individual waste streams.
UDP policies should incorporate the following criteria to identify sites and allocate sufficient
land for waste management and disposal through the consideration of proximity to source of
waste, nature of activity proposed and its scale, environmental impact on surrounding areas,
particularly noise, emissions, odour and visual impact, transport impact, particularly the use
of rail and water transport and primarily using sites that are located on Preferred Industrial
Locations or existing waste management locations.
Climate change
London is already feeling the effects of climate change. Sea-level rise relative to the land is
now widely accepted as occurring at 6mm/year at high tide in the London area. A significant
proportion of future development will be in east London, which could be increasingly at risk
from tidal flooding. Preventative and adaptive measures will therefore be needed, including
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the construction of appropriate flood defences in new developments. The study by the
London Climate Change Partnership identified a number of climate change impacts that
could affect London in the future. These include:
Higher temperatures with increases in demand for summer cooling, yet less demand
for winter heating so reducing incidences of fuel poverty,
Increased risk of flooding rising sea levels and increased winter storminess could
increase closures of the Thames Barrier,
Higher water demand river flows are likely to be lower in summer and higher in
winter, which could aggravate water quality problems, effects on health both less
winter mortality and yet higher summer mortality caused by stress,
Biodiversity summer drought could stress wetlands; warmer weather could

encourage spread of disease and pests,
Built environment subsidence could worsen as clay dries out; but increased number
of days when construction is possible,
Transport disruption from flooding and from warmer temperatures; but decreased
disruption from cold weather
Business and finance insurance industry could be exposed to increased volume of

claims; potential reduced access to insurance in areas at flood risk
Tourism increased temperatures attract more tourists; but could also lead to
residents leaving London for a more comfortable environment
Lifestyle green and open spaces will be used more intensively with more outdoor
living.
Heritage conservation
Ensure that the protection and enhancement of historic assets in London are based on an
understanding of their special character, and form part of the wider design and urban
improvement agenda, and that policies recognise the multi-cultural nature of heritage issues,
identify areas, spaces and buildings of special quality or character and adopt policies for their
protection and the identification of opportunities for their enhancement, taking into account
the strategic London context and encourage and facilitate inclusive solutions to providing
access for all, to and within the historic environment.
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Many of Londons best loved and historically important buildings and places are situated
along the banks of the Thames and Londons waterways. Londons four World Heritage Sites
are found adjacent to the Thames, and there are numerous Conservation Areas and listed
buildings adjacent to all waterways. Historical infrastructure, such as cranes, can also add to
our understanding of waterways.
Implementation Process
The Mayors powers in the field of spatial development are substantial, but effective
implementation will require the use of a range of implementation processes to ensure the
most effective co-ordination of the contributions of the various stakeholders. There are six
main processes:
The Mayors powers and resources
Working in partnership
Promoting development
Negotiation on development proposals
Generation and use of resources
Phasing and co-ordination of development.
Transport for London (TfL) has key responsibilities for major roads and much of the public
transport network.
The London Development Agency (LDA) has a vital role to play in economic
development and regeneration.
The Metropolitan Police Authority (MPA) and London Fire & Emergency
Planning Authority (LFEPA) have a critical role in delivery and can influence safety
and security throughout London. Making London a safer city is a key objective for
both these organisations.
The Mayor and other London partners have established a London Office in Brussels,
which will spearhead efforts to increase Londons influence upon and benefits from
the EU.
The Mayor has responsibility for a range of other strategies: these are identified later
in this chapter and in other appropriate chapters of this plan.
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The Main Stakeholders and their Contribution

Beyond the GLA group, the principal London stakeholders are the London boroughs, central
government and public sector agencies, the private sector, the voluntary and community
sectors and individual Londoners. There are many other key institutions in London. Some,
including the business organisations (such as London First, CBI and the London Chamber of
Commerce and Industry) already have a London-wide remit.
Others operate on a national or local basis but will also have a vital role in Londons future.
As the leader of the London community, the Mayor will work with all these institutions to
ensure that their objectives, resources and programmes are aligned.
Fig 2.7: Main stakeholders identified by the London Plan
Source: London Plan
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Strategies that will contribute to implementation
Contextual strategies:
There are strategies at national and international level that the Mayor will work within and
seek to influence so that they support this plans strategies. These include:
The Sustainable Communities programme, which sets out many policies, tools and
resources for strategic planning and in particular contains policy on the Thames
Gateway and the London-Stansted-Cambridge corridor
Other government policies, such as the ten-year Transport Plan. These are referred to
in this plan where especially significant
National and regional policy for key sectors, such as the NHS Plan
European policy: the plan follows the policy directions of the European
Spatial Development Strategy

Inter-regional strategies: the Mayor will participate in the development of the Regional
Spatial Strategies for the East and South East regions through the Inter-Regional Forum as a
consultee and will work with the regional bodies to ensure maximum compatibility across the
three regions.
Sub-regional strategies: Sub-Regional Development Frameworks will have a major role in
helping to implement this plan by supplementing policy and aiding delivery between the
strategic and the local dimensions.
Thematic strategies
The Mayor has responsibility for the production of a number of strategies and will use these
to develop and implement the policies in this plan. The GLA group has a co-ordination
mechanism to ensure consistency between its various strategies. Other important strategies
are produced by other bodies.
Monitoring and Review of the Plan: The plan as a whole will be monitored in an Annual
Monitoring Report that will analyse the state of strategic planning in London and set
priorities for the coming year. The report will be made public and discussed with
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stakeholders. The results could lead to changes in the way the plan is being implemented if
this is necessary. For example, there may be a need to adjust phasing of some elements as a
result of changing market conditions or levels of government funding.
2.2.5 SYDNEY
Fig 2.8: Location of Sydney
Sydney is the largest and most populous
city in Australia and the state capital of
New South Wales with a population of
4.5 million approximately. The city has
an area of 4689.1 sq. km. and a density of
2058persons/sq.km. As the financial and
economic hub of Australia, Sydney has
grown
to
become
wealthy
and
prosperous city, ranking as the second

wealthiest city in the world in terms of
per capita purchasing power. The largest
economic sectors in Sydney, as measured
by the number of people employed,
include property and business services,
retail, manufacturing, and health and community services. Since the 1980s, jobs have moved
from manufacturing to the services and information sectors. Sydney provides approximately
25 percent of the country's total GDP. The city is built on hills surrounding the port i.e.
Sydney Harbour. The hinterland of the metropolitan area is surrounded by national parks,
and the coastal regions feature many bays, rivers, inlets and beaches. Sydney is classified as
an Alpha World City+ which reflects its reputation as an international centre for commerce,
arts, fashion, culture, entertainment, music, education and tourism. The city has a Strategic
Development Plan i.e. Sustainable Sydney 2030.
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Sustainable Sydney 2030

Sustainable Sydney 2030 is a plan for the sustainable development of the City for the next 20
years and beyond. Sustainable development refers to the physical environment as well as the
city's economy, society and cultures, which are being addressed with bold ideas and good
governance. The results mean better outcomes now and in the future. Sustainable Sydney
2030 is an initiative of the City of Sydney. Developed in consultation with the community
and a team of Sydneys professionals in the field of urban planning, architecture and design,
it was coordinated by the City of Sydney's internal strategy team and an expert consortium.
Vision, aim and objectives: The Sustainable Sydney 2030 Vision is for a Green, Global,
and Connected City for a population from 1.1 million to 5.3 million in 2031. Green implies
with minimal environmental impact, green with trees, parks, gardens and linked open spaces,
green by example and green by reputation. Sydney will be internationally recognised as an
environmental leader with outstanding environmental performance and new green
industries driving economic growth. The City will reduce its greenhouse gas emissions, with
a network of green infrastructure to reduce energy, water and waste demands, led by major
renewal sites. The City will help contain the Sydney Regions urban footprint by planning for
new housing opportunities integrated with vital transport, facilities, infrastructure and open
space. The City will protect native flora, fauna and ecologies. Global implies global in
economic orientation, global in links and knowledge exchange, global and open-minded in
outlook and attitude. Sydney will remain Australias most significant Global City and
international gateway with world class tourism attractions and sustained investment in
cultural infrastructure, icons and amenities. The City will contain premium spaces for
business activities and high quality jobs in the City Centre, and support social, cultural and
recreational
facilities
to
nurture
attract
and
retain
global
talent.
The City will embrace innovation, and new generation technologies to connect
it through new media and the web, stimulating creativity and collaboration. The City will be
a part of global cultural networks and an active participant in global knowledge exchange.
Connected physically by walking, cycling and high quality public transport, connected
virtually by worldclass telecommunications, connected to communities through a sense of
belonging and social well being, and connected to other spheres of government and to those
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with an interest in the City. Sydney will be easy to get around with a local network for
walking and cycling, and transit routes connecting the Citys Villages, City Centre and the
rest of Inner Sydney. The City will be easy to get to with an upgraded regional transit
network that builds on the existing network. The Citys distinctive Villages will continue to
be strong focal points for community life and will encourage a sense of belonging. The
Villages will be served by concentrated, interconnected services and will make a significant
contribution to the Citys liveability and global competitiveness. The City will be diverse and
inclusive. Relative equality will be improved by an increased share of affordable housing and
better access to community facilities, programs and services across the City. Cultural vitality
will flow from high rates of participation in artistic expression, performance, events and
festivals. The City will celebrate and support its Indigenous people and their living culture.
The City will commit to partnerships and cooperation between governments, the private
sector and the community to lead change. The City is part of a wider national and global
community and will pursue relationships with other Australian and international cities for
cultural, trade and mutually beneficial exchanges.
The plan responds to the challenges of global warming, rising oil prices, declining housing
affordability and growth suggesting five Big Moves to make Sydney more sustainable,
vibrant and successful. Alongside the five Big Moves are ten strategic directions and many
hundreds of small steps that, delivered through partnerships, will transform Sydney to the
green, global, connected city of the 2030 vision. The 5 big moves are as under:
1. A revitalised City Centre at the heart of Global Sydney: Lively, people friendly and
global business centre, reconnected to the Harbour.
2. An integrated Inner Sydney transport network: New sustainable transport helping
people get quickly and easily into and around the City, linked to an improved public
transport system, reducing congestion.
3. A liveable green network: Attractive and useable tree-lined streets connecting City parks
for pedestrians and cyclists to safely experience and explore the City and its villages.
4. Activity Hubs as a focus for the Citys village communities and transport:
Community hubs where shops, cafes, markets, libraries, government services and
employment are centrally located within walking distance of every City resident.
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5. Transformative development and sustainable renewal: Initiatives to make the City

energy and water efficient, with affordable housing, high quality public space and design,
and better access to essential transport choices.
Fig 2.9: Planning Concept as put forth by Sydney Plan
Source: Sydney Plan 2030
Planning process and Contents: The key elements of the metropolitan strategy are:
Stronger cities within the metropolitan area, including Global Sydney (Sydney City
and North Sydney) and the Regional Cities of Parramatta, Liverpool and Penrith.
A stronger Global Economic Corridor from Macquarie Park through North Sydney to
Sydney Airport and Port Botany.
A target of over 550,000 new jobs for Sydney, with around half of these new jobs in
Western Sydney to 2031.
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A target of 640,000 new homes by 2031, with 70% in existing areas and 30% in new
release areas.
Containing Sydneys urban footprint by protecting rural and resource lands and only
releasing land for development that meets strict sustainability criteria.
New green-field development is focussed in the North West and South West Growth
Centres.
Major Centres emerging as jobs, service and residential locations with Sydney as a
City of Cities.
Fair access to housing, jobs, services and open space.
Connected centres supported by an expanded and improved transport network.
Stronger regions in the Central Coast, Illawarra and the Lower Hunter.
The objectives were translated into measurable factors, which were checked against the
benchmarks as given in the figure.
Fig 2.10: Translation of Planning Proposals in Sydney Plan
Source: Sydney Plan 2030

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The proposed directions are as such:
Planning for a growing population: Australia's population is expected to grow to 30

million by 2036, while Sydney's population is expected to reach 6 million by 2036.
This creates challenges and opens up new opportunities for NSW and Sydney as our
major city. The target is sustainable planning for a growing and ageing population.
Making Sydney climate change ready: The objective is to address the vulnerability of
Sydney to a changing climate and a carbon constrained future. Since release of the
Strategy in 2005, climate change has taken centre stage in worldwide policy
discussions. The Metropolitan Strategy review will place greater emphasis on the role
of land use planning in managing Sydneys greenhouse gas emissions to help achieve
the NSW Government target of a 60% cut by 2050. The Metropolitan Strategy review
will examine how the planning system can strengthen Sydney's resilience to the
impact of a changing climate, the steps Sydney can take to move towards a
sustainable city and help the region capitalise on the benefits. The Strategy will build
on the ways land use planning already reduces greenhouse gas emissions and helps
Sydney adapt to climate change, such as ensuring new housing meets good
environmental standards, such as capturing rainwater and reducing the need for air
conditioning, focussing new housing in or around centres and not displacing
agricultural and important environmental areas, using the public transport and freight
system to reduce the need for cars and truckstherefore reducing greenhouse gas
emissions, clustering jobs and other activities together for efficiency and within a
convenient distance of where we live, providing enough employment land to allow
industry innovation and new technologies that make a greener economy, using our
relative economic prosperity and ability to implement new climate change abatement
steps and information and policy support for councils to adapt to rising sea levels and
coastal erosion, including effects of climate change on flooding.
Integrating land use with transport: The Metropolitan Strategy focuses on the
concentration of existing public transport networks and services in centres.
Strengthening these centres utilises existing infrastructure and services and helps
meet the NSW State Plan targets including the need to increase the proportion of
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people who live within 30 minutes by public transport of a Regional City or Major
Centre. The major projects are as under:
South West Rail Link, North West Rail Link, Western Express City Rail Service a
separate dedicated rail track to reduce travelling times from Western Sydney to the
city with a goal of up to 50 per cent more services and 17 per cent more passengers
and expansion of the current light rail system, Sydney Ferries, Bike Plan, Freight Plan
and widening of roadways and motorways, planning for high capacity public
transport and a new fare structure and multimodal system for greater Sydney to make
using public transport fairer, simpler and cheaper.
Focus on centres: The Metropolitan Strategy identifies 27 existing and some new
Strategic Centres across the Sydney basin around which jobs, services and where new
housing, will be clustered. As well as these, there are over 1,000 towns and smaller
local centres. The vision is for Sydney-siders to work, relax and access services close
to home. It envisages a Sydney comprised of five Regional Cities. These cities are
supported by Major Centres and Specialised Centres, most employing over 8,000
people. Some people also live within the walking catchment of these larger centres,
while many more live in and around smaller local centres. All the cities and centres
form a network to increase the number of people living within easy reach of at least
one significant centre with cultural, entertainment, retail and job opportunities.
Better Amenity and Design in Centres: The review will look at the areas within
walking distance of centre main streets and transport hubs. The focus will be on high
quality urban design, clustered social services and facilities, good links to residential
areas, places for outdoor events, and for people of all ages and cultures; and good
quality street spaces that encourage physical activity. Successful centres require a
range of cultural, community and education services and a mix of business and other
activities. They must be safe places that are welcoming and that people want to return
to.
Meeting changing housing needs: Across Australia there has been a trend towards
smaller average household sizes - that is fewer people in each dwelling. This means
that even if Sydney experienced zero population growth, more dwellings would be
needed over time. Housing now and in the Short Term Annual housing supply has
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fluctuatedsupply in the last 10 years has ranged from under 15,000 dwellings in
200708 to over 32,000 dwellings in 19992000. Forecasts indicate enough homes
will be built over the next 10 years to meet overall housing targets for that period.
Further research is helping to define what type of housing is needed, be it houses or
apartments, to meet the changing nature of preferences in Sydney. While Local
Environmental Plans (LEPs) will continue to plan for the short to medium term to
meet current housing targets set by the Metropolitan Strategy in 2005, updated
housing targets will need to be determined in consultation with councils.
Affordability: Housing affordability is an issue for all of Sydney. Households paying

more than 30% of their income for their rent or their mortgage are considered to be in
housing stress. Changes to the planning system will help to increase the supply of
new and affordable dwellings.
Implementation: Delivering effective urban renewal relies on defining clear goals,

allocating responsibility for achieving a result and ensuring that the body that is
empowered to deliver is well supported and resourced. A coordinated group of
agencies and councils is likely to be sufficient to guide the delivery of small scale
renewal sites involving few parties.
The Government has announced its intention to establish a Sydney Metropolitan

Development Authority to manage significant urban renewal. The Authority will have
responsibility for achieving urban renewal outcomes for areas identified as part of this review
in conjunction with the Metropolitan Transport Plan. It may be necessary for the Authority to
use new targeted planning approaches to:
promote mixed use and appropriate higher intensity uses within walking distance of
public transport; and
achieve sustainable centre structure and built form through an adopted precinct plan
prepared using centres urban design guidelines. The system will need to be simple,
rapid and able to deliver land use certainty.
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2.2.6 HONG KONG

Hong Kong is one of the two special administrative regions of the People's Republic
of China. Situated on China's south coast and enclosed by the Pearl River Delta and South
China Sea, it is renowned for its expansive skyline and deep natural harbour. With land mass
of 1,104 km2 and a population of seven million people, Hong Kong is one of the most
densely populated areas in the world with a density of 6460 persons/sq.km. Under the
principle of "one country, two systems", Hong Kong runs on economic and political systems
different from those of mainland China. Hong Kong is one of the world's leading
international financial centres, with a major capitalist service economy characterised by low
taxation, free trade and minimum government intervention under the ethos of positive noninterventionism.
Fig 2.11: Location of Hong Kong
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Hong Kong Port Master Plan 2020

Hong Kongs planning system comprises development strategies at the territorial level, and
various types of Statutory and Departmental Plans at the district/local level. Guiding the
preparation of these plans is the Hong Kong Planning Standards and Guidelines. Two types
of statutory plans are prepared and published. In 2005, the TPO was amended to streamline
the plan-making process and planning approval procedures, enhance the openness and
transparency of the planning system and strengthen planning enforcement control in the rural
New Territories The overall objective of HKP2020 is to formulate a competitive and
sustainable strategy and master plan for port development over a 20-year planning time
frame. The critical priority is enhancing the competitiveness of existing port assets. This will
enable Hong Kong to:
retain a leading position in the provision of port services in South

China;
provide a sound basis for further port expansion; and
secure sustainable economic benefits for the HKSAR community.
The overriding objective for Hong Kong is to have a port sector that is a successful, safe,
sustainable and a major contributor to the wealth of Hong Kong and the wider South China
region. The key policy driver is that the provision of port services and facilities should be
market driven. Within this context the guiding principles of HKPs strategy are:
Efficiency: Improving the efficiency of port services to best meet demand.
Competitiveness: The focus of the strategy is to support and enhance the

competitiveness of Hong Kongs port and related service offers;
Partnership: Working with the private sector to ensure the delivery of world-class port
services.
Sustainability: Ensuring the port makes a positive and lasting contribution to

economic and social well being, without unacceptable environmental impacts.
Planning for Smart Growth: In context of its economic importance, Hong Kong needs to
plan for smart growth economically beneficial and profitable growth of port traffic. The
preferred scenario C2 is built on: The continuation of existing trends taking into account
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committed projects; and a package of policy and investment initiatives to support the Hong
Kong ports competitiveness
Alternative courses of action in responding to the possible scenarios are best-termed
"development options". Development options will be formulated by incorporating
environmental considerations based on variations in strategic development concepts,
conceptual distribution of population and employment, the transport network and the
distribution of special land uses. For the purpose of constructing development options, we
need to establish key variables for each of these broad development components.
Each of the development options will be evaluated against the objectives established in the
study process, so they can be judged according to their performance in achieving the
objectives. The evaluation will be subject to five streams of assessment: economic,
environmental, land use planning, social and transport.
The evaluation criteria are proposed as follows:
Economic: To enhance Hong Kong's potential for economic growth and ensure
efficient use of resources it is proposed to enhance GDP, strengthen the economic
base, maximize benefit-to-cost ratio and provide more land for economic activities.
Environmental: To enhance environmental quality and conserve natural and heritage

resources it is necessary to minimise air pollutant emissions to improve overall air
quality, exposure to roadside air pollution, noise exposure, exposure to potentially
hazardous installations, impacts on the quality of fresh and marine waters, impacts on
areas with ecological, heritage and landscape values, use of Greenfield sites and
reclaimed land and construction and demolition materials production.
Land Use: To ensure an optimized land use pattern which can meet various land
requirements, it is proposed to have adequate provision of living quarters to meet
housing demand, adequate provision of land to meet various other development
needs, balanced distribution of employment and housing land, adequate provision of
infrastructure facilities to meet various development needs and foster socio-economic
linkage with the Mainland.
Social: Access to major facilities and to foster community bonds are ensured through
optimization of population density; minimizing the impacts and the number of
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persons affected by urban renewal.
Transport: To ensure a safe, reliable, efficient, economically viable and

environmentally friendly transport system to enhance mobility within Hong Kong and
across the boundary, it is proposed to enhance the safety, reliability and efficiency of
the transport system, minimize adverse vehicle-related environmental impacts,
minimize travel distance and time, promote the usage of public transport services,
promote walking for short distance travel and promote better use of railways.
2.2.7 SHEN ZHEN

Shenzhen is a city of sub-provincial administrative status in southern China's
Guangdong province, situated immediately north of Hong Kong. The area became China's
firstand arguably one of the most successfulSpecial Economic Zones.
Shenzhen's novel and modern cityscape is the result of the vibrant economy made possible by
rapid foreign investment since the late 1970s, when it was a small fishing village. Since then,
foreign nationals have invested more than US$30 billion for building factories and forming
joint ventures. It is now reputedly one of the fastest growing cities in the world. It is southern
mainland China's major financial centre Shenzhen is also the second busiest port in mainland
China, ranking only after Shanghai.
Fig 2.12: Location of Shen Zhen
Shenzhen is one of the cities which
have been urbanized very fast in
China.
In
Shenzhen
less
has
than
30
years,
been
developed
boomingly from a remote smaller

border town with a population of
merely 20,000 into a prosperous
modern metropolitan which plays
significant roles in Pearl River Delta
and
even
in
Southeast
Asia.
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However, the booming urbanization process has also caused a lot of problems, such as
shortage of land and water resources, constrains of energy, vulnerability of ecological
system, deterioration of environment, increasing CO2 emission and improving heat island
effect, etc. In order to break these bottlenecks of sustainable development, Shenzhen
integrates the target of LCC into urban planning via spatial layout, delimitation of ecological
baseline, density zoning, renovation of land-use mode and creation of green living
environment.
By 2020, Shenzhen and Hong Kong will be integrated into one mega-city. When Shenzhen
and Hong Kong are merged, it is likely that the worlds third largest city will be created,
following New York and Tokyo, in terms of the gross product i.e. 1.1 trillion dollars by 2020
as compared to 1.78 trillion dollars of New York and 1.43 trillion dollars of Tokyo. The
"Comprehensive Plan for Shenzhen (2007-2020)," was drafted by the Shenzhen Urban
Planning Bureau. According to the Plan, Shenzhen and Hong Kong will commence their
merging process in six aspects over the next 13 years transportation, customs, ecology,
construction, finance, and information technology (IT) industry. To serve this objective, an
express train route will be built by 2020, directly linking Hong Kong International Airport
and Shenzhen Bao`an International Airport, as the first step of the process. The express train
linking the two cities, which are 40km apart, will allow the two airports to function as one, in
actuality,
by
shortening
the
transfer
time
between
the
two
to
17
minutes.
In the boundary zones of the two cities, a high-technology valley will be created to jointly
attract foreign investment. They will also promote plans to allow the residents to move
between the two cities without restriction. In addition, policies will be promoted that will
allow students of Shenzhen and Hong Kong to freely enter universities in their counterpart
cities and also establish a joint government building. Shenzhen and Hong Kong will create a
bureau for joint development in order to integrate their administrations and share policies for
financial integration
Comprehensive Plan for Shen Zhen, 2007-2020

Improvement of land-use efficiency by density zoning and urban renewal: The extensive and
inefficient use of land is also a main reason leading to high energy consumption and CO2
emission. In 2007, the GDP output per km2 of Shenzhen is RMB 0.9 billion yuan, only 1/3
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of the land-use efficiency of Singapore and 1/7 of Hong Kong. To improve the land-use
efficiency in Shenzhen, the measure of density zoning was proposed in the Master Plan. An
important principle of the density zoning was to keep consistent with urban structure and the
characteristics of physical and socio-economic environment. In this way, the density zoning
classified the city into three featured areas which are explored to different density grades.
The environment friendly traffic plan: The pattern of traffic organization is highly related to
the development level of LCC since it determines the energy consumption and the tail gas
emission of vehicles. With the improvement of living quality, the use of automobiles in
Shenzhen is increasing year by year. As a result, problems of traffic jams, traffic pollution
and traffic security are also aggravated much more than ever. In order to solve these
problems, both the Integrative Traffic Plan and the Master Plan of Shenzhen have offered the
development of public transit the first priority. According to the plans, Shenzhen will
develop a passenger transportation system with the railway traffic as the pillar, the regular
traffic as the majority and multiform traffic modes developing cooperatively. The plans
indicate that by 2020 the public transit sharing rate should exceed 70% and the tail gas
emission should be cut off by 70%. The achievement of these targets will effectively promote
the sustainable development of LCC.
Experience of Shenzhen in LCC development can be summarized into five aspects:
Consolidated pattern of spatial layout is more efficient in resource use than loose
pattern. As an important manifestation of consolidated spatial pattern, the axes +
belts + cluster framework of spatial layout plan is helpful to organize the urban
structure in a compact but resilient way for the sustainable development of the city.
The delimitation of ecological baseline is an effective measure to maintain ecological

security of the city. In order to protect the integrity of the ecological baseline from
destroying and encroachment, government should enact corresponding laws or
regulations to restrict illegal development in time and reinforce dynamic monitor to
the development activities in reservation area.
In order to avoid excessive CO2 emission caused by inappropriate organization of

land functions, the extensive and inefficient land-use mode needs to be renovated. In
this regard, scientific density zoning can be tackled to moderately improve land-use
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intensity and efficient; and urban renewal is an important measure to release land
resource and break the bottleneck of land shortage.
The green land system of the city, as the main CO2 absorber and the provider of
favourable living environment, needs to be elaborately planned. In this process, the
application of theories of landscape ecology and the specific concern in citizens
requirements to open space are much preferable to the sound green land system plan.
The traffic organization mode directly determines the level of energy use and CO2
emission of a city. The spatial structure of LCC in China must be established on the
framework oriented by public transit system. To some extent, neglecting public
transit system in traffic plan means giving up the sustainable future of the city.
2.2.8 CONCLUSION
The study of the various plans of the international case study cities underlines the
importance of strategies for development and linking up the policies with the Plan and
projects. The plans have set out vision for the future and framed definite targets and
objectives to accomplish the same. The implementation and funding of the plans have also
been included and addressed in the plans as well as the emerging challenges of the future
urban areas. Peoples opinions and perceptions have played a major in formulating the Plan.
The process for preparation of the Plan is reflected in the following figure.
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Fig 2.13: Lessons learnt from International Planning Approaches
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2.3
EMERGING CHALLENGES
In todays world the cities are plagued with various challenges. These challenges are
in the fields of climate change, sustainability and an overall inclusive development. The
Global Report on Human Settlements, prepared under the mandate of the United Nations
General Assembly emphasised on a new role for urban planning. In the publication on
Sustainable cities in 2009, broad policy directions are put forth that states Reformed urban
planning systems must fully and unequivocally address a number of major current and
emerging challenges, especially climate change, rapid urbanisation, poverty, informality and
safety. The cities primarily till now had a brown agenda that is about managing wastes,
energy, transport and buildings. Considering the rapid growth of the cities in terms of
population and spatial extent, the natural systems or the green systems on which the city
depend on needs to be taken care of. The green agenda is about ensuring the natural systems
of land, water and air. The goal of a sustainable city is to limit the consumption of the green
systems and thereby reduce the ecological footprint. With the mandate of the cities to provide
for a sustainable future for the citizens and improving the quality of life, the green and the
brown agendas need to be integrated. UN Habitat has also in the specific policy directions
focused on integrating the green and the brown agendas in cities. Anne Nicole Duquennois
and Peter Newman in their study on linking the green and the brown agendas for the city of
Cairo discuss how a city can simultaneously conserve its natural environment whilst reducing
its urban metabolism and impacts, thereby linking the green and brown agenda.
Considering the urbanisation rate and the fact that most of the worlds population would be
living in urban areas in future, new challenges for planning emerge i.e. sustainability, fastpaced
development,
climate
change,
globalisation
and
competitiveness,
efficient
management, liveability, inclusiveness and financial stability of future cities from the
planning and implementation point of view. The present day cities need to organise, manage
and facilitate their growth and make it sustainable apart from positioning them at global
level. According to Freire and Stren (2001), cities must be sustainable in four ways, they
must be liveable, well managed, governed and financially sustainable. A new context of
development and need for new development scenarios have thus emerged. Planned urban
development has thus to search beyond the realms of land use planning into systems,
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mechanisms, strategies for guiding the development of the cities of the future. The challenge
of reorienting the urbanisation process, thus, lies in overcoming the infrastructural
deficiencies and taking the best advantage of economic momentum inherent to in
urbanisation.
2.3.1 STATUS OF ASIAN CITIES

Asias urban centres house around 1.5 billion people. By 2025, around a third of the
worlds total population is likely to live in Asias urban centres. Asian urban centres also
have most of the worlds urban poverty, most of its slum and squatter settlement population
and most of the urban population that lacks adequate provision for water, sanitation, drainage
and good quality health care and schools. Thus, how Asian urban centres function also has
major implications for whether poverty is reduced and international development targets such
as the Millennium Development Goals are met.
The concentration of the worlds urban population in Asia and of its largest cities reflects the
regions large and increasing role within the world economy. Asias urban centres contain a
considerable part of all new (domestic and foreign) investments made over the last 30-40
years, although this is concentrated in relatively few cities in a few nations. Asia has seven of
the worlds 20 largest economies, including the second, third and fourth largest (China, India
and Japan).
Most Asian nations are also much more urbanised than they were twenty or thirty years ago
(i.e. with a much higher proportion of their national population living in urban centres). This
reflects the much increased role of urban-based enterprises in their economies. Moreover,
more rapid its economic growth, the greater is the increase in the proportion of their
population living in urban areas. Thus, there is an economic logic underlying most urban
change. Asias largest cities are heavily concentrated in its largest economies.
Unintended Cities
There are characteristics that Asian urban centres share with virtually all urban centres in
other regions. Indeed, most governments define urban centres by one or more of these
criteria: a minimum population threshold, status as a local government centre and a
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concentration of non-agricultural employment or density above a defined threshold (often

faulty definitions for political reasons).
Although all urban centres may share certain social, economic and physical characteristics, in
another sense they are all also unique produced by their own unique local
physical/ecological, economic, social and political context and the interaction there of local
and extra-local influences. What actually developed within and around each urban centre was
in large part unintended.
In addition, once a city has been founded and has developed a concentration of residents and
enterprises, it is rare for it to cease being a city, even though it (or the nation or region within
which it is located) undergoes very large social, economic and political changes. Once a city
has developed, it concentrates economic and political interests that are tied to it and
committed to its future success. As a city develops, so too does the demand for goods and
services it concentrates and the transport and communications networks that connect it to
other places and give it some comparative advantages over other locations that lack these.
Cities, that were formed primarily as political/military centres often attract new investments
in industry and services; so the political role that underpins the city is enhanced (and
sometimes overtaken) by an economic role.
The Contradictions within Cities

Cities grow as private investment concentrates there. But there is no automatic development
of any capacity to govern the city and ensure that growing populations and economic
activities can get the land, infrastructure and services they need. Cities may concentrate
wealth, both in terms of new investment and of high-income residents, but there is no
automatic process by which this contributes to the costs of needed infrastructure and services.
Two characteristics shared by most Asian urban centres are the inadequacy in provision for
the basic infrastructure and services needed in all residential areas including provision for
piped water, sanitation and drainage, roads, schools, electricity and health care and the poor
quality of the housing for large sections of the population. UN estimates suggest that in 2000,
more than 500 million urban dwellers in Asia lacked adequate provision for water and more
than 600 million lacked adequate provisions for sanitation. In many Asian urban centres, a
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high proportion of the population lives in illegal (informal) settlements where the
inadequacies in provision for infrastructure and service are usually worst.
All cities and smaller urban centres face a contradiction between what drives their economic
development (and the in-migration this generates) and what contributes to adequate
accommodation for the workforce on which they depend. Urban development in Asia is
largely driven by the concentration of local, national and, increasingly, international profitseeking enterprises in and around particular urban centres. The enterprises that concentrate in
and around urban centres produce no solutions to this contradiction of housing and land
markets that are too expensive for large sections of the population, including those on whose
labour and small-businesses these enterprises depend. Indeed, the more successful a city is in
attracting new concentrations of private investment, in general, the greater this contradiction.
In the absence of effective local governance, this contradiction is usually solved by large
sections of the city population either sharing accommodation in existing buildings which
produces extreme overcrowding and many three-generation households (and settlements that
are often referred to as slums) or developing homes and neighbourhoods illegally, either on
illegal subdivisions or on land they occupy illegally.
There are many measures that governments can take to lessen this contradiction. For instance
good quality public transport systems, measures to keep down land-for-housing and
infrastructure costs, and financial support for households and communities in acquiring land
and developing homes including support for negotiated solutions between those living in
informal settlements and land-owners. But there are obvious political and often economic
limits on the extent to which these can be implemented. Even if city governments (or
communities) can acquire land, they usually have to pay full market rates. Obviously, there
are powerful real estate interests that oppose any government intervention that may reduce or
put at risk their profits from real estate markets. In addition, in all successful Asian cities,
there are strong pressures to expel low-income groups from central locations, because of the
demands from commercial and financial interests to improve infrastructure or because of the
profits that would be generated by their redevelopment.
In regard to extending and improving service provision, some government body is usually
responsible for ensuring provision of such services as water, sanitation, drainage, garbage
collection, schools, health care and electricity. These government bodies generally ignore all
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these illegal settlements or provide very inadequate provision (for instance a few standpipes
and perhaps public toilets). Where provision for some of these services has been privatised,
the privatised utilities rarely extend provision to informal settlements; even if they are
allowed to do so, there is not much profit in doing so and the terms of privatisation
agreements rarely have conditions demanding that they do so.
This contradiction between what drives city development and what ensures adequate
provision for its population has been further increased by globalisation both by local and
national forces eager to make cities more competitive and to attract new investment and by
the changes promoted or demanded within low- and middle-income nations by international
agencies, including the World Bank, the IMF and the WTO. Inevitably, the investments that
produce such economic success are concentrated in or around cities but it does not
necessarily produce the political and institutional means to address the contradiction between
local economic success and the housing, infrastructure and service needs of the local
population.
Public Goods
As cities grow i.e. as enterprises, institutions and people concentrate in space - so there is
also an urgent need to protect public goods public space, the quality of the environment
(for instance through pollution control), law and order and the protection of each citys built
and natural heritage (and many Asian cities have a very rich historical heritage). The
redevelopment of sites that are already occupied and that involve relocating those who live
there is also often justified as being in the public good especially if these sites are
considered to be slums by city governments. Large-scale evictions are increasingly
common in Asian cities and most evictions are justified for the public good or the national
interest when actually the benefits are heavily concentrated among the richer and more
powerful groups and the costs borne by the (mostly) poorer groups forced out of their homes
and away from their livelihoods. Alternatively, a drive to protect a citys historic heritage
may also seek to drive out the poor.
Cities need governance systems that have the capacity to address these issues, including
being able to broker agreements in which everyones interests are addressed. This must also
include agreements that involve lower-income groups and that meet their needs. Urban
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development in Asia is largely driven by the concentration of local, national and

increasingly, international profit seeking enterprises in and around particular urban centres.
Cities may concentrate wealth both in terms of new investment and of high-income residents
but there is no automatic process by which this contributes to the costs of needed
infrastructure and services.
Negative Changes in Asian Cities:

Definitions of what is urban are determined by political considerations that seek to support
the political and economic status-quo, in favour of more powerful sections of society.
Globalisation has led to direct foreign investment in Asian cities, along with the development
of a more aggressive business sector at the national level. This has resulted in the
establishment of corporate sector industries, increased tourism and a rapid increase in the
middle income classes. Consequently, there is a demand for strategically located land for
industrial, commercial and middle income class residential purposes. As a result, poor
communities are being evicted from land that they occupy in or near the city centres and are
being relocated, formally or informally, to land on the city fringes, far away from their places
of work, education, recreation and from better health facilities. This process has also meant
an increase in land prices due to which the lower middle income groups have also been
adversely affected.
Due to relocation, transport costs and travel time to and from work have increased
considerably. This has resulted in economic stress and social disintegration as earning
members have less time to interact with the family.
Due to an absence of alternatives for housing, old informal settlements have densified, and as
such, living conditions in them have deteriorated in spite of the fact that many of them have
acquired water supply and road paving.
An increase in the number of automobiles in Asian cities has created severe traffic problems
and this in turn increases time taken in travel, stress and environment related diseases. New
transport systems (such as light rail) that have been or are being implemented do not serve
the vast majority of the commuting public and in most cases are far too expensive for the
poor to afford.
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As a result of structural adjustment conditionalities and the culture of globalisation, there are
proposals for the privatisation of public sector utilities and land assets. In some cities the
process has already taken place. There are indications that this process is detrimental to the
interests of the poor and disadvantaged groups. An important issue that has surfaced is the
question of how the interests of the poor can be protected in the implementation of the
privatisation process.
The culture of globalisation and structural adjustment has also meant the removal or
curtailing of government subsidies for the social sectors. This has directly affected poor
communities who have to pay more for education and health. In addition, private sector
involvement in education, both at school and university levels, has expanded, creating two
systems of education: one for the rich and the other for the poor. This is a major change from
the pre-1990s era and can have serious political and social consequences for the future,
especially since the largest section of the population of Asian cities is young, increasingly
better-educated and with aspirations that cannot be fulfilled by unjust political and social
systems.
As a result of these changes, there has been an enormous increase in real estate development.
This has led to the strengthening of the nexus between politicians, bureaucrats and
developers, due to which building bye laws and zoning regulations have become easier to
violate, and due to which the natural and cultural heritage assets of Asian cities are in danger
or are in the process of being wiped out.
There are multiple agencies that are involved in the development, management and
maintenance of Asian cities. In most cases, these agencies have no coordination between
them. In addition, in most cities there are central government interests that often override
local interests and considerations.
Positive Changes in Asian Cities:

Over the last two decades, urban poor organisations have emerged in most Asian cities.
These organisations are backed by professionals and/or NGOs. Where they are powerful,
governments are forced to negotiate with them. Their involvement in the planning and
decision-making process is increasing.
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Civil society organisations have successfully come together in a number of cities so as to put
pressure on governments for the development of more equitable development policies and/or
to oppose insensitive government projects.
There are now a number of government - Non Government Organisation - community
projects and programs. It is true that the lessons from these programs have yet to become
policies in most countries, but the lessons learnt from them have been understood and
appreciated by politicians and city planners whose attitudes to the disadvantaged urban
populations have changed considerably since 1987 when the Asian Centre for Human Rights
(ACHR) was formed.
In all the case study cities, there has been a process of decentralisation. This has opened up
new opportunities for decision-making at the local level and for the involvement of local
communities and interest groups in the decision-making process. In some cases, this has also
meant a weakening of the community process in the face of formal institutions at the local
level.
Thus two important questions arise: Does decentralisation give city governments more power
and resources and thus capacity to act? And if city government does get more capacity to act
does this actually bring benefits to urban poor groups?
The ACHR needs to reflect on how all these positive aspects can be brought together to
promote not just projects and programs but policies that can create a more equitable society
in Asia.
The Actors that should Contribute to Solutions

It is assumed that governments should address the fact that formal urban land markets
exclude large sections of the population from legal housing and infrastructure. This includes
changing the ways that government rules, procedures and investments act to increase the
price of land for housing. In some cities, governments have done so with considerable
success for instance by a series of direct and indirect measures that help increase the supply
and keep down the price of land for housing in locations that serve lower income groups.
These measures include efficient financing of and investment in infrastructure and services
(which increase the supply and lower the cost of serviced plots for housing) and support for
housing construction designs and methods that serve lower-income households.
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Virtually all low-income households find some kind of accommodation and get some access
to services. But most such housing and service provision is of very poor quality. Most of this
land development is illegal, so the inhabitants are often at risk of eviction, unable to get
infrastructure and may be denied access to public services. Much of the land that is occupied
in these ways is dangerous (for instance on sites at risk from floods or landslides or right
beside railway tracks). Where there is no formal provision for water, schools and health care,
informal private sector providers are often important for low-income households. But such
services are usually of poor quality, reflecting the very limited capacity of residents to pay
for these.
Governments need to recognise why these informal systems, with their many illegal aspects,
produce land for housing and services at prices that large sections of the low-income
population can afford, while formal systems do not. This also helps highlight how
government rules, regulations and procedures and governments failure to expand
infrastructure networks elevates the price of legal land for housing, forcing so many
households to move to illegal markets. But governments can make these informal processes
work better producing better quality housing and services and allowing a much increased
proportion of the low-income population to get legal accommodation and legal access to
infrastructure and services. This includes allowing civil society organisations (especially
those formed by the urban poor) more scope in developing legal housing solutions for
themselves and even developing partnerships with government to do so.
In addition, as informal land for housing markets becomes increasingly important, including
the means by which many non-poor households get land for housing, the price of this
informal land increases too, so even low-income households are being increasingly excluded.
The discussion pays particular attention to the influence of city governments, civil society
and external (international agencies). For city governments, the interest is in changes in their
approaches to addressing this contradiction, including those that are largely the result of or
depend on national government initiatives for instance for decentralisation and local
government reform. For civil society, the interest is in what civil society organisations have
developed to represent the needs of those whos housing, infrastructure and service needs are
not met by formal systems and the nature of their relations with city governments.
Consideration is also given to the current and potential role of international aid agencies and
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development banks, both in their role in promoting or supporting global changes (especially
globalisation) and in addressing poverty reduction in urban areas.
2.3.2 SUSTAINABLE DEVELOPMENT

The United Nations 2005 World Summit Outcome Document refers to the
"interdependent and mutually reinforcing pillars" of sustainable development as economic
development, social development, and environmental protection. The concept of
sustainability explores the relationship among economic development, environmental quality,
and social equity. This concept has been evolving since 1972, when the international
community first explored the connection between quality of life and environmental quality at
the United Nations Conference on the Human Environment in Stockholm. However, it was
not until 1987 that the term sustainable development was defined as development that can
meet the needs of the present generation without compromising the ability of future
generation to meet their own needs (World Commission on Environment and Development,
1987). This definition established the need for integrated decision-making that is capable of
balancing peoples economic and social needs with the regenerative capacity of the natural
environment. Sustainable development is a dynamic process of change in which the
exploitation of resources, the direction of investments, the orientation of technological
development, and institutional change are made consistent with future as well as present
needs. According to the Brundtland Commission, sustainable development, in the final
analysis, must rest on political will of the governments, as critical economic, environmental,
and social decisions have to be made.
The three components of Sustainable Development are: economic, environmental, and social.
These three are frequently referred to as the triple bottom line, and are used to gauge the
success of a particular development project. It is critical that each component is given equal
attention in order to ensure a sustainable outcome. This balance becomes obvious when each
component is examined individually.
1. The economic approach: Maximise income while maintaining constant or increasing
stock of capital.
2. The ecological approach: Maintain the resilience and robustness of biological and
physical systems.
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3. The socio-cultural approach: Maintain the stability of social and cultural systems.
Peter P.Rogers, Kazi F.Jalal and John A. Boyd in the book An introduction to sustainable
development (2008) have covered issues related to sustainable development including
indicators of sustainable development and key issues to be confronted in achieving
sustainable development. It also includes the bottom-line of environmental, economic and
social considerations in the face of global environmental issues such as population growth,
consumption, production, pollution, effects of legal requirements, as well as some of the
causes and effects of poverty and challenges posed by terrorism, climate change, global food
system and globalisation. The authors discuss the key factors governing sustainable
development i.e. poverty, population, pollution, participation, policy and market failures
(including good governance), and prevention and management of disasters. These can be
regarded as the major pillars on which sustainable development rests. Another major factor
that affects the sustainability of development is participation. Participation is a process
through which stakeholders can influence and share control over development initiatives and
the resources used to fund them through engagement in decision making.
Factors Governing Sustainable Development

Sustainable development involves more than growth. It requires a change in the content of
growth, to make it less material- and energy-intensive and more equitable in its impact.
Economic and social development can and should be mutually reinforcing. Money spent on
education and health can raise human productivity. Economic development can accelerate
social development by providing opportunities for underprivileged groups or by spreading
education more rapidly.
Energy is another essential human need, one that cannot be universally met unless energy
consumption pattern change. The linked basic needs of housing, water supply, sanitation, and
health care are also environmentally important. Deficiencies in these areas are often visible
manifestations of environmental stress. Population growth and the drift into cities threaten to
make these problems worse. Planners must find ways of relying more on supporting
community initiatives and self-help efforts and on effectively using low cost technologies.
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The key factors governing sustainable development are poverty, population, pollution,
participation, policy and market failures (including good governance), and prevention and
management of disasters. These can be regarded as the major pillars on which sustainable
development rests. Poverty must be reduced by meeting basic needs: health, education,
shelter, productive employment, control over common property, and population
management. Similarly, to minimise the environmental and social consequences of
development, a strategic assessment of policies and plans must be undertaken. Projects must
be assessed for their impact upon the environment and society. To successfully achieve
sustainable development, the community of nations must also stop the unfavorable impacts
of rural-to-urban migration in developing countries, consider renewable energy issues, and
promote regional and international cooperation.
Another major factor that affects the sustainability of development t is participation.
Participation is a process through which stakeholders can influence and share control over
development initiatives and the resources used to fund them through engagement in decision
making.
Sustainable urban development has to be tied up with urban liveability as has been stated by
Stephen Wheeler in his article Planning Sustainable and Liveable Cities. In it, the author
reviews the evolution of sustainable urban development thinking and ties it to the new
concerns of urban liveability. He defines development as development that improves longterm health of human and ecological systems. He dismisses as inadequate recent debates
about needs (which are hard to distinguish from wants), the carrying capacity of areas
(which are tough to pin down, particularly for people), and sustainable end states (since it
is virtually impossible to decide on end states). He lays out a helpful compendium of core
themes in sustainable urban development literature and a list of specific approaches that can
guide planning practice. Sustainable urban development requires that land use,
transportation, housing, community development, economic development, and environmental
planning all be woven together. The article also deals with how sustainable and liveable
cities can be created. It suggests need for a long-term strategy emphasising consensus
process, public education, political organising, policy tools such as indicators and
performance standards, development of vision documents and best practices examples, and
creation of institutions that can more effectively address physical planning and equity issues.
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According to it, the most difficult challenge comes in implementing sustainability visions,
policies, and programs, and in modifying institutions. In the long run, sustainable
development will require systemic cultural exchange that builds democracy and social capital
(accumulation of trust and cooperation between people). The problems created by
concentrations of economic power must be addressed, as well as the tendency of capitalist
systems to reinforce values oriented toward short-term private profit rather than long-term
social and ecological wellbeing must be addressed.
Sustainable Urban Planning

Sustainable Urban Planning is a comprehensive approach aiming to meet the economic and
social objectives of the city within the constraints of environmental resources. The problem
statement of urban areas as mentioned above thus brings up the thrust areas of sustainable
urban planning, which aims towards a broad framework of improvement of the social,
economic and environmental quality of the city and the living and working environment of
the citizens. The cities need to manage rapid growth, urban sprawl, disaster risks of
development, urban development induced climate change etc. The cities, also, need to
safeguard the physical, social and economic environment, the livelihoods, environmental
assets / heritage etc.
One of the thrust areas of sustainable urban planning is spatial planning that involves
allocation of land uses or distribution of land use in the city. The land use distribution needs
to consider
Location Suitability of uses
Compatibility of land uses
Home to work relationships
Compact Development / Energy efficient development
Vulnerable areas / Risk prone area
Drainage patterns
Considering the fact that variations exist within the city in terms of access to basic services
and facilities, it is necessary to understand the relation between land use and infrastructure
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provisions and plan accordingly. The purpose is to achieve equitable distribution of facilities
and services.
The growth, prosperity and development of a city has both beneficial as well as negative
impacts on the hinterland. The rural hinterland plays a critical role in sustaining urbanisation
an is reflected in the indicators of sources of primary inputs, competitively priced labor for
urban economic activities, primary funds as reflected in comparative urban and rural creditdeposit ratios and market for urban products. Thus, attention needs to be directed not only on
the growing challenges of urbanisation but also on the relationship between urban and rural
development.
Sustainable urban planning entails a rational approach that involves sequential tasks. The
prerequisites of sustainable urban planning are:
1. Ensuring Effective Public Participation in the planning process

The concepts of public participation and Sustainable Development of human settlements
are key concerns worldwide and has been stressed by the major United Nations
conferences and other international conferences. The purpose of Public Participation is to
involve the citizens, various interest groups and stakeholders
a) for better quality of decisions in planning and development

b) for ensuring efficient governance and management in settlements
Involvement of people in the planning of the city can be for
assessing and addressing the needs and problems of the people,
assessing the potentials and prospects of the city
participation in the development activities and environmental protection
2. Continuously updated spatial database and information system

The database includes land use change, infrastructure provisions, growth patterns
(demographic, socio-economic shifts), resource consumption patterns, vulnerability and
disaster risk areas etc.
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3. Flexibility
The plan should respond not only to the present needs but, also, to the changing
conditions of the growing and expanding city.
4. Integration of policy planning in the plan

The development of urban areas has been influenced by various policies, sometimes the
land policy, industrial policy, the office location policy, slum rehabilitation policies, and
so on. In many cases, conflicts exist between the policies themselves and as a result
confusion prevails, which gets manifested in the development. Secondly, the land use
plan or the spatial strategies do not get synchronised with the policies. It thus becomes
essential to coordinate the policies with the plans.
Main directions for urban sustainability are:

1. Compact efficient land use
Land is perhaps the most important limited resource. Current urban development
patterns are clearly consuming land in unsustainable ways and land is often divided
inequitably. For a more sustainable land-use, one may adopt various policies, such as,
Urban Growth Boundaries (UGB) to restrain sprawl. To be effective in the long run,
UGBs need to be coupled with policies to increase the efficiency of land use within
already built-up areas, and to make these places more liveable. Beyond specific land-use
changes, sustainable patterns of development are likely to involve alterations to the
relationship between the people and the land. In particular, a new balance between private
property rights and human responsibilities toward the land is needed.
2. Less automobile use, better access

Current transportation systems contribute to a complex web of urban problems such as air
pollution, congestion, blight, suburban sprawl, ecosystem destruction, and social
fragmentation. Transport in more sustainable cities will most likely be based on several
key principles: access by proximity, an inversion of the current transportation hierarchy,
and demand reduction. Together these are likely to reduce the total amount that people
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need to travel, while allowing them to travel by far cleaner, more resource efficient and
more community enhancing modes.
3. Efficient resource use, less pollution and waste

The overall challenge can be seen as one of moving from open-ended resource flows, in
which non-renewable resources are harvested, used once by human systems, and then
discarded (often creating pollution and toxic waste problems in the process) toward
closed-loop flows in which resources are reused and recycled. Energy conservation and
materials recycling are good subjects for public involvement through small daily
initiatives. Tougher energy conservation codes in building construction have also
produced large energy savings in many cities and states.
4. Restoration of natural systems

Restoring urban ecosystems add to liveability, ecological health, and overall
sustainability of the urban region. Restoring a natural water course provides corridors and
habitat for wildlife as well as walkways and open space for people. It also helps
reconnect urban dwellers to the bioregion, reminding that they live in a natural world.
Abandoned or contaminated/ industrial land can be reclaimed and restored, while vacant
lots can be recycled into parks, housing and community gardens.
5. Good housing and living environments

Housing affordability is a recurrent crisis in many cities and suburbs. Steps to address the
affordability problem include active government construction of housing, support of nonprofit housing developers, tenant subsidies, and requirements that developers include a
certain number of affordable units in any market-rate project. The design of housing and
neighbourhoods needs to be rethought in many cases to ensure that people have access to
open space, meeting areas, shared facilities, shops, offices, public transportation, child
care facilities, and other essentials which can make urban communities more liveable.
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6. A healthy social ecology

Promoting a healthy and sustainable social ecology means looking for every opportunity
to enhance human community, opportunity and empowerment. It requires planners in
particular to advocate on behalf of those groups who do not have access to power and
expertise and to fight for equity and justice.
7. A sustainable economy
A sustainable regional economy is likely to be oriented around three principles. Firstly, it
is likely to be what Paul Hawken terms a restoration economy one which helps
restore environmental and social damage done in the past, and that prevents new
problems from occurring. Second, it is likely to be human-centred economy, one which
meets real human needs and provides meaningful work to people at a decent pay. Third,
it is likely to be a locally-oriented economy, one which emphasis local ownership, local
control, local investment, use of local resources, production for local markets. A
sustainable economy is likely to meet these goals through a mixture of market
mechanisms, government action, and incentives for social and environmental
responsibility in economic decision-making. A cooperative locally oriented economy
promotes economic democracy, local control, diversity of ownership and social
responsibility, and offers an alternative to the free-market global economy under large
corporations that tends to undermine local ownership and control, replace a diversity of
small retailers with a few standardised chains, and export capital from local communities
to financial centres in other parts of the world.
8. Community participation and involvement

One of the most important components of urban sustainability will be creation of more
local and regional democracy. Community participation in local planning and design is
important, as is the broad-minded leadership of officials at local, State and federal levels
of governance, who must demonstrate that it is possible at every level to make decisions
with global, regional and local sustainability in mind.
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9. Preservation of local culture and wisdom

The strength of any particular urban region lies in its cultural traditions and the unique
relationships that its residents develop with each other and with the land. This uniqueness
gives region vitality, helps it to take advantage of particular local contexts, and makes it
an interesting place to live. Local culture, history and wisdom can add sustainability, and
their best aspects should be preserved.
Sustainable Urbanism
Sustainable Urbanism has three basic aspects; environmental, social and economic. An urban
form which is environmentally sustainable enables its inhabitants to adopt a more
ecologically aware, lower carbon lifestyle. Sustainable urbanism puts dwellings, retail,
leisure and commercial uses into much closer, walkable proximity, and supplements this
approach with effective public transport connections, in many ways reflecting the urban
structure of traditional neighbourhoods. In social terms, sustainable urbanism involves an
appropriate mix of dwellings of different tenures, sizes and types, and a variety of spaces and
buildings for recreational and community activities, as well as for service providers and
commercial enterprises. In economic terms, sustainable developments contain business
activities and opportunities capable of providing jobs for many of their inhabitants.
The Princes Foundation for the Built Environment has sought to produce a more exact
definition of sustainable urbanism in line with the characteristics just outlined in terms of
the types of land use. They identified the following as features of sustainable urbanism:
mixed use : while the schemes will be predominantly residential, they will also
contain a mix of other uses such as retail, business and community;
mixed tenure: a variety of income groups and occupations;
mixed housing type: to support movement within the neighbourhood and thus
encourage community stability;
good public transport connections: to encourage walking and cycling and reduce car
dependency;
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walkable neighbourhoods: community and commercial facilities accessible by foot,

and a street layout which is well interconnected and avoids cul-de-sacs and so
encourages a range of routes for pedestrians (and vehicles);
relatively high net densities: high enough to support the viability of mixed use areas;
and convenient public transport;
well integrated open space: this should have a clearly defined use and a long term
management regime, as well as being easily accessible;
opportunities for a range of work / lifestyle choices: accommodating economic as

well as residential activity.
Characteristics of Sustainable Urbanism

In order to examine the value of sustainable urbanism, and compare it in commercial terms
with more standard developments, three examples were identified which met many of the
criteria for sustainable development. These were in three different parts of the country
Fairford Leys near Aylesbury, Poundbury near Dorchester, and the Crown Street
regeneration project in Glasgow.
Density: The most obvious feature of sustainable urbanism is density. Relative density is a
central characteristic of sustainable urbanism because it enables a critical mass of inhabitants
to be assembled, sufficient to sustain local commercial and community activities, together
with viable public transport provision. It is vital for walkability, which is a concept at the
very heart of the sustainable urbanism model. Density has a direct impact on the value of a
development, as the land effectively yields more units. But this is far from the end of the
story. Unlike more conventional approaches to high density, sustainable urbanism embodies
a variety of property types, which allows large scale expansion to be sustained by creating
desirable places in which people want to live. Diversifying the residential types and as well
as uses of property on offer creates an attractive place for potential buyers. Developers thus
need to get the balance right between density and other features both to maintain values and
to use land efficiently.
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Mixed Use: The second most important feature of Sustainable Urbanism is Mixed Use.
Development of a large site initiates a large number of activities. The need is not just for
dwellings but also local jobs. At least a third of jobs in small towns are supplied from the
residential population. According to the principles of Sustainable Urbanism, a raft of
facilities and amenities need to be provided close by if reliance on cars is to be minimised. In
all three case studies, a higher proportion of land is devoted to non-residential uses than the
standard forms of new development.
Use of Outdoor Space: Properly integrated open space can produce uplift in the values of
properties on adjoining streets. Additional value can also be conferred on residential
properties one or two blocks away from a park, depending on sight lines, street landscaping
and an effective management regime. In terms of private outdoor space, the amount of land
given over to front gardens and driveways is generally much smaller in the exemplars than
that provided for rear alleys, courtyards, garages and back gardens. This intensifies the street
frontage, enabling greater density in some cases, and provides the street with more natural
surveillance and intimacy. Parking on two of the three exemplar schemes was restricted in
line with sustainability principles in order to reduce dependence on the car. This was
counterbalanced by the provision of local amenities on the site, within walkable distances.
Implications for Urban Development

Rather than being a self-sustainable urban region, cities should be moving towards
sustainability. It should move towards greater resource efficiency, environmental quality,
social equity, and communal vitality, while moving away from automobile dependency, nonrenewable resource consumption, hazardous waste generation and inequity. Sustainable
Urban Development might be defined as development that improves the long-term social
and ecological health of cities and towns. Based on this definition and other sources, main
directions for urban sustainability can be:
1: Integrating Equality and Diversity

An inclusive city is one where there are economic opportunities for everyone, a healthy
environment and an improved quality of life in revitalised neighbourhoods. One needs to
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strive for a world where human difference is anticipated, accommodated and celebrated.
Equality means ensuring that people with different needs have equality of opportunity and
outcome. Diversity is a state or quality of being different or varied, a point of difference.
2: Sustainable Development
Sustainable development offers a way forward and has become an explicit goal of planning.
It needs to become integral to health, education, jobs and housing. There exist several key
ideas to the notion of sustainability, as an ultimate definition would go against the pluralistic
nature of sustainability. Five types of graphical model are commonly in use. Common
amongst all the models is the recognition that a sustainable project, plan, goal or objective
must address environmental, economic and social over the long term.
Active participation is at the heart of sustainable community development. A sustainable
community is a community that uses its resources to meet current needs while ensuring that
adequate resources are available for future generations. A sustainable community seeks a
better quality of life for all its residents while maintaining natures ability to function over
time by minimising waste, preventing pollution, promoting efficiency and developing local
resources to revitalise local economy. Decision making in a sustainable community stems
from rich civic life and shared information among community members. A sustainable
community resembles a living system in which human, natural and economic elements are
interdependent and draw strengths (ODPM, 2002a). The very process of planning must
provide the necessary forums for defining sustainable development which respect and take
into account the needs and values of different communities.
3: Space and Place

Space and Place, social relations and environment are all core concepts in planning. Planning
should reflect different conceptions of Space and Place. At the heart of sustainable city lie the
principles of equity and equality as well as respect for difference. The characteristics of
sustainable city are:
1. A just city
2. A beautiful city
3. A creative city
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4. An ecological city
5. A city of easy contact and mobility
6. A compact and polycentric city
7. A diverse city
Source: Rogers (1998) Cities for a Small Planet
Spatial planning has an important role to play in tackling social exclusion. The environment
in which we live may reinforce a sense of identity. So design and quality of places along with
accessibility, mobility, discrimination and inequality are spatial issues to be addressed.
Spatial planning offers a way of mediating between competing objectives by offering an
understanding of the spatial implications of different decisions. It is about the creation of
places and spatial relationships.
All primary and secondary legislations in every part of the world should require agencies to
build in considerations of equality at all levels and stages of spatial planning from national
framework level to the regional strategies and local development documents. Without
consideration of social dimension of society, it is not possible to develop adequate strategies
for sustainability through spatial planning.
Social Sustainability
Cities need to be emotionally and psychologically sustaining, and issues like the quality and
design of the built environment, the quality of connections between people and the
organizational capacity of urban stakeholders become crucial, as do issues of spatial
segregation in cities and poverty. (Landry, 2007).
Despite a wealth of discussion about sustainable development, the concept remains unclear
and contested. Most commentators agree that it lies at the intersection and implies policy
integration of environmental, social and economic issues and the need to consider long
term change. However, there is no common position on the nature of this change or how it is
to be achieved. There are many overlaps in the interactions between economic, social and
environmental issues.
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The 1992 Rio Declaration suggests that sustainable development is about balancing these
three dimensions and achieving some kind of tradeoff among them in the prioritization
process.
Until recently, ecocentric models have dominated UK discussion, reflecting anxieties about
environmental collapse, limited natural resources and the natural environment. The models
emphasize the need for the efficient use of resources and are heavily influenced by
environmental movements. They rest on implicit and explicit assumptions about the negative
impact of human interventions on the natural world. In contrast, an anthropocentric approach
focuses on human relationships, marking what is commonly referred to as social
sustainability. As Kearns and Turok (2004) argue, this approach has become increasingly
influential as it considers human needs and quality of life issues, as well as environmental
concerns. However, some argue that anthropocentric approaches that take soft issues in to
consideration may be more appropriate in the global north than in the global south, which
struggles with the hard issues of economic development and deep poverty (Colantonio,
2008).
It is clear that the nature of sustainable development is both complex and dynamic (Jarvis et
al, 2001), incorporating social, cultural, economic and community dimensions, demonstrating
a strong interdependence between environment and people.
As the boundaries between natural and built environments become increasingly blurred,
issues about sustainability, or the lack of sustainability, are seen as essentially social
problems created by and eventually impacting on people themselves (Beck, 1992, p81);
nature can no longer be understood outside of society, or society outside of nature (p80).
Social sustainability is mainly concerned with the relationships between individual actions
and the created environment, or the interconnections between individual life chances and
institutional structures. This is an issue which has been largely neglected in mainstream
sustainability debates. (Jarvis et al, 2001)
The benefit of such a multi dimensional understanding is that it can provide a framework
indicating how different social, economic, environmental and institutional imperatives
influence the delivery of urban policy. These imperatives allow concepts of participation,
justice, democracy and social cohesion to be introduced alongside more traditional concerns
about the relationship between economic competitiveness and environmental efficiency.
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However, despite an emerging mass o f literature, no broadly accepted definition of

sustainable development emerged until that of the now ubiquitously quoted Brundtland
Commission Report: development that meets the needs of the present without compromising
the ability of future generations to meet their own needs (World Commission on
Environment and Development, 1987, para. 2. III. 27).
Building on the Brundtland Report, the core principles of sustainable development can be
outlined in the following ways (Barton, 2000):
Public trust: there is a duty on the state to hold resources in trust fort the benefit of the
public.
Precautionary principle: measures to prevent serious or irreversible damage should

not be postponed due to lack of scientific certainty.
Inter generational equity: future generations should not be adversely affected by

decisions made in the present.
Subsidiarity: decisions should be made at the lowest appropriate level.
The polluter pays: the costs of environmental damage should be borne by those
responsible.
In addition to these principles, concerns about persistent poverty and lack of social equity
within and between nations, and for present and future generations, lie at the heart of the
sustainable development debate. Public trust, participation and local governance are also core
central themes. As noted above, sustainability as a concept includes principles of social
equity, access to resources, participation and social capital (Goodland, 2002), as well as a
concern with human rights and exclusion.
However, while strong correlations between poverty, poor housing, health, transport and
pollution are acknowledged, precise causal relationships are uncertain. Nevertheless, there is
a widespread recognition that policies to ameliorate negative environmental and socio
economic externalities are necessary to ensure sustainable communities.
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Observations for Future Practice

A regard for social sustainability needs to be embedded within wider decisions about
economic development, environmental protection, community involvement and service
delivery at every level of society.
Social sustainability is an integral part of the move towards wider community well being.
Like other aspects of sustainable development, social sustainability is a multi dimensional
and cross cutting issue; it is relevant to a variety of public policy and decision making
spheres, including housing, health, education, social and community services, local and
strategic land use planning , public transport and communication technologies.
An understanding of the concept and its application to an urban context therefore requires
nested, multi-layered institutional arrangements for decision-making that are consistent in
intent, coherent in approach and collaborative in delivery. These arrangements need to be
carefully planned, equitably provided and continually monitored at community,
neighbourhood and city-wide levels.
While economic regeneration is a necessary condition for the development of sustainable
communities, simply moving higher-income residents into existing areas will not be enough.
In addition, resources need to be devoted to developing the skills and abilities of existing
residents, so that they might also have the ability to gin employment form the new
opportunities that are being brought into their areas. The concept of social capital is
associated with enhanced health and well being, education and economic performance at a
community level, and also has a role in enhancing overnice at the local level.
Adequate transport provision, both within communities and at more strategic levels, is an
important one in the social sustainability debate. Connectivity is needed in order to link
neighbourhoods both to each other and to key activities such as employment, education,
healthcare, shopping and leisure, and other social opportunities. Adequate transport provision
is required, not only in the interest of social equity because lower income communities tend
to be negatively affected by the externalities of road traffic nut also because a disproportion
ate number of low-income households do not own cars and so rely on public transport to
access life-chance opportunities such as employment, education, healthcare and access to
healthy, affordable, food.
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A socially sustainable society needs to ensure that everyone is able to reach the places they
need to go to, in order to service their daily lives (economically and socially) without
adversely affecting the opportunities of others or the local and global environment. Providing
the necessary infrastructure for such mega events generally raises important public concerns
about the environmental impacts of their construction prior to, during the events and their
eventual legacy, as well as considering the spatial and fiscal equity of their impact.
At the local scale, if venue planning is viewed as a process primarily aimed at providing
services for local communities rather than venues for one off events, it is more likely to
have positive social effects. To ensure such positive outcomes there is an urgent need to
integrate social considerations within the planning of physical interventions as a first general
principle, to ensure their social sustainability over time and space.
Urban planning policies that aim to promote the social (as well as economic and
environmental) sustainability of communities should be based upon the following core
principles:
1. Provide all sectors of the community with a reasonable quality of life and good lifechance opportunities for social well-being (e.g. employment, education, healthcare,
leisure, social and cultural activities).
2. Reduce social exclusion, minimize concentrations of deprivation, protect vulnerable
groups, offer opportunities for community integration and social cohesion and ensure
equity of outcome, both now and in the future.
3. Provide communities with the opportunity and resources to own an d manage their
own assets.
4. Provide a proportionate level of social infrastructure for existing and future projected
populations, based on robust modeling frameworks.
5. Provide effective access to essential goods and services, either within the local
community or through good public transport to services in the wider area, based on
robust accessibility criteria.
6. Reduce environmental inequalities and over-exposure to negative health impacts such
a s pollution, toxic waste and road traffic accidents.
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7. Strengthen existing social capital by encouraging local participation in decisionmaking and by facilitating and supporting effective community governance
arrangements.
8. Ensure that local economic development projects, regeneration initiatives and other
revenue-raising interventions do not disproportionately negatively impact upon
existing populations and communities and / or that these effects are adequately
mitigated in consultation with these communities.
This list in not intended to be exhaustive, but rather is aimed at promoting debate around
what constitutes social sustainability; it aims to encourage others in relevant urban planning
and related discipline to join the debate.
Way Forward
Equality and diversity are integral to sustainable development and spatial planning. A full
consideration of equality and diversity should lead to an increase in the effectiveness of
spatial planning for sustainable development. For this to happen, shifts in thinking and new
tools are needed. A sustainable urban planning process has to show an open and flexible
methodology, always guided by the principles and strategic goals leading to sustainable
development. Only through a new planning process approach is possible to walk in the path
of Sustainable Development. The presented sustainable urban process as discussed in the
article, permits interventions on different realities and site dimensions, allowing the analysis
of the characteristics on each case, its potentialities, weaknesses and opportunities, guiding
the projects planning process.
The implemented public participation process allowed the populations intervention,
occurring from the first stage of urban planning, contributing to the definition, determination
and validation of its terms of reference and SWOT analysis. Furthermore, community
participation enabled that the intervention area resources (human, natural, economic and
cultural) are valued by the local agents and thus constitute the basis for the creation of
proposed new sustainable activities, developing employment and wealth, preserving natural
values and promoting an appropriation of public space with greater social sensitivity and
responsibility.
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It can be concluded that sustainable urbanism can enhance development value and may
potentially enhance land value. All developments now face higher build costs in any case in
the face of regulation on green issues and planning policies relating to housing mix.
Moreover, developers now have to provide non-residential units on site for local amenities in
order to be given planning permission for large sites. Development procured to the principles
of sustainable urbanism turn this necessity into a virtue and through careful master planning
these features can assist to create value rather than operate as a burden on development. In
terms of project procurement, the process of development is likely to be assisted by a single
landowner or master developer fulfilling the role of master planner and promoter, releasing
tranches of land over time, and controlling the pattern and quality of development through
tightly controlled development agreements, design codes and other quality control
mechanisms.
Case Study: LAVASA

Lavasa is a planned new town billed as India's first hill city since Independence, being
developed in accordance with the Hill Station policy passed by the Maharashtra
government in 2000. The project is spread over 25,000 acres (100 km2) of land. Lavasa is
located in the Western Ghats, on the banks of the Baji Pasalkar Reservoir behind
theVarasgaon Dam (Varasgaon Dam & Reservoir) near Pune and Mumbai. The city is
coming up on eight large hillocks that surround the elongated Varasgaon Dam Reservoir.
Varasgaon is one of the primary sources of water for Pune city. Lavasa is planned in four
phases out of which, Phase I in Dasve will be operational from 2010 with almost 1,000 villas
and 500 apartments. The development of Phase II will begin next year and would be ready by
2014. The third and fourth phases would be ready by 2017 and 2021, respectively.
Lavasa city has been designed on the principles of new urbanism, and is said to offer the
best-in-class infrastructure, international educational institutions, leading non-polluting
industries, exciting avenues of leisure & tourism and homes for comfortable living. An
ecologically sustainable environment will help you live, work, learn and play in harmony
with nature at Lavasa. Over 25,000 lakeside apartments and villas with over 50,000
employment opportunities are projected to be available at Lavasa city. Apart from its
diversity in work possibilities, Lavasa also presents housing options for permanent residents.
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The principles of sustainable urbanism adopted in the development of Lavasa are as follows:
Commuting: Most things are within a 10 minute radius from home or work
Connectivity: A network of streets, boulevards and alleys to easily disperse traffic
Mixed Use and Diversity: A melting pot of inhabitants from all walks of life and a mix
of commercial and residential premises within neighborhoods, blocks and apartments
Mixed Housing: A range of living spaces based on a variety of factors - size, proximity
to the town centre, type, price and income groups
Quality Architecture and Urban Design: Detailed attention to aesthetics and human
comfort
Traditional Neighbourhood Structuring: A discernable city centre and more open
public spaces that encompass a range of uses and densities
Planned Increased Density: Transect Planning, wherein population density decreases
progressively as it moves away from the town centre
Smarter Transportation: An advanced and cost-effective commuting network for
enhanced efficiency
Sustainability: Minimal impact on the environment
Quality: A better life and soul space.
2.3.3 LOCAL AGENDA 21 (LA21)

The problems and solutions addressed by Agenda 21 have their roots in local
activities. Thus, the participation and cooperation of local authorities is essential in fulfilling
its objectives. As the level of governance closest to the people, they play a vital role in
educating, mobilising and responding to the public to promote sustainable development.
Local Agenda 21 (LA21) follows the principles of sustainable development with the goal of
ensuring a better quality of life for everyone. It focuses on an economic, social and
environmental agenda and develops solutions to problems at the local level through
encouraging efficient practices. Implementation of Local Agenda 21 thus entail local
authorities to enter into a dialogue with its citizens, local organisations and private
enterprises and through consultation and consensus, to arrive at sustainable development
issues needed for formulating the strategies. Local Action 21 was launched as a motto for the
second decade of LA21. It is a mandate to local authorities worldwide to move from agenda
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to action and ensure an accelerate implementation of sustainable development. Local

Action21 intended to strengthen the LA21 movement of local governments towards creating
sustainable communities and cities while protecting global common goods. The movement
from LA21 to Local Action 21 reflects the advances in local sustainable development
planning and management. The development of a LA21 plan is put forth as a four- step
process.
Developing environmental vision, goals and objectives regarding sustainable

development;
Identifying and involving various stakeholders and the community at large in the
planning, development and servicing of their areas;
Developing a comprehensive environmental profile through baseline information, on

which future actions are based and evaluated;
Formulating environment strategy to address environment and development issues

and concerns of the community at large
Monitoring the implementation of the plan and evaluating the actions against a set of
indicators.
Local Agenda 21 encourages the Local Authorities for Improving Internal Environmental
Performance that includes:
Adopting an environmental charter or mission statement with the purpose of

conserving resources, minimising adverse impacts on the environment and on
society, and obtaining the maximum benefit- in financial, social and environmental
terms from the discharge of their functions.
Adopting a voluntary environmental management system such as Eco- Management

and Audit Scheme (EMAS) to determine and develop appropriate policy and
practical responses, specify actions and targets to implement those responses and
lead to a focused implementation programme with suitable review and reporting
mechanisms.
Pursuing green housekeeping measures
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The direct impacts of local authorities on the environment can be improved through
measures such as energy conservation in buildings, services and use of equipment,
using recycled products and recycling facilities, using environmentally-friendly
products in the management of parks/ recreational grounds and on roads and
kerbsides, waste minimisation, using unleaded petrol and fuel efficient vehicles in
vehicle fleets
Staff Training and Information: A skilled, committed and aware staff is one of the
most important resources for an organisation putting Local Agenda 21 into practice
Budgeting: Environmental objectives should always be considered when budgets are

being prepared. While additional funding for environmental purposes and activities
will require due justification in any organisation, a focus should also be maintained
on maximising available resources through efficiencies and value for money in the
delivery and use of environmental services, resourcing areas where the benefits of
action can offset the costs, and participating in an effective, targeted way in joint
ventures with business and community interests.
2.3.4 LOCAL ECONOMIC DEVELOPMENT

Local economic development is an approach towards economic development which
encourages local people to work together to achieve sustainable economic growth, bringing
economic benefits and improved quality of life for all residents in a local municipal area. The
purpose of local economic development (LED) is to build up the economic capacity of a
local area to improve its economic future and the quality of life for all. It is a process by
which public, business and non-governmental sector partners work collectively to create
better conditions for economic growth and employment generation.
There are prerequisites for LED. The strategy for LED needs to be integrated in the broader
strategic planning process for cities and towns and should address priority issues and scarce
resources. The process should correspond to other local planning processes. A community
needs to decide what LED programs and projects it will adopt to achieve its LED vision,
goals and objectives. The five-stage process of LED includes Organising the Effort,
Conducting the Local Economy Assessment, Developing the LED Strategy, Implementing
the LED Strategy and Reviewing the LED Strategy.
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2.3.5 TRANSIT ORIENTED DEVELOPMENT (TOD)

For more sustainable redevelopment, Transit Oriented Development (TOD) is a
planning approach which is implemented in many cities where MRTS is functioning. TOD is
a walkable, mixed-use form of development typically focused within walk able distance of a
Transit Station; i.e. a Mass Rapid transit station like a metro Rail station, a Light Rail Transit
(LRT) station or Bus Rapid Transit (BRT) stop. Higher density development is planned near
the station to make transit convenient for more people and encourage ridership. TOD is
active increasing of urban density to grow ridership on public transit facility and reduce
private vehicles. This form of development utilises existing infrastructure, optimises use of
the transit network and creates mobility options for transit riders and the local community.
TOD provides a mix of land uses and densities that create a convenient, interesting and
vibrant community for local residents and visitors alike. A transit-oriented development TOD
is a mixed-use area designed to maximise access to public transport, and often incorporates
features to encourage transit ridership. A TOD neighbourhood typically has a centre with a
train station, metro station, tram stop, LRT station, or bus stop, surrounded by relatively
high-density development with progressively lower-density development spreading outwards
from the centre.
TOD can also produce a variety of other local and regional benefits by encouraging walk
able compact and infill development. TOD is being embraced by a growing number of
communities as part of a strategy for accommodating growth without diminishing liveability.
TOD draws on many of the same planning and development principles embraced by New
Urbanism, Smart Growth, and the Livable Communities Movement. With the introduction of
public Mass Rapid Transport systems in Indian cities and focus of development towards
sustainability, and the decentralised and public participative approach in planning, land
management opens a new set of challenges for reforms in development management in cities
of India.
Definition of TOD
It is defined as mixed-use neighbourhood development within walk able distance designed to
maximise access to, and promote use of, public transportation, with an emphasis on
pedestrian circulation and accessibility, with MRTS station as its nuclei.
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The key components of Transit Oriented Development are discussed below
Improved densities Increased population and employment densities place more

potential riders within walking distance of transit stations/stops;
Mixed-uses Retail, office, residential, and public space promote concentrations of

public activity around transit station/stops, increasing the physical and cultural
prominence of transit in the community, as well as facilitating trip chaining linked to
transit (i.e., stopping at a dry cleaners or day care facility on the way to the train
during a morning commute, or for buying vegetables, grocery etc on the way back
home from transit stations instead of making separate trips)
Pedestrian orientation Placing daily goods and services, as well as recreational

destinations, within walking distance of residents reduces incentives for car
ownership and use, supporting transit use for commuting and other regional travel;
orienting building entrances toward transit stops; and
Urban Design: - The Urban design aspects play an important role in making the TOD
communities pedestrian friendly and ensuring more active life style in the
community.
TOD is a mixed-use residential or commercial area intended to maximise access to public

transportation. Such neighbourhoods often consist of a centre with a public transit station,
surrounded by high-density development with gradually lower-density development
spreading outward from the centre. TODs or transit zones are typically located within
walking distance from a transit station. A TOD brings together people, jobs, and services and
is designed in a way that makes it efficient, safe, and convenient to travel on foot or by
bicycle, or public transit. The transit oriented development is an approach which aims to
capitalise on the public transit facility. Transit-oriented Development (TOD) is higherdensity development, located within an easy walk of a major transit stop, generally with a
mix of residential, employment and shopping opportunities designed for pedestrians without
excluding the automobile options. TOD can be new construction or redevelopment of one or
more buildings whose design and orientation facilitate transit use. At each stop there should
be a sufficient concentration of population to make the transit system viable. The population
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both residential and floating should, as far as possible, be located within walking distance of
the mass transit stop.
Development along Transit Corridors

Development along transit corridors can be of different nature. Different nature of transit
corridor developments is discussed below. All the developments along the transit, triggered
by the improved accessibility factor can be termed Transit Adjacent Development.
Ribbon Development: This type of developments is seen all along the road corridors which
have no development controls. The development will be almost a few plots depth. There will
be more concentrated developments at nodes formed by the intersections by the other roads
or transit facilities. Mostly bypasses provided to reduce congestion in the cities are spotted on
both sides by ribbon developments.
Corridor development: When an enhanced transit facility is established like an express way
or high way, the nearby developable area are ear marked for planned investments which tries
to capitalise on the connectivity improved transit facility. The width of the corridor
development can vary within a few kilometers. Access is provided from the improved transit
facility to the sites identified for investments along the corridor.
Elements of TOD
Transit-oriented developments (TODs) come in various sizes and shapes. In order to
understand the applicability of the TOD concept a number of case studies across the world
were looked into. These included Metro Rail Network in Seoul, Singapore Metro Rail
Network, Bay Area Rapid Transit System in San Francisco, Dallas Area Rapid Transit,
Washington Metropolitan Area Transit, Suburban Railway in Mumbai and Mass Rapid
Transit System in Delhi. The kind of Use and FSI zoning in the developments along these
transit corridors was studied and it was found out that they share common elements, which
have been enlisted as follows.
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(1) Compact development and Densification
TOD scale: TOD locations within convenient walking distance
Block size: Small enough for quick pedestrian access
Land-Use Densities: Significantly denser to support transit and land uses- Residential,
Commercial
(2) Mix of uses

Creating a Destination Magnet: Complementary land uses that work together to make a
"neighbourhood" focus
Retail: Retail concentrated in central part of TOD, near transit
Residential Mix: Broad range of housing types
Commercial: Moderate-to-high intensity forms of employment
Civic Uses: Attractive public spaces and buildings
(3) Pedestrian oriented
Creating an Attractive Setting: Design, scale and quality of buildings, streets and
landscaping
Building Placement and Features: Street-facing buildings, windows and entrances,and

building height
Design for Climate: Shelter and protection from the weather
Street Connections: A grid network of interconnected streets
Street Design: Traffic management and pedestrian street crossings
Street Alignment: Avoiding high traffic volumes through the TOD
Sidewalks: Separation of pedestrians from traffic and sufficient maneuvering space
Bike Facilities: Bike lanes and coordination with vehicle traffic
Connections to Surrounding Areas: Providing adjacent neighbourhoods with access to

TOD opportunities
Barrier-Free Access: Creating an environment that enables people with mobility

impairments to navigate the TOD Parking in a TOD is provided in sufficient but not
excessive space, configured to keep the TOD pedestrian-friendly like Park-and-Rides:
Workable in particular situations, Bicycle Parking: An element of a TOD's multimodal nature.
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Benefits of TOD
(1) Benefits for the people
Increased mobility choices, including the option to walk, bicycle, and take transit
more easily to more destinations and choice for multimodal interchange;
Reduced household transportation costs, including the option to own fewer cars and
take more trips by cheaper modes such as walking;
Improved access to shopping, services, and recreational and cultural opportunities;
Ability to live, work and shop within the same neighbourhood;
Increased homeownership rates or more adequate housing, especially among lower

income groups;
Improved access to public spaces, including parks and plazas;
Better health and public safety, including reduced pollution-related illness,increased

physical activity, and reduced traffic accidents;
Choice among a diversity of housing types that reflects the regional mix of incomes
and family structures;
Higher productivity of employees through reduced stress factors and useable

commute time.
(2) Benefits of TOD for the Public sector
Increased transit ridership;
Reduced auto use and auto ownership, and the resulting lower demand for parking
and roadway expansions;
Reduced community spending on streets and highways, and therefore lower taxes or
increased community services;
Higher tax revenues from increased retail sales and property values;
Increased land values, ground lease and/or joint development revenue;
Increased transit service resulting from these stable, on-going revenue sources;
Enhanced local community environment;
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Station areas that can serve as destinations as well as origins, thereby balancing peak
loads;
Spatial and financial efficiencies of shared facilities; and
Increase transit network efficiency by generating reverse-commute and off-peak trips.
(3) Benefits to Private sector
Shorter and more predictable commute times, increasing the attractiveness of a work
site to employees and improving employee morale (punctuality);
Decreased congestion;
Better economic health related to employment and income generated at TODs;
Higher return on investment for developers;
Lower development risk and costs resulting from mix of uses and variety of housing
types (affordable housing, rental units etc.); and
Improved housing availability attracts wider range of employees to work the area.
(4) Benefits to the Regional and Global environment
Improved air quality and reduced fuel consumption;
Preservation of open space;
Reduced vehicular traffic and congestion;
More suitable regional and sub-regional balance between jobs and housing; and
Enhanced regional identity.
Thus, it can be said that TOD is a community development focused on MRTS facility, which
has three main components, densification, mixed use and pedestrianisation. It is bringing
more people near to transit facility within walking distance, to reduce trips, and thus reduce
congestion, pollution and enhance walk able communities. It can transform the urban
structure oriented around a central business district, to a linear business district, improving
the accessibility and mobility. It aims at making the development compact thus reducing
urban sprawl, form compact urban corridors accessible to more people. It also reduces the
ecological foot print by consuming less land and reducing the carbon foot print.
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2.3.6 CLIMATE CHANGE and PLANNING

Climate change is not only an environmental concern but it has emerged as the
biggest developmental challenge for the planet. Its economic impacts, particularly on the
poor, make it a major governance issue as well. The United Nations Development
Programme report Climate Change: Perspectives from India, Lasting solutions for
developmental challenges captures and disseminates some perspectives on climate change
from the Indian context. The report is written in 5 chapters by 5 different authors. Starting
from an argument on a new climate deal to highlighting the importance of the small-scale
industrial sector within climate change debates, some of Indias best known
environmentalists, economists and policy makers have put forward their concerns and
convictions in this collection. One of the authors argues that a property rights framework is
essential to enhance cooperation among people. Another author puts forward that a country
can have both economic growth and less carbon emissions depending on how well the
technology is improved and implemented. An author articulates the impact of climate change
on food security in India that is already under threat due to various other reasons. He strongly
advocates adaptation to climate change through soil and water conservation. The report also
focuses on small scale industries which can actually be energy efficient if properly managed.
The concept of sustainability goes hand in hand with climate change and global warming.
The idea of sustainable cities comes from sustainable development. The article Sustainable
Urban Development in India: An Inclusive Perspective written by Darshini Mahadevia
presents such a holistic and synergetic approach to sustainable cities in India, and describes
the means by which it might be achieved.
There is a compelling scientific consensus that human activity is changing the worlds
climate. The evidence that climate change is happening, and that man-made emissions are its
main cause, is strong and indisputable. The urbanisation of densely populated emerging
countries such as India will have a significant impact on world climate in the coming
decades. Limiting energy consumption and preparing urban areas for adaptation to climate
change requires taking social and urban policy issues into account more than developing a
new energy policy. Effectiveness will ultimately depend on how changes in individual and
collective preferences.
Planning has a key role in helping to tackle climate change. Used positively, it
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has a pivotal and significant role in helping to:

secure enduring progress against the UKs emissions targets, by direct influence on
energy use and emissions, and in bringing together and encouraging action by others;
deliver the Governments ambition of zero carbon development;
shape sustainable communities that are resilient to and appropriate for the climate
change now accepted as inevitable;
create an attractive environment for innovation and for the private sector to bring
forward investment, including in renewable and low-carbon technologies and
supporting infrastructure; and
capture local enthusiasm and give local communities real opportunities to influence, and
take, action on climate change.
The planning system needs to support the delivery of the timetable for reducing carbon
emissions from domestic and non-domestic buildings alongside meeting community needs
for economic and housing development.
Adaptation Challenges and Assessing the Effects of Climate Change

Even with mitigation efforts, the global climate system will respond only with a multi-decade
lag; all countries will, inescapably, need to adapt eventually. Populations and enterprise can
be vulnerable for many reasons, including location, inability to survive extreme events (due
to poor entitlements and multiple prior episodes of displacement), lack of preparedness
capacity, and limited community and social safety nets. Taken together, the effects of climate
change affect the capacity of communities-especially those that are already vulnerable-to
adapt to long-term risks. (de la Fuente, Lopes Calva and Revi 2008; Revi 2008).
Climate change can potentially induce two types of migration-driven urbanisation. In India,
migration has thus far been constrained, inter alia, by unattractive conditions for the urban
poor, neglect of rural education in the past and a slow process of social transformation.
However, a future agrarian crisis, catalysed by climate change, could lead to a migratory
deluge. Alternatively, climate change could further limit migration by increasing the severity
of induced stress in cities. Such scenarios have yet to be systematically investigated.
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To respond to such issues, an adaptation plan would ideally link city-, provincial-and
national- level policies, interventions, and political and institutional arrangements. The
Indian democratic tradition makes this feasible, but current governance and institutional
culture, which limit citys capacities, are inadequate to the task. Building local government
capacity is a slow, difficult, and often contested process that needs to be accelerated. The
challenge becomes more acute when city growth depends on real estate surpluses, and the
inter-relationship of vulnerable and better-endowed residents remains largely unrecognised.
The challenge cannot be met by large international funding flows alone. Adaptation cannot
succeed if governments, usually provincial ones, refuse to work with the poor and consider
their localities and activities as the problem (Satterthwaite 2009).
According to the International Energy Agency, urban areas consumed about two-thirds of the
worlds energy in 2006, and this is expected to increase to three-quarters by 2030. About
80% of the projected increase is expected to come from non-OECD countries. Given the
complexity of links between urbanization and climate change, we focus here on three
elements: (1) individual preferences; (2) social norms; and (3) public policy interventions.
Personal preferences can affect energy consumption in various ways, e.g., through appliance
use, modes of transportation, etc. Social norms about building aesthetics interact with
culturally-based thermal comfort expectations in actual energy consumption. The ubiquitous
nature of glass and steel construction in aspiring, modernist India does indeed owe something
to the speed of constructing glass curtain walls, and to the consequent increase in
productivity for the real estate industry. However, the commercial attraction of such
buildings also flows from the spread of the aesthetic that underpins them. Such buildings
often are designed for full-time, full-space air conditioning, rather than part-time, part-space
use (Jiang 2009) the latter being the more familiar pattern in Indian homes with air
conditioning.
In addition, the embodied energy embedded into these building systems
increases the carbon footprint of these aspirational spaces, while ignoring the large body of
indigenous, energy- efficient designs. Apart from indirectly influencing individual behaviour
and social norms, public policy often directly drives energy consumption. It does this in
many ways: through the provision of public transport, urban planning, pricing, taxes,
resource transfers, and through various institutional decisions. In India, for example, public
transport is much more likely to be available in provincial capitals than other cities, thus
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limiting its benefits. Water is increasingly transported over long distances to cities such as
Bangalore, Indore and Delhi, embedding a significant energy component in water supply. In
many smaller towns, electricity for water pumping becomes a main expenditure even before
wastewater treatment begins, which can add substantially to the energy bill.
Many OECD countries, especially Europe, are now trying to decarbonize their cities. This
has led to improvements in energy and resource efficiency and some successful changes in
behaviour, but given the cities locked-in urban infrastructure, most such initiatives result in
only incremental changes. In India, by contrast, urban form remains fluid; it is still possible
to question principles more difficult to challenge in already-urbanized societies.
The National Action Plan for Climate Change (NAPCC) in India proposes a Sustainable
Habitat Mission (SHM) to promote energy efficiency as an integral component of urban
planning and renewal, through the following three initiatives: 1) application of the Energy
Conservation Building Code (ECBC); 2) urban waste management and recycling, including
power production from waste and wastewater recycling; 3) better urban planning and a
modal shift to public transport.
Energy and Settlements

It is widely accepted that
The rich world must reduce emissions drastically.
Poor and emerging rich countries need to grow. Their engagement will not be legally
binding but based on national targets and programmes.
The challenge is to find low-carbon growth strategies for emerging countries that
dont compromise their right to develop.
Equity is a prerequisite for an effective climate agreement.
It is for this reason that the world must seriously consider the concept of equal per
capita emission entitlements so that the rich reduce and the poor do not go beyond
their climate quota. We need climate responsible action. We need effective action.
GHG Mitigation
Significant mitigation actions by developing countries, beyond the current efforts, will lead
to major diversion of their resources away from development and poverty eradication efforts,
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unless these are adequately compensated and the necessary technology is provided at low
cost.
Sector Targets
Externally imposed sector targets are an inefficient and impractical mean of GHG mitigation.
They are primarily intended to gain market access and are not permissible under the Bali
Action Plan (Para 1(b) (iv)) that speaks only of enhancing implementation of Para 4.1(c) of
the UNFCCC. On the other hand UNFCCC speaks only of promotion and cooperation in
development, application and diffusion of technologies, practices and process for mitigation
of GHG in relevant sectors.
Adaptation
Indias experience has been that the resource and technology needs for adaptation are of the
same order as for mitigation. Mainstreaming adaptation actions into development programs
must not involve a diversion of development resources to adaptation, whether the countrys
own or externally provided.
Sustainable Production and Consumption

High per capita GHG emissions in developed countries are the inevitable outcome of
unsustainable lifestyles comprising unsustainable patterns of production and consumption.
And slowly this is starting to happen in developing countries like India too. These need to be
addressed in the future climate change arrangements and it must be recognized that human
well-being is not conditional on unsustainable lifestyles, and on other hand the argument that
the present lifestyles of certain countries are sacrosanct is untenable.
Planning Policy Statement

Planning Policy Statements PPS1 sets out the overarching planning policies on the delivery
of sustainable development through the planning system. The ambition and policies in this
PPS should be fully reflected by regional planning bodies in the preparation of spatial
strategies at all levels.
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Key Planning objectives

To deliver sustainable development, and in doing so a full and appropriate response on
climate change, regional planning bodies and all planning authorities should prepare, and
manage the delivery of, spatial strategies that:
make a full contribution to delivering the Governments Climate Change Programme and
energy policies, and in doing so contribute to global sustainability;
in providing for the homes, jobs, services and infrastructure needed by communities, and in
renewing and shaping the places where they live and work, secure the highest viable resource
and energy efficiency and reduction in emissions;
deliver patterns of urban growth and sustainable rural developments that help secure the
fullest possible use of sustainable transport for moving freight, public transport, cycling and
walking; and, which overall, reduce the need to travel, especially by car
secure new development and shape places that minimise vulnerability, and provide
resilience, to climate change; and in ways that are consistent with social cohesion and
inclusion;
conserve and enhance biodiversity, recognising that the distribution of habitats and
species will be affected by climate change;
reflect the development needs and interests of communities and enable them to
contribute effectively to tackling climate change; and
respond to the concerns of business and encourage competitiveness and technological
innovation in mitigating and adapting to climate change.
Decision-making principles
Regional planning bodies and all planning authorities should apply the following principles
in making decisions about their spatial strategies:
the proposed provision for new development, its spatial distribution, location and design
should be planned to limit carbon dioxide emissions;
new development should be planned to make good use of opportunities for decentralised
and renewable or low carbon energy;
new development should be planned to minimise future vulnerability in a changing climate;
climate change considerations should be integrated into all spatial planning concerns;
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Regional Spatial Strategy

In order to integrate climate change into Regional Spatial Strategy the following points
should be taken under consideration:
consider how the regions activities contribute to climate change;
consider how the spatial strategy will support any regional targets on climate change
developed through the regions economic strategy and sustainable development framework;
consider the regions vulnerability to climate change using, for example, the implications
for built development, infrastructure , services and biodiversity;
work with neighbouring regions and countries to address joint concerns; and
encourage working across local authority boundaries so as to secure effective local
approaches.
Integrating Climate Change

Climate change should be a key and integrating theme spatial strategy at regional level and
be addressed in conjunction with the economic, social and environmental concerns that
together inform the overall spatial strategy and its components. In particular, regional
planning bodies should:
pay attention to the location of major generators of travel, the effect of differing patterns of
urban growth and sustainable rural development on the movement of goods and the potential
to build into new and existing development more efficient means of energy supply and
increasing contributions from renewable and low-carbon energy sources;
provide a framework for sub-regional and local planning to focus substantial new
development on locations with good accessibility by means other than the private car and
where energy can be gained from decentralised energy supply15 systems, or where there is
clear potential for this to be realised;
ensure opportunities for renewable and low-carbon sources of energy supply and
supporting infrastructure, including decentralised energy supply systems, are maximised;
set regional targets for renewable energy generation and ensure their ambition fully reflects
opportunities in the region, are consistent with the Governments national targets and, where
appropriate in the light of delivery, are periodically revised upwards;
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recognise the potential of, and encourage, those land uses and land management practices
that help secure carbon sinks;
consider and take account of the availability of water resources;
consider the desirability of avoiding new development in those areas with likely increased
vulnerability to the effects of climate change, particularly where it is not viable to manage
likely risks through suitable measures to provide resilience; and
bring forward adaptation options for existing development in likely vulnerable areas.
Local Development Documents

Local Development Documents should incorporate the following points:
Provide a framework that promotes and encourages renewable and low carbon energy
generation.
Planning authorities should give positive consideration to the use of local

development orders (LDO) to secure renewable and low-carbon energy supply
systems.
Local requirements for decentralised energy to supply new development
Local requirements for sustainable buildings
Monitoring and Review

The main points to be noted with respect to Monitoring and Review are as follows.
Effective monitoring and review is essential in securing responsive action to tackle

climate change. The successful implementation of policies on climate change depends
on active stewardship regionally and locally.
Annual monitoring should assess progress against the objectives of the policies and
be integrated with monitoring of housing delivery and other policies.
It is essential to review regularly and update the assumptions on which the spatial
strategy and component parts are built.
There should be clear and workable arrangements to ensure close links between the
production of regional and local monitoring reports.
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Reviews should reflect future updates to the National Action Plan on Climate
Change, developments in climate modelling and prediction, be sensitive to scientific
and technological developments, and be carried out at least every five years.
Safeguarding environmental performance

In determining planning applications, planning authorities should also consider the likely
impact of proposed development on:
existing, or other proposed, development, and its renewable or low-carbon energy supply;
existing, or proposed, sources of renewable or low-carbon energy supply; and
the vulnerability to climate change of existing or proposed development
Compliance and enforcement

Planning authorities in considering their approach to compliance and, when necessary,
whether it is expedient to take enforcement action, should have particular regard to the
highest priority placed by Government on mitigating climate change and successfully
adapting to the unavoidable consequences.
2.3.7 INCLUSIVE PLANNING and PUBLIC PARTICIPATION
Some definitions:
Miller and Katz (2002): Inclusion is a sense of belonging: feeling respected, valued for who
you are; feeling a level of supportive energy and commitment from others so than you can do
your best work. Inclusion is a shift in organization culture. The process of inclusion engages
each individual and makes people feeling valued essential to the success of the organization.
Individuals function at full capacity, feel more valued, and included in the organizations
mission.
Inclusion today is more widely thought of as a practice of ensuring that people in
organizations feel they belong, are engaged, and connected through their work to the goals
and objectives of the organization. An intention or policy of including people who might
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otherwise be excluded or marginalized, such as the handicapped, learning-disabled, or racial

and sexual minorities.
Inclusivity:
The fact or policy of not excluding members or participants on the grounds of gender, race,
class, sexuality, disability, etc. The degree to which others are included in an action, so
people do not feel left out.
Social Inclusion:
Social inclusion is both a process and an outcome. As a process, social inclusion promotes
the open, welcome and supported participation of all people in social planning and decisionmaking affecting their lives. As an outcome, an inclusive city is one that provides
opportunities for the optimal well-being and healthy development of all children, youth and
adults.
People-centred development, or sustainable human development, has gained increasing
acceptance over the last 10 years. It emphasizes that development should be broad-based and
bottom-up, redistributive and just, empowering and environmentally sustainable; seeking to
meet the needs of the present generation without compromising the ability of future
generations to meet their own needs (WCED 1987). In 1992, United Nations Conference on
Environment and Developments (UNCED) Agenda 21 outlined programmes that go beyond
ecological sustainability to include other dimensions of sustainable development such as
equity, economic growth and popular participation. Indeed, the principles of sustainable
human development and Agenda 21 are converging.
The concept of sustainable cities is derived from that of sustainable development. The world
is becoming increasingly urban. And urbanization is spreading South. Historically,
urbanization has coincided with, and has been accompanied by, increased consumption and
ecological degradation across the globe. The ecological impact of urbanization in the South
has become a major justification for a new development paradigm: that of sustainable cities.
It is an amalgamation of various independent processes: the urban environmental movement,
the decentralization of local governance and Agenda 21, followed by Habitat II (UNCHS
1996). Prior to Habitat II, urban environmental issues were addressed by very few
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international efforts, namely: the Sustainable Cities Programme (SCP) and Best Practices
Awards; the Urban Management Programme (UMP); the Urban Environment Forum (UEF);
the International Council for Local Environmental Initiatives (ICLEI), the Local Initiative
Facility for Urban Environment (LIFE).
Why Inclusive Planning is Important in achieving global commitments and Goals?

Since the Copenhagen Declaration (1995) and the First UN Decade for Eradication of
Poverty (1997) and the Millennium Declaration (2000), global and national calls for creating
a just and inclusive world that addresses the concerns of the weak and vulnerable have grown
louder and planning for the goal has become pronounced through national multi-year plans,
PRSPs and MTEFs and other home grown instruments around the world. However, as we
now know progress on the poverty front has been limited and uneven and hence the necessity
of proclamation of the Second United Nations Decade for the Eradication of Poverty (20082017), and being midway to the Millennium Development Goals target date (2015),
increasing and more comprehensive efforts are to be mounted if the world wishes to see the
global communitys goals to be achieved.
Why Inclusive Planning is yet to be widely practiced?

1. While there has been some efforts addressed to mainstreaming inclusive policy process
that transcends beyond the participatory process that has been in vogue for several decades
now, our understanding of the process itself and more importantly to operationalise it
remains the challenge. One of the major constraints remains the lack of capacity at the
national level to transcend the hitherto known participatory approach to include the so called
excluded groups as referred earlier and ensure their full participation in the planning process
as well as allowing their concerns to be programmed and incorporated in the planning
process.
2. A second and related constraint is the lack of interest among UN Country Teams to pursue
a full-fledged inclusive planning process addressing the concerns of the vulnerable social
groups either in their own planning instruments like the CCA, UNDAF and UN Country
Plan. While reference is made to the situation of these vulnerable social groups in the country
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assessments, they are often not mainstreamed in the planning and assistance framework to
the extent that these groups receive programmatic and funding attention given their
precarious situation. UN agencies having presence in the field (both Funds and Programmes
and Specialized agencies) focus largely on their strategic objectives and mandate that focuses
on their mandated areas of intervention and thus leaves out vulnerable social groups from
receiving much attention in specific program and project planning exercises. While UNICEF
is increasingly paying attention to youths and adolescence in addition to their primary focus
on children and women; UNFPA dealing with Census and other surveys have quantitative
data for all social groups; ILO has specific youth employment programs in many countries
and UNDP in addition to their lead role in monitoring MDG is also increasingly involved in
national planning and long-term developmental goals, collectively the UN Country Teams
contribution to transcending from inclusive policy to planning could be far more emphatic if
a conscious decision is taken to ensure it is done so at an operational level.
Case studies
1. Participatory and inclusive planning for Adaptation to climate change in Northern Ghana
Many families in the northern regions of Ghana live in poverty, with a high number of people
experiencing hunger for three to five months each year. During this period between planting
and harvest, many are only able to eat one meal of maize, millet or sorghum per day. They
are striving to improve their lives, but environmental and other challenges are impeding their
efforts to attain a more prosperous life.
Local government and civil society organizations in the region are striving to support poor
and vulnerable people in Northern Ghana, but they face many difficulties. For example,
District authorities have been given the mandate to undertake local development planning.
However, they have been provided with few resources or guidance, especially concerning
community involvement in decision making. At the same time, local non-governmental and
community based organizations lack the capacity to effectively engage in local governance
processes. As a result, District development plans that drive resource allocation from the
central government are often out of touch with local realities.
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Building local understanding about climate change

Local communities in northern Ghana are well aware that their climate is changing, and they
are beginning to understand that this may represent a trend that will continue in the future.
With this knowledge, they are eager to access the information they need to better understand
the risks they may face in future, and to plan appropriately. Finding the right solutions is vital
to long-term adaptation. For example, some people are responding to current climate
variability and change by adopting alternative crops and income generating strategies.
However, most are employing unsustainable coping strategies such as cutting firewood for
sale in local markets.
Inclusive planning
Having built understanding of how climate change is affecting livelihoods in target
communities, and how these risks may evolve in the future, the CARE project team is now
engaged in supporting community members, local nongovernment organisations (NGOs) and
local government authorities to integrate this knowledge into development planning.
Project partners focused first at the community level, facilitating a participatory planning
process to yield community action plans to reduce vulnerability to climate change. This
included the identification of priority actions such as tree planting, establishing early warning
systems for droughts and floods, and adopting agricultural practices that conserve soil
moisture and nutrients (e.g. composting and using cover crops to create much).
Currently, the project team is working to link communities with local government authorities
at District levels so they can communicate the priorities they identified in their community
action plans. This is expected to generate District development plans that are grounded in the
local reality, and that reflect the community members priority strategies to help them adapt
to current and future changes in climate. These linkages are facilitated by the local NGO
partners, who have received training in analysing climate vulnerability and in identifying
appropriate strategies to adapt to climate change.
Focusing on gender equality and womens empowerment

Climate change impacts dont affect everyone equally. Men and women may have different
levels of vulnerability due to cultural rules and norms that result in the inequitable
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distribution of rights and resources. During community discussions in Ghana, women

highlighted their particular vulnerability to the impacts of climate change. For example, they
discussed their role in the household where they are likely to be more responsible than men
for securing food and water for domestic consumption, but have less power in decisionmaking on the use of family resources. Womens vulnerability also stems from their role in
the community, where they have less voice in local governance. To address this, the project
places significant emphasis on ensuring that the needs and priorities of both men and women
are represented in community and District action plans. This is achieved by ensuring equal
representation of women on planning committees and supporting women through training
and mentoring to take on leadership roles in community and local government organisations.
Conclusions
Community Land Use Responses to Climate Change (CLURCC) Project
Implemented by CARE Canada through CARE Ghana
Funded by the Canadian International Development Agency (CIDA) and CARE Canada
The project is in its second of four years
It works in ten communities in two Districts in Northern Ghana Bawku Municipal and
East Mamprusi
It is implemented through two local partner organisations: Zuuri Organic Vegetable
Farmers Association (ZOVFA- Bawku) and the
Presby Agricultural Station (PAS-Langbensi)
2. Inclusive planning in Kosovo
UN-HABITAT is assisting the post-conflict transition from the former centralised, top-down
planning system towards an inclusive, participatory and multi-disciplinary approach to
planning. A planning approach that takes into account specific needs of various social groups
and is focussed on participation, transparency and accountability. Working at the same time
with the central and local levels, the University, and civil society organisations, and
developing adequate legislation, was a unique and comprehensive approach which allowed
the anchoring of the process among Kosovo institutions.
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Planning for a sustainable future of Kosovo requires new planning legislation, institutions
and practices. Setting-up this new planning system requires working at several levels and
incorporating various aspects of the planning process into one framework.
The first Kosovo Strategic Spatial Plan

Today, the first Strategic Spatial Plan for the territory of Kosovo has entered the final public
review process before approval by the Government and the Parliament. UN-HABITAT
helped the new Ministry of Environment and Spatial Planning establish the Institute of
Spatial Planning and prepare its staff for the development of the first Kosovo Strategic
Spatial Plan. Both technical and management staff were trained by UN-HABITAT, with the
capacity building programme tailored to a roadmap for strategic and inclusive planning at
central level.
Engaging Civil Society as Part of the Roadmap

The roadmap for participatory planning engages civil society in consultations and gives
citizens and their organisations the fl oor as the key stakeholder in the planning process. This
remains a big challenge for both central and local level institutions and civil society
organisations. Therefore, UN-HABITAT is working together with civil society organisations,
decision-makers and municipal planners to build a common understanding of the planning
process and prepare civil society organisations, with a focus on NGOs representing ethnic
minorities, youth (representing more then 50% of the population) and women, for
participation in dialogues and public debates, and engagement as partners in strategic
projects. Understanding strategic planning, being able to advocate for citizens priorities,
learning about budgeting, and how citizens can get involved in it, form the basis of inclusive
planning. Inclusion of all relevant stakeholders in the planning process is not only an element
of good governance, but also the means for ensuring funding for projects and major
investments. Gender equality in Kosovo still requires work in many areas access to
services, public safety, jobs and education, to mention just a few. UN-HABITAT is helping
incorporate a gender approach in planning.
Inclusive, Strategic and Action-oriented Planning in Kosovo

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For many years in Kosovo and the broader region, actually since the end of the war in
Kosovo in 1999, UN-HABITAT has been promoting good governance, security of tenure,
sustainable human settlements development and inclusive spatial planning. UN-HABITATs
initial interventions were focussed on the establishment of institutions to deal with property
issues as the Housing and Property Directorate, the Kosovo Cadastre Agency and on building
capacities for efficient management of local governments through LoGo (Local Government
Programme) and Municipal Support Programme. Through the Urban Planning and
Management Programme (UPMP, 01-03), the Governance and Development Planning
Programme (GDPP 03-06) and the Municipal Spatial Planning Support Programme
(MuSPP, 05-07) a new planning system has been developed, anchored and institutionalised.
These programmes are funded by respectively the Government of the Netherlands (UPMP,
GDPP) and the Swedish Government through Sida (MuSPP).
Building sustainable capacity for inclusive planning is a prerequisite for accession to the
European Union. UN-HABITAT has engaged with various countries in the South East
European region on urbanisation policy advice and technical cooperation in the past years.
To support SEE countries in furthering reforms in the areas of Housing and Urban
Development and to assist in the EU integration process, UN-HABITAT, in cooperation with
the Stability Pact and in close consultation with the governments in the Western Balkans, is
developing a Regional Capacity Building Programme for Housing and Urban Development
in SEE.
3. Peoples Campaign for Decentralised Planning, Kerala, India Involving Women in

Grassroots Participatory Processes
The Kerala State Planning Board created a series of nested participatory exercises in which
citizens are given a direct role in shaping, rather than just choosing, policies and projects
(Heller et al. 2007). As part of this planning process, the state, supported by civil society
organisations, undertook an extensive training programme of key resource persons, which
involved some 100,000 people.
As it evolved the programmeincluding policies and publicitywas specifically targeted at
women and marginalised groups. The state also set parameters for local level expenditure,
and stipulated compulsory minimum expenditures for women and marginalised groups.
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The Campaign has had particularly noticeable impacts on women. Heller et al. (2007)
demonstrated that the development planning process in Kerala has effectively empowered
women through a deliberately participatory, inclusive and re-distributive process. It has also
facilitated womens presence in local governance and increased the political space within
which they can mobilise.
4. Comprehensive Plan for lower Manhattan

The development of a comprehensive plan with short- and long-term strategies for restoring,
rebuilding, and renewing Lower Manhattan is an absolute requirement for recovery.
Decisions and priorities must be framed within the context of this comprehensive plan,
balancing the rebuilding of Lower Manhattan with development in other areas of the city and
region, especially now, when there will be intense competition for limited resources.
Accomplish the plan through a participatory process

The plan should be accomplished through a participatory process involving government, the
private sector, affected communities, and the public. Rebuilding will require an open,
transparent process to decide what to do with the WTC site and Lower Manhattan. Planning
for this and other potential redevelopment areas will also require recognizing existing
community assets and developing a place-based consensus among community members, the
business community, agencies, and other stakeholders. This must include due
acknowledgement of relevant rights and responsibilities of existing WTC landowners and
leaseholders.
An Effective and Inclusive Planning Process

The first step in developing plans will be to design a participatory framework. The goal
should be definition of a commonly shared vision, agreement on principles, and
establishment of guidelines.
Such a framework would include the following:
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A process for developing a vision for rebuilding based on maximum possible

consensus, in an expedited manner and with adequate funding to maximize public
input.
Soliciting public input through outreach, including focus groups, the Internet, cable
television, and other means, and incorporating that input into the planning process.
A schedule for achieving public approvals, including environmental and agency

approvals, with analysis of alternatives and impacts integrated into the process.
Analysis of options developed through the public process not only by clients and
approval bodies but also by an Advisory Group of architects, planners, designers, and
other relevant professional groups.
A public education program focusing on planning and design principles using

exhibits, paneldiscussions, electronic and print media, and other forums. Coordination
with events andforums advanced by the Civic Alliance, Imagine New York, members
of New York New Visions and other groups.
Clearly defined participant roles during the planning process.
Use of interactive meetings, web sites, electronic media and other techniques for
presentingmaterial, receiving comments and discussing options.
Funding to achieve these goals.
Keep the Process Focused

Strong leadership and a capacity to make difficult decisions will be required of the Governor,
Mayor and Lower Manhattan Redevelopment Corporation, and those they appoint to lead the
planning effort. The NYC City Planning Commission, which has responsibility for
comprehensive and long-term planning issues under the NYC Charter, should also have a
strong role in planning for rebuilding. Other entities with local planning responsibilities,
including but not limited to the Manhattan Borough President, Community Boards,
Economic Development Corporation, and Battery Park City Authority should have major
roles. Civic groups and not-for-profit organizations, along with the Art Commission and the
Landmarks Preservation Commission, should also have a strong voice in the review process.
New York New Visions volunteers its collective experience and expertise as an available
advisory resource. To the degree that rebuilding is replicating previous uses and densities,
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existing planning and environmental approvals should apply. Taking advantage of existing
approvals and participatory planning tools will best focus the process.
2.3.8 INVESTMENT PLANNING

The Core Elements of Investing in Sustainability and Resiliency Incorporation of
Lifecycle Costing Life cycle costing (LCC) is a decision support method that can help cities
improve project cost/benefit accounting measures and derive better estimates of the financial
and economic costs and benefits associated with any development projects.
Life cycle costs include all the costs incurred by a project throughout its life cycle, including
construction, operation, maintenance, rehabilitation, disposal, and replacement. Part of the
challenge faced by all cities today is integrating cash flows over time. This includes
optimizing capital and operating costs, ensuring adequate cash flows over the longer term,
and recapitalizing investments so that funds are available for replacement of assets at the end
of a projects life cycle.
Cities are the Four Capitals approach as outlined by Paul Ekins. This is a method that has
evolved from a number of assessment tools that have been used in urban development, and
that is flexible enough to include any type of measurement, and yet well-balanced. It has
been successfully used on a number of sustainable planning projects in European countries.
Most economic analysis incorporates an inventory and valuation of capital assets; however
the focus is primarily on manufactured goods and systems that produce or facilitate the
delivery of goods and services. This kind of capital is referred to as manufactured capital,
and includes the hard infrastructure of cities. We need to account for the quality of labour
(human capital), the networks through which labour is organised and which create the
context for economic activity (social capital), and the natural resources and ecological
systems which provide inputs into the economic process and maintain life on earth (natural
capital).
A more detailed definition of these four capitals, as provided by Paul Ekins and James
Medhurst in 2003, is as below.
Manufactured Capital (or human-made) capital is what is traditionally considered as

capital: produced assets that are used to produce other goods and services. Some
examples are machines, tools, buildings, and infrastructure.
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Natural Capital: In addition to traditional natural resources, such as timber, water,

energy, and mineral reserves, natural capital includes natural assets that are not easily
valued monetarily, such as biodiversity, endangered species, and the ecological
services provided by healthy ecosystems (e.g., air and water filtration). Natural
capital can be considered as components of nature that can be linked directly or
indirectly to human welfare.
Social Capital: Social capital, like human capital, is related to human wellbeing, but
on a societal rather than individual level. It consists of the social networks that
support an efficient, cohesive society, and facilitate social and intellectual interactions
among its members. Social capital refers to those stocks of social trust, norms, and
networks that people can draw upon to solve common problems and create social
cohesion. Examples of social capital include neighbourhood associations, civic
organizations, and co-operatives. The political and legal structures that promote
political stability, democracy, government efficiency, and social justice (all of which
are good for productivity as well as being desirable in themselves) are also part of
social capital.
Human (Cultural) Capital: Human capital generally refers to the health, wellbeing,
and productive potential of individual people. Types of human capital include mental
and physical health, education, motivation, and work skills. These elements improve
the opportunities for economic development through a productive workforce.
Sustainable development is mostly about how to maintain or increase the four capitals so that
the flow of benefits is sustained indefinitely.
Stepping Stones for Investing in Sustainability and Resiliency
Develop and adopt indicators for assessing the four capitals, and for benchmarking
performance: Indicators can be selected from lists provided by knowledge institutions
and industry coalitions. An indicator is not successful unless it is regularly measured
and reported.
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Forecast the impacts of plausible changes: Forecast the impacts of plausible changes
in climate, markets, resource availability, demographics, and technology. Forecasting
the impact of external forces can help begin the process of proactively incorporating
resiliency and adaptive capacity to better manage risks. Some of the external forces
that can be examined through such workshopsin addition to climate change
include: changes in global markets, resource availability, demographics, and
technology.
Monitor and feedback results, then learn and adapt to improve performance;
Monitoring requires a set of indicators adapted to the city and project and budget.
This means a budget allocation for data collection, analysis, and publication. The
collection of measurements over time adds strength to the process of urban
development. The feedback on key indicators makes it easy to see trends and patterns,
educate decision-makers of how well the city is doing, provide benchmarks, set
targets for upgrading future projects, and provide a solid basis for employee and
contractor accountability. The key to evaluation and learning is consistency and
perseverance.
A number of assessment methods are available to help cities cope with complexity. The
following methods are worth considering.
First and foremost is Life Cycle Costing (LCC), which is used to understand many of
the indirect and contingent costs associated with any project design over the expected
lifetime of the facilities. Some LCC tools work with complete urban environments,
including both spatial elements and infrastructure. Other LCC tools work exclusively
with specific types of infrastructure facilities, like treatment plants and power plants.
The second method to consider is environmental accounting, which attempts to add

up the lifetime environmental impacts of a project. Environmental accounting
includes Material Flow Analysis, but further expands the scope to include the broader
impacts of specific projects on the environment, including resource use and depletion
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and the costs of emissions. Lifecycle environmental accounting can help to identify
the areas where problems are greatest.
A third method is risk assessment, something that is especially important during times
of rapid change, and yet largely ignored by urban professionals. A full assessment of
risk requires that cities consider a variety of future possibilities, and research the
likely impact of trends in many areas, from climate change to technology.
A fourth and final method is the overall valuation of city performance on an Eco &
Pathway as well as on a project by project basis by using the right set of indicators to
assess costs and benefits.
Life Cycle Costing

One of the most significant factors influencing decision-making about urban area
development is the long-term impact on city finances and the costs for residents and
businesses. Life Cycle Costing (LCC) for urban infrastructure applies to everythingfrom
buildings to roads, pathways, right-of-ways, parking lots, wires, pipes, ditches, bridges, and
the associated treatment plants, sub-stations, open spaces, and facilities. By adopting LCC ,
the design and purchasing choices can be adjusted to optimise the system over its entire life.
LCC can produce even greater changes in practices for spatial planning .LCC can assist with
the evaluation of alternative spatial planning activities by providing credible estimates of the
full long-term costs for infrastructure and impacts on taxes, fiscal health. The example
presented here is based on a tool developed by a Canadian public agency for use in integrated
design exercises. The tool ,entitled Life Cycle Costing Tool for Community Infrastructure
Planning ,allows users to estimate the major costs of community development. The tool is
suited to assess development projects ranging in size from a collection of houses to a blockby-block development to an entire subdivision or neighbourhood. A good measure of the
applicability of the tool to a given project is whether or not alternatives can be conceived that
would result in significantly different densities or infrastructure requirements, or make use of
different green infrastructure alternatives .Outputs include an integrated financial assessment
with monetary values for the following major categories.
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Hard Infrastructure, including roads, sewers, storm water facilities, schools, and
recreation centres;
Municipal Services, including transit services, school transit, fire services, police
services, and waste management services;
Private User Costs, including driving costs and home heating costs;
External Costs, including air pollution, climate change, and motor vehicle collision;
and
Green Infrastructure alternatives.
Reserve Funding
One of the most effective tools for sustainable financing is a reserve fund. The concept
behind a reserve fund is to set aside money incrementally and gradually, so that sufficient
funds are available for financing upgrades and replacement at the end of a projects life
cycle. Reserve funds make good economic and ethical sense. The biggest challenge with
reserve funds are keeping them truly reserved. Funds are subject to raids by those who see
opportunities to spend the funds elsewhere. Consequently, reserve funds must be earmarked
and legally protected.
A reserve fund is particularly necessary for non-revenue generating projects. It is important
to keep an appropriate amount in reserve as determined by the overall investment plan. A
larger reserve is not necessarily better, since the fund is exposed to inflation risk. To reduce
the amount of such a fund, it is desirable to pool similar assets, and, as far as possible, to
keep the annual investment amount level.
Financial Resources
In general, cities can access a range of financial resources from the international community
and donor agencies. Many of these financial resources can be used to fund the many options
of technical assistance. Larger donor agencies like the Multilateral Development Banks (The
World Bank, The Asian Development Bank, etc.) may also provide financial resources for
infrastructure investment. Some of them are:
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Development Policy Loans (DPLs) provide quick-disbursing financing to support

policy and institutional reforms at both national and sub-national government levels.
Specific Investment Loans (SILs) finance a broad range of specific infrastructure

investments (water supply, wastewater management, power generation and
distribution, solid waste management, roads, public transport, etc.).
If policy and regulatory reform leads to significant reduction of GHG emissions in

specific components based on the Carbon Development Mechanism (CDM)
methodology, or if direct investments do the same for instance, through solid waste
management), then the World Banks Carbon Finance Unit can enable the purchase
of emission reductions. This can increase the bankability of projects by adding an
additional hard revenue stream.
The International Finance Corporation, also part of the World Bank Group, can
finance corresponding private sector investments (for instance: energy efficient
buildings or technologies).
Investment Framework that Values Sustainability and Resiliency

The simple concept of investing in sustainability and resiliency for cities has become
extremely difficult to put into action. Policies, plans, and projects tend to be assessed on their
short term financial returns, or on an economic valuation based upon narrowly structured cost
benefit analysis, from the perspective of a single stakeholder or project objective.
Investments are valued in monetary terms, and what cannot be monetarised is either ignored,
or addressed on the side as externalities. Decisions are dominated by immediate capital
costs, despite the fact that often over 90 percent of lifecycle costs for typical infrastructure
are expended during operational maintenance and rehabilitation. Few cities worldwide have a
real knowledge of the impact of new development on their long-term fiscal condition.
Lifecycle costs are often back-loaded, which means that future generations will have a
massive infrastructure deficit, as they face costs for repair and replacement of infrastructure
without any prior capitalization. At the same time, ecological assets, the services they
provide, and the economic and social consequences of their depletion and destruction are not
accounted for in most government budgets. Since these assets are not measured, they are
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treated as zero value and their services go unaccounted for. Principle 4 requires that cities
adopt a new framework for making policy and investment decisions. The framework has
multiple elements. A new range of indicators and benchmarks must be adopted for assessing
and rewarding performance of all stakeholders. The family of indicators must address the
needs of different categories of decision-makers (e.g., strategy evaluation vs. operational).
Longer time horizons are needed, and life-cycle cost-benefit analysis must be applied to
understand full implications of policies and investment options. All four categories of capital
assets (manufactured, natural, human, and social) and the services they provide must be
appropriately valued or priced and monitored through indicators. The combination of
indicators should be viewed as a whole so that the qualitative dimensions of city life
(cultural, historic, and aesthetic) cannot be ignored when assessing costs and benefits. At the
same time, investing in sustainability and resiliency will entail broadening our scope of risk
assessment and management to include managing the many indirect, difficult to measure
risks that nonetheless threaten the viability of an investment or even the city as a whole.
Equal Attention to All Capital Assets: an Expanded Framework for Accounting

A persistent challenge when accounting for the cost of urban development projects is the
measurement and valuation of the many indirect benefits and costs. Economic analysis has
evolved over the last few years in an attempt to get a better handle on these indirect costs,
and to provide decision-makers with an assessment that more accurately reflects the true, full
costs and benefits of any particular option. For example, cost benefit analysis, the primary
method for assessing economic viability, has been expanded to incorporate many indirect
effects into the monetary values. Cost effectiveness, the other standard method currently used
for assessing the economic viability of a project, also has been expanding to examine some of
the indirect benefits. Many of the indirect costs of concern to communities cannot easily be
measured or explained, nor can they be easily converted into credible monetary values.
A more comprehensive economic analysis requires that more attention be given to
environmental accounting as a separate, rigorous method. Every project needs a standard
protocol for assessing the environmental effects by category, using well defined methods
such as input output analysis, life cycle analysis, and materials flow analysis.
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A number of techniques have been developed for attempting to value a wider range of
environmental and ecological effects to arrive at one or several overarching measurement of
natural capital. A notable example is the ecological footprint, which converts energy and
material use into the total area of productive land that would be required to sustain such
flows indefinitely. For example, the City of London calculated that each person in the city on
average requires 6.63 green hectares of land to support their lifestyleor more than three
times what is actually available per person on a planetary scale. The City of London
discovered that their combined ecological footprint is 293 times the actual land area of the
city, mostly as a consequence of the high rates of food and material consumption.
The framework needs to combine categories of benefits and costs in ways that they can be
tracked as a whole, so indicators on ecological health, for example, can be given equal
consideration with indicators on economic wealth.
Case Studies
1. Master Plan of Eastern Province of Sri Lanka, three years perspective plan
In Sri Lanka, perspective plan is prepared for duration of 3 years. A long term policy
framework is formulated for Eastern Province. This long term policy framework gives a
strategy for development which mainly focuses on following three aspects,
First, restoring and guaranteeing socio-economic and personal stability and safety to
the people and communities of the Region through resettlement of displaced persons,
building reconciliation, and consolidating the capacities and fundamental rights and
responsibilities all people and institutions.
Second, revitalizing basic livelihoods through revival and expansion of the productive
sectors and the regional economy.
Third, improving economic infrastructure, strengthening social infrastructure and

fostering social services and development of human settlements and improving the
internal and internal connectivity of the Region.
Fourth, to develop the East as a hospitable and attractive place in which to live, visit
and do business and work.
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Fifth, to create an environment where people can live in peace and harmony and
pursue livelihoods of their choice, in a way that will permit rapid social and economic
development.
After identification of long term policy, immediate objectives were formulated on a short
term basis. These objectives were to be achieved within a time frame of six months to one
year. The identified immediate priority objectives for the Eastern Province are:
Restoration and development of livelihoods together with the establishment of basic
infrastructure and restoration of services to the communities.
Establishment of sound governance administration and service delivery arrangements.
Laying the groundwork for long-term socio-economic development of the Province
through development of the productive, infrastructure, services and other sectors.
Sri Lanka has a investment plan of three years each. Release of funds is made on yearly
basis. Various priority sectors have been identified and allocation of money to these sectors
was made. Priority sectors were identified at three levels namely, regional level, city level
and local level. At regional level economy was identified as the key sector for investment.
Other identified sectors at regional level are infrastructure, public institutions and capacity
building and productive sectors. These aspects identified at regional level were further
divided into many sub aspects.
Details of identified sectors for investment at regional level:
Revitalizing productive sectors and regional economy: It consists of sub aspects like
agriculture, irrigation, fisheries, livestock, industries, tourism etc.
Infrastructure for improving economy: It consists of sub aspects like electricity,

roads, railways, ports, water supply and sanitation and development of rural
infrastructure.
Development of human settlements: It consists of sub aspects like environment, urban

development and provision of housing facilities to urban as well as rural population.
Public institutions and capacity building: It consists of sub aspects like security,
improvement of provincial and local administration, improvement of district and
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divisional administration, anti-corruption and promotion of transparency and

accountability.
Similarly, investment plan made allocation at urban level for the following sectors:
Resettlement schemes: It consists of sub aspects like restoration of livelihoods,

housing for the poor who were affected by resettlement schemes etc.
Provision of physical infrastructure: It consists of sub aspects like electricity, roads,

railways stations, water supply and sanitation etc.
Strengthening of social infrastructure and fostering social services: It consists of sub

aspects like provision of education facilities, health facilities, cultural and heritage
centre and social protection of vulnerable groups through provision of medical
assistance to disabled persons, homes for elderly and special programmes for women
and children.
Provision of economic infrastructure: It consists of sub aspects like development of

large, medium and small scale enterprises.
At local level, investment plan was detailed out by identification of projects in all above
sectors. These projects are location specific.
2. Comprehensive Development Plan for the City of Luxor, Egypt

A 20-year Comprehensive Development Plan for the City of Luxor was prepared. This
Comprehensive Development Plan consists of three plans namely, the Structure Plan,
Heritage Plan and Investment Projects. Since city of Luxor has huge components of heritage
so focus of the plan is on heritage and the following aspects:
To accommodate projected growth in population, tourism and agriculture;
To develop approaches for preservation and enhancement of the antiquities to absorb

escalation in tourism.
Develop environmentally sustainable tourism to benefit the local population.
Preservation of cultural resources protects Egypts heritage and promote economic

development.
To promote planned growth for sustainable economic development.
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Meet the contemporary needs of local residents.
In order to implement major components of the plan, Investment Package Concepts were
prepared. The focus of the investment plan was to initiate involvement of private sector for
resource mobilization. The following sectors were identified for involving private sectors:
for acquisition of land through innovative techniques,
for development of new housing area and
redevelopment of existing areas,
for implementation of traffic and transportation plans,
Pedestrianisation of heritage rich areas.
For fulfilling infrastructure requirements like provision of water supply, sanitation,

collection and management of solid waste and wastewater
Treatment of waste water, sewerage, solid waste.
Apart from financing by private sectors, loan from USAID was also to be taken.
There is a major focus on strengthening of institutions and local bodies to facilitate better
implementation. Institutional improvements will lead to the creation of an environment
where businesses have a partnership relationship with local authorities where there is a high
level of confidence that implementing agencies will be able to provide planning strategies
and programs to insure a sustainable and environmentally sound development in Luxor.
3. Integrated Development Plan Johannesburg (2006-2011)

Integrated Development Planning ensures horizontal and vertical co-ordination and
integration across the three spheres of government: national, provincial and local. The focus
of this five-year IDP is within a context of a seamless, integrated strategic planning process.
The city has developed a set of long-term goals and five-year objectives that will form the
basis of the annual business planning and budgeting carried out by the City on an ongoing
basis. The City has sought to capture the complex multiple processes of planning through the
mutually reinforcing processes of:
The General Development Strategy (for long-term planning);
The five-year Integrated Development Plan (for medium-term planning); and
Business planning (for short-term planning).
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The General Development Strategy is made up of a set of propositions or principles on how

to approach development. It also analyses development trends and projections that suggest
what might happen in the future. There is also a clear set of long-term goals and strategic
interventions.
At a more practical level, business planning is the planning tool that is employed by the City
to deal with the requirements for short-term planning and annual operational planning. It is
the basis for budget allocations that allow for the implementation of sub-programmes and
projects to action the programmes expressed in the Integrated Development Plan.
Investment plan is implemented through Capital Investment Framework which is an outcome
of a joint initiative between the Development Planning Department and all service providers
within the City (Municipal Entities and Core Internal Departments).
The purpose of the Capital Investment Framework is to ensure the improvement and the
management of the existing infrastructure by addressing the many developmental challenges
within the city. The purpose of the Capital Investment Framework is therefore to:
Improve service delivery through infrastructure and services that is planned,

delivered, upgraded or managed in an objective and structured manner that support
the Citys vision, growth and development strategy and priorities;
Prioritise projects and programmes through an information system;
Direct future public and private investment;
Strategically align capital budgets; and
Identify types of infrastructure and services planning and implementation choices in a

strategic manner that fulfils the Citys developmental priorities.
City Investment Framework provides for prioritization of projects and allocation of budget
accordingly. The budget is funded from the tariffs, rates, base and external funding (e.g.
housing subsidy, Municipal Infrastructure Grant, etc.).
The identified sectors of investments were Economic Development, Community
Development, Housing, Infrastructure and Services, Environment, Spatial Form and Urban
Management, Transportation, Health, Safety, Financial Sustainability and Governance.
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a) Investment programmes
The following nine investment programmes have been developed to support the
implementation has influenced the outcome of capital budget allocations.
The nine programmes are:
The Upgrading of Marginalised Areas Programme (UMAP);
The Regeneration Programme (RP);
Corridor Development Programme;
Nodal Programme;
Strategic Transportation Interventions Programme (STIP);
Strategic Infrastructure Investment Plan (SIIP);
Sustainable Environment Programme (SEP); and
Housing Programme.
b) Medium-term financial plans

Medium term financing is basically done for duration of three years. The key focus areas of
the medium-term period are:
To improve the Citys overall financial stability;
Alignment of budgets to service provision and delivery;
To ensure prudent borrowing limits;
To invest in infrastructure; and
To focus on cost-efficiency.
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BackgroundStudies
Comparative study of investment plans in case study areas.

Table 2.4: Comparison Investment Plans in Case Studies
Eastern Province of Sri
Factors
Lanka
City of Luxor, Egypt
Johannesburg
Policy guidelines are
Long term goals are
Policy guidelines are
provided by a long term
identified through
provided by a long term
Comprehensive
formulation of General
Perspective plan
Development plan
Development Strategy.
Comprehensive
Development Plan consists
Type of
Identification of immediate
of Structure plan, Heritage
Identification of
development objectives on a short term
Plan and Investment
objectives on a short term
plan
basis.
Projects
basis.
Perspective plan is
Comprehensive
Integrated development
prepared for duration of
Development Plan is for
plan is prepared for a
three years.
duration of 20 years.
duration of five years.

Immediate objectives are
Time frame for achieving
Structure plans are
Time frame
the immediate objectives is
prepared for duration of 20
of plans
6 months to 1 year.
years.
identified on yearly basis.
Investment plan is prepared

in co-ordination with the
long term Perspective plan
by identification of major
Annual investment plan
sectors.
and budget is prepared
Investment plan is
For facilitating investment,
Type of
implemented by
projects are identified in
investment
identification of specific
various sectors.
is implemented through
plan
projects in the various
business plans
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Eastern Province of Sri

Factors
Lanka
City of Luxor, Egypt
Johannesburg
sectors.
There is no long term
Investment plan is prepared investment plan; it is made
for a duration of three
available by identification
years
of projects.
is for duration of 1 year.
Time frame
Business plan is prepared
of
for specific projects on a
Investment
Release of funds in done Release of funds in done short term basis varying
plan
on yearly basis.
on project basis.
from 6 months to 1 year.
Sectors for investment at Sectors for investment at Sectors for investment at

Levels
sectors
of regional level
for Sectors at urban level
investment
Sectors at local level
regional level
regional level
Sectors at urban level
Sectors at urban level
Private sectors and loans

Source
finance
of
through various agencies

Government
like USAID.
Government
Sectors of investment at various levels

Table 2.5: Sectors of Investments
Sectors
Sectors at Regional Level
Sectors at Urban/ City Level

Provision
Revitalizing productive sectors and regional infrastructure
of
local Level
physical Identification
like
electricity, of sector and
economy like agriculture, irrigation, fisheries, roads, railways stations, water location
livestock, industries, tourism etc
supply and sanitation etc
Infrastructure for improving economy like Strengthening
at
of
specific
social projects
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Sectors
Sectors at Regional Level
Sectors at Urban/ City Level
at
local Level
electricity, roads, railways, ports, water supply infrastructure like provision of

and sanitation
education
facilities,
health
facilities, cultural and heritage

centre
Provision
of
economic
infrastructure like development of

large, medium and small scale
Development of human settlements
enterprises
Capacity building of Public Institutions by

improvement
of
provincial
and
Redevelopment
local
and
administration, improvement of district and

divisional administration, anti-corruption and Environmental
promotion of transparency and accountability
protection
and resettlement
development
schemes
To meet the challenges of growing urbanization and to enable Indian cities to develop to the
level of global standards, a comprehensive programme, namely Jawaharlal Nehru National
Urban Renewal Mission (JnNURM) was launched in December 2005. The Government of
India has also taken several other initiatives to improve financing of urban infrastructure.
These include fax-free municipal bonds, pooled finance, etc.
Alternative methods of infrastructure financing land as a resource

Currently available sources of finance are Revenue surplus; Borrow9ings from financial
institutions or from capital market through municipal bonds, intergovernmental transfers,
Private investment in PPP mode, sale of land and estate, etc. Each currently available source
has its own limitations.
Land as a resource had a very dominating role during 60s and 70s. The dominant view was
Large scale advance acquisition of land is by far the best and perhaps the only way to
put an end to speculation in land and to capture subsequent increases in land values. But this
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method of land value capture seems to be neither adequate nor feasible. Draft Land
Acquisition Bill does not recognize town development as a public purpose.
Infrastructure increases the land value and therefore there is a need to capture it. Increase in
land value in turn will lead to an Increment Tax.
In US and Canada, cities found it difficult to fund incremental infrastructure to service
additional growth through increased property tax to service the bonds. This led to Impact
Fees in US and Development Charge in Canada. The US judiciary laid down rational nexus
between the investment required and the charge as the basic criterion. Instead of attempting
to tax the land value increment on account of infrastructure, directly taxing the value of
property at its inception would be a more effective way of obtaining capital receipts for
financing urban infrastructure. This could be termed as an Infrastructure Benefit Tax (IBT).
It could be introduced through suitable amendment to the Town Planning Acts. IBT can
avoid problems faced in existing methods. In this case, the development must contribute to
Infrastructure Investment in proportion to its market price.
IBT was evaluated with the other available sources of finance like LVIT/Betterment charges,
sale of FSI, Impact Fee and Development Charges on the basis of legal feasibility, tax base,
administration and Revenue potentiality. While others had some drawbacks, it has legal
feasibility; had a tax base 5that is the market value of the property; administratively could be
lined to Stamp Duty valuation and used for all infrastructures; and also is a general tax and a
buoyant revenue. Last but not the least, the most opportune time for introducing this new tax
would be when the real estate market is in an ascending mode. Intervention in the land
market should: (a) limit planning to essential; (b) pay attention to price of land and
internalize price mechanism; (c) better land information systems and streamlined procedures.
Need to develop an action plan/model for alternative sources of finance that can be circulated
and replicated wherever possible by different cities and states. The action plan could be
prepared within a period of 6-7 months that would cover: (a) Impact of currently available
sources of finance; (b) Need to identify the best model; (c) Legal framework; and (d) Use of
the revenues.
Short of immediate nationalization, the only solution of the compensation betterment
problem in regard to undeveloped land is that the rights of development therein should be
vested immediately in the States, on payment of fair compensation, such vesting to be
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secured by the imposition of a prohibition against development otherwise than with the
consent of the State, accompanied by the grant of compulsory powers of acquiring the land
itself when wanted.
As regards developed land its piecemeal transfer to public ownership, as and when required
for planning and other purposes, would be less dumber some a task than that involved in
immediate wholesale nationalization. Power of purchase, much wider and simpler in
operation than under existing legislation, should be conferred on public authorities. A
periodic levy should be imposed on increases in annual site value, with the object of securing
such betterment for the community as and when it is realized, enjoyed or realizable.
Impact Fees
Rational nexus between fee/charge and investment in infrastructure.
Americans and Canadians have stayed cleared of the controversies related to scope of
property rights and methods of exacting unearned income. The practice of financing capital
improvement prevalent in US cities till 1980s was to raise capital resources municipal bonds
revenue and general obligation and service the bonds through property tax and user fees.
During 1980s however state and dede3ral assistance to cities reduced while some cities were
expanding rapidly. Following the then prevailing practice meant existing population would
have to pay higher taxes to pay for new growth.
In Indian situation adoption of such a system faces some problems.

(a) The principle growth pays for itself implies that impact fees do not cover the cost of
augmenting existing infrastructure necessary to clear the backlog. However in most
Indian cities the absence of a practice of preparing capital improvement plans it is
difficult to differentiate or even allocate the cost between the two types of
developments.
(b) The requirement of upgrading existing infrastructure (like old water mains) and
creating new infrastructure for existing development (like sewerage in most ULBs) is
so large that Impact Fees that help growth pay for itself would not be adequate.
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(c) The requirement of preparing capital improvement plans as the basis of Impact Fees
design and then using them as the basis of convincing the tax payers and then
withstanding the judicial scrutiny would make the system administratively complex.
Finances of ULBs
State of Finances: The Constitution of India specifies the taxes to be divided between the
central and state governments but it does not specify the revenue base for ULBs. Further the
74th CAA is not specific about the types of Taxes ULBs should have but on the other hand
the powers for determining the revenue base of ULBs rests with the state governments. The
resource base of ULBs typically consists of their own resources (tax and non tax revenues),
shared revenues, state grants, and loans from state governments and market borrowings.
The XIth Five Year Plan of India (2007-2012), has estimate that total fund requirement for
implementation of the Plan target in respect to urban water supply, sewerage and sanitation,
drainage and solid waste management is Rs. 12,92,370 million (Table 6). The Working
Group Report on Urban Transport for XIth Five Year Plan has estimated an investment
requirement of Rs.13,25,900 million (including modern buses) for improving the transport
system.
Innovative Financing and Public Private Partnerships (PPP)

Public funds alone shall not be adequate for meeting investment needs in urban areas. Urban
India needs innovative financing like market based funds and land based sources and
PPP.
Municipal Bonds: The Ahmadabad Municipal Corporation (AMC) was the first ULB to
access the capital market in January 1998. It issued Rs. 1,000 million in bonds. This was a
remarkable achimvement since it was the first municipal issued in India without a state
guarantee and represented the first step toward a fully market based system of local
government finance. Several ULBs and utility organizations have issued bonds thereafter that
so far have mobilized over Rs. 12,240 million through taxable bonds, tax-free bonds and
pooled financing. Rating s of local governments establish a transparent credit record, and a
reference framework for current and future performance of local finances and debt
management.
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Land as a Resource for Financing: Several land based financing methods like higher Floor
Space Index (FSI), Transferable Development Rights (TDR), Impact Fee, AREA Linked
Development Charge, External Development Charge, Betterment Levy, etc. have been used
as tools for financing urban development in India. Land as a resource had a very dominating
role during 60s and 70s. the dominant view was Large scale advance acquisition of
land is by far the best and perhaps the only way to put an end to speculation in land and to
capture subsequent increases in land values.
Increase in land value in turn will lead to an Increment Tax. Examples are Town Planning
Schemes in Gujarat and Maharashtra. The other approaches include additional FSI and
TDRs.
PPP: As a response to lack of access to finance and restriction on recruiting new personnel,
etc. many ULBs have outsourced various tasks to other agencies that aim to increase access
to these services, a number of public private partnership (PPP) options have emerged. There
are many examples of PPP in solid waste management. For solid waste management, the
Grater Mumbai Municipal Corporation has developed Advanced Locality Management
(ALM) model for mille-and high- income areas and Slum Adoption Program for low-income
areas (Redkar, 2008). In Hyderabad and Surat, private contractors are engaged to clean main
roads and markets.
As far as PPP options for urban infrastructure are concerned, the initial focus of new
investments on PPP of water supply projects was on provision of bulk supply.
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IndicatorsandFrameworkforAppraisal
Chapter3
Chapter 3 INDICATORS AND FRAMEWORK FOR APPRAISAL

3.1
IDENTIFYING INDICATORS OF APPRAISAL
Based on the Background Studies and inputs from various stakeholder consultations
(Annexure III), indicators were evolved in order to appraise the Master Plans for various
cities. This was done for 4 case study cities, viz, Bangalore, Kolkata, Mumbai and Surat
which have been selected for indicating the heterogeneity of planning process observed in
these cities, reflecting an almost comprehensive picture for the Indian Planning approaches.
The Criteria used in selection of indicators have been adopted from an understanding of
the pre-requisites of indicators given by Zhang and Guindon (2006) which is:
Indicators should
a. meet the needs of targeted users
b. be easily understood;
c. be efficient and, ideally, unambiguous measures of the targeted issue;
d. be feasible for operational usefeasibility is based on the availability of relevant datasets
required to quantify them.
Based on the study objectives and background study, indicators have been formulated to
assess the planning approach and framework in the selected case study cities. The indicators
basically aim at answering the following questions.
Whether the Plan has a Concept/ Vision?
Whether the Plan conforms to the Vision?
Whether the Plan conforms to the Act?
What was the basis for assessing future needs and demands?
Whether the Planning Methodology achieves what it sets out to do?
Whether the Plan takes care of the emerging concerns like Sustainability, Inclusivity,
Safety & Security, and Globalization & Competitiveness?
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Chapter3
Whether the Plan gives for the provision of utilities and services as per the population
size?
Whether the Plan provides for Public Participation at all levels?
Whether the Plan has aimed at achieving sustainable development?
Whether the Plan has aimed at achieving sustainable urban form?
Whether the Plan gives strategies for implementation?
Whether the Plan gives strategies for monitoring & review?
Whether the Plan gives strategies for regulating development?
Whether the Plan gives strategies for financing the development in the city and
investment opportunities?
Whether there is an interface between the Master Plan and the City Development
Plan?
Based upon these queries, the indicators have been broadly categorized into:
1. Indicators for Plan Preparation
2. Indicators for Components of the Plan document
a. Physical Components
b. Environmental Components
c. Social Components
d. Economic Components
3. Indicators for Plan Implementation and Governance
The Plan documents pertaining to the selected case study cities that have been appraised
based upon these indicators are basically the Statutory Plans under the state T.C.P. Acts,
which include the Comprehensive Development Plan 2005 and 2015 for Bangalore; the Basic
Development Plan 1986, the Perspective Plan 2025 for Kolkata, and Land Use and
Development Control Plans for Kolkata Municipal Corporation Area; the Second
Development Plan 2013 for Mumbai; and the Revised Development Plan 2011 for Surat.
A detailed framework for the indicators and their applicability for appraisal of the Plan
documents is given as follows.
32
THEME
INDICATOR
Chapter3
BRIEF DESCRIPTION
QUERY
SPATIAL SCALE
PLAN PREPARATION
Vision
SWOT Analysis taking

into account:
Needs
Demands
Aspirations of the
citizens
What is the Vision?

Who formulates the Vision?
How was the vision formulated?
Does the vision relate to other levels
of plans?
What was the extent of Stakeholder

participation in the process?
What are the aims and objectives?
Do they help in achieving the
vision?
Aims and Objectives

Approach/ Concept
Planning Methodology
Perspective Period
Phasing
Theoretical concept for

planning
Approach to the Plan
preparation/ Planning
Framework
Time span as put forth by
the Plan
Number of Phases
Time Span
Region
City
Ward
Is the Plan based on any planning

approach/ concept?
What is the methodology adopted for
plan preparation?
What is the time duration of the plan?
Is there any phasing of the Plan?
Region
City
Ward
Region
City
Region
City
Ward
Region
City
Ward
Region
City
Ward
33
THEME
INDICATOR
Chapter3
BRIEF DESCRIPTION
QUERY
Territories/ Jurisdictions
Planning Unit
Time taken for Plan

preparation
Preparation Time
Team
Decision Support
Systems
Constitution of the Experts involved in the

Team
preparation of the Plan
Spatial Information
What is the delineated planning

area?
Does it coincide with planning/
administrative areas defined by
other agencies like the Municipal
Act/ 74th CAA?
Region
City
Ward
When was the plan preparation

initiated?
What was the time taken to prepare
the plan?
When was the plan notified?
Region
City
Ward
Who were involved in the preparation of the plan?
Information
systems
SPATIAL SCALE
Non- spatial information
What were the sectors considered

for Baseline Data collection and
analysis?
What was the basis for assessing
the present and future needs and
demands?
Region
City
Ward

Norms, Standards
and Assumptions
Benchmarks for meeting

future demands
What are the norms and standards

adopted?
What were the assumptions made
while preparing the Plan?
Region
City
Ward
34
THEME
INDICATOR
Chapter3
BRIEF DESCRIPTION
QUERY
SPATIAL SCALE
Population Size
Sex Ratio
Age Sex Structure
Workforce Participation
Rate
Pattern of Displacement
Population and
Work Force
estimates
Composition & location of

Ethnic Communities
Mix of social/ income

categories
Formal education for

assessment of skilled work
force & provision of
facilities.
Assessment of
Future
Requirements
What was the methodology by the

Plan for assessment of needs?
Were any Work Studies done as a
part of the Plan preparation?
What are the norms and standards
adopted?
What were the assumptions made
while assessment of future
requirements?
Region
City
Migrant/ Displaced
Population
Housing Need
% of Slum population &

Urban Poor
What was the extent of stakeholder

Water requirement
Infrastructure
Requirement
Waste water generation

Solid waste generation
Transportation
Assessment of Travel
demand / Traffic Volume
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THEME
INDICATOR
Chapter3
BRIEF DESCRIPTION
Assessment of
Future
Requirements
Land
Land Suitability
based on
development
constraints/ natural
What were the assumptions, norms and
resources /vulnerable/ standards considered for assessment of
sensitive areas
land requirement for various land uses?
Existing Land
Utilization/ Land Use
Densities
COMPONENTS OF THE PLAN
Settlement pattern
Land Utilization/ Land Use

Housing
Provision of Housing for

all communities
Shelter
Other Shelter
options
Provision of other shelter

options like night shelters.
Sources of Water
Infrastructure
Water Supply
QUERY
Proportion of Households
having access to safe water
supply.
SPATIAL SCALE
Region
City
Ward
What is the Pattern and distribution of

urban and rural settlements?
Region
What is the Pattern and distribution of

Land Use/ Land Utilization?
Region
City
Has the Housing supply been

equitably worked out?
Does the Plan consider for
affordable Housing for Low-income
communities?
Does the Plan consider other shelter
options?
Have alternative sources of water
supply looked into in the Plan?
Does the Plan provide for equitable
distribution of safe water supply
infrastructure w.r.t. sectors, Slum
areas, Low-income groups, per
capita supply, cost, etc?
City
Ward
Region
City
Ward
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Chapter3
Waste water Management
System
Sanitation
Proportion of Households
having access to sanitation
facilities
Natural Drainage
(Watershed areas)
Drainage network
Drainage
Rain water Harvesting
Systems
Infrastructure
Alternative/ Renewable
sources for Power supply
Sector-wise consumption
Power Supply
Solid waste
management
Networks & location of

Transformers
Access of low-income
communities to Power
supply.
Disposal sites
Integration of Informal
sector
Hierarchy, Number &
Distribution

distribution of sanitation facilities
w.r.t. sectors, Slum areas, Lowincome groups, etc?
Has Waste water Management &
Disposal System considered in the
Plan?
Does the Plan give a provision for
Drainage Management in the area?
Does the Plan take into
consideration the Natural drainage
system and rain water harvesting s
and structures?
Region
City
Ward

distribution of Power supply w.r.t.
sectors, low-income communities,
slums, cost, etc?
Does the Plan look into alternate/
renewable sources of power supply?
Does the Plan give spatial allocation
for provision of power supply
networks and infrastructure?
Is there a provision for sustainable
solid waste management systems in
the Plan including recycling
options?
Does the Plan provide for location
of solid waste disposal sites and
integration of informal sector?
37
Education
Health
Infrastructure
Urban Form
Built Heritage
Natural
Resources
Socio-cultural
facilities
Recreational
facilities
Place making &
Imageability
Transit-oriented
corridors/ Special
areas
Monuments
Precincts
Water Bodies &
Water channels
Ground water
Aquifer recharge
zones
Natural Drainage
Wetlands/
Marshes/ Salt pans
Hills/ Ridges
Biodiversity
including Forest/
Green areas
Mineral Resources
Chapter3
Hierarchy, Number &
Distribution
Typology, Number &
Distribution
Hierarchy, Number &
Distribution
Typology, Number &
Distribution

distribution of facilities?
Region
City
Ward
City as a place for All.

Guidelines &
Development Controls
Form based Codes
Socio-cultural values and
Historicity
Optimum utilization of
natural resources/
Minimizing overexploitation
Does the Plan provide for Sustainable

Urban Form & Design components?
Identification of heritage areas.
Provision of Facilities and
accessibility
Strategies for conservation
Development Controls
Have sustainability concerns been

taken into account while plan
preparation?
Have any measures been taken by
the Plan for protection and
optimum utilization of the natural
resources?
City
Ward
Region
City
Ward
Region
City
Ward
38
THEME
INDICATOR
Green House Gas
emissions
Climate Change
Heat Sinks/
Carbon Sinks/
Urban Greenery
Energy Efficiency
measures
Provision of
Sustainable
Transport options
Urban
Environmental
Quality
Water Pollution
Air Pollution
Noise Pollution
Land Degradation
(Soil erosion &
Desertification)
Safety of
Vulnerable
communities
Disaster
Management
Adaptive Capacity
Chapter3
BRIEF DESCRIPTION
Compact City Structure/
Carbon Neutral City
concept considering like,
Green Building Codes,
Renewable energy sources,
etc.
QUERY
SPATIAL SCALE
Ward
Have Climate Change concerns

been taken into account in the
Plan?
Is there a provision of Climate
change Mitigation and Climate
Adaptation measures?
Region
City
Ward
Public Transport / Non

Motorized Transport
Pollution and degradation

of Environment
Have any measures been taken to

minimize degradation of urban natural
environment?
Region
City
Ward
Safety from Disasters
Adaptive Capacity of
Population, Institutions,
Information System &
Resources
Has there been any attempt to

identify the vulnerable
communities?
Have any measures been taken in
the Plan for Disaster Risk
Management?
Region
City
Ward
39
THEME
Inclusivity
Equity
INDICATOR
Marginalised
groups:
Slums
Urban Poor
Informal
Sector
Population with
special needs:
Children
Youth
Women
Single Parents
Senior
Citizens
Disabled
Population
Distribution of
Housing Supply
Provision and
Access to
Infrastructure &
Services
Chapter3
BRIEF DESCRIPTION
Inclusion of
Marginalised groups/
Population with
special needs in
Planning & Design,
Decision-making and
Implementation
Equitable distribution
of Housing &
Infrastructure
between various
social & economic
classes
Capacity building &

empowerment of the Ward
community through
participation in plan
making, decision-making,
implementation.
QUERY
SPATIAL SCALE
Have the marginalized groups/

population with special needs been
identified?
Region
Have their requirements been
City
included in the Plan w.r.t.
Ward
standards?

distribution of shelter and
infrastructure?
City
Ward
Capacity
Building &
Community
Empowerment
Stakeholder Participation in Decision making &

Implementation
Does the Plan provide for capacity

building of the community through
provisions for participation and spatial
mix of social/ income categories?
Ward
Social Well Being
Personal
Development
Security (Crime &
Terrorism)
Does the Plan give a provision of

facilities for Security, Health,
Recreation, and Leisure & Learning?
City
Ward
Provision of facilities for

Health, Recreation,
Leisure, Education and
Safety
310
THEME
INDICATOR
GDP
Economic
Development
Financing
Development
Implementation
and Enforcement
Chapter3
BRIEF DESCRIPTION
QUERY
Provision for economic
sustainability in the Plan
by ways of employment
and economic
opportunities which would Does the Plan take economic
contribute to the State GDP sustainability concept into account for
& exports.
local development?
Employment rate
in local
enterprises/ SHGs/
CBOs/ NGOs
Local Economic
Development
Investment Plan
Mobilisation of finance/
investments for Projects
Is there any investment plan or

strategy adopted?
If yes, what are they?
GOVERNANCE
Phasing
Is there any phasing for Plan
Implementation?
Plan approvals
How much Time does it take for
Planning approval?
Who is accountable for what work
Responsibility/ Accountability
during Plan implementation and
enforcement?
Who are the participants?
Are the public participants
Ward community, Women,
represented from all levels of the
Stakeholder
Youth, academia, NGOs,
society with respect to education,
Participation
CBOs, SHGs, Pvt Sector,
economic background, ethnicity,
etc
caste, religion, gender, age,
occupation?
SPATIAL SCALE
Region
City
Ward
Region
City
Ward
Region
City
Ward
311
THEME
INDICATOR
Plan Evaluation
Chapter3
BRIEF DESCRIPTION
Indicators for Monitoring
to evaluate the Plan
Monitoring Mechanism
Review Mechanism
Monitoring
and Review
Responsibility/ Accountability
Stakeholder
Participation
Public Grievance
System
Ward community, Women,

Youth, academia, NGOs,
CBOs, SHGs, Pvt Sector,
etc
QUERY
Have any indicators been taken for
monitoring to evaluate the impacts of
Plan/ development?
What is the methodology adopted
for monitoring?
Is there any monitoring committee?
If yes, who are the committee
members?
Is there any provision for
incorporating the results of
monitoring through plan review?
Is there any iterative process
adopted?
Who is accountable for what work
during Plan Review?
Who are the participants?
occupation?
SPATIAL SCALE
Region
City
Ward
Is there a Legislative provision for

Public Grievance?
Who has the power for authority in
matters of conflicts or objections?
312
THEME
Legislative
Support
INDICATOR
Chapter3
BRIEF DESCRIPTION
Amendments to
the Act
Proposed changes in the

Legislative framework if
required.
Institutional Set-up
Organizations responsible
at various stages of Planmaking and
implementation.
Institutional
Framework
Structure of Participation Mechanism
Interface of Plan with JnNURM C.D.P
QUERY
Do the various stages of plan
preparation and implementation
comply with the existing Acts?
Do we need any modification in the
existing legislation for effective
preparation, implementation and
enforcement?
What are the stages of Stakeholder
Participation?
What is the Mechanism for
Stakeholder Participation during
Plan-making and Implementation?
occupation?
Is there any inter-relationship between
the vision, aim, objectives and
Proposals as given by the Plan and
JnNURM C.D.P.?
SPATIAL SCALE
Region
City
Ward
Region
City
Ward
City
Ward
SPATIAL SCALE CONSIDERED FOR APPRAISAL:

1. Region: Region as defined by the Master Plan or Regional Plan has been considered. For future reference of this framework for
appraisal of Plans, the DPC/ MPC area may be considered as Region.
2. City: Planning Area as defined by the Master Plan/ Development Plan has been considered. For future reference of this
framework for appraisal of Plans, the ULB area may be considered as City.
313
CriticalAppraisalofPlanningFrameworkinCaseStudyCity:Bangalore
Chapter4
Chapter 4 BANGALORE
4.1
CITY PROFILE
4.1.1
INTRODUCTION AND LOCATION

Bangalore, the Capital of Karnataka, is the fifth largest metropolitan city in the
country. The Census 2001 population for Bangalore indicates a population of 5.7 million
covering a municipal area of 226 sqkm. As one of the world's fastest growing cities,
Bangalore is spurred by the advantages conferred on it by entrepreneurial and intellectual
capacity incubated through a series of private and government actions. Besides, Bangalore
enjoys a favorable climate, a high quality of life, a cosmopolitan ambience and social
diversity. The City has earned the titles of Information Technology (IT) Hub of Asia and
Silicon Valley of India. Thus, it is well known, nationally and internationally, as a
destination of choice for high-technology industries, particularly in the IT/ITES and
Biotechnology sectors.
4.1.2
EVOLUTION OF THE CITY

Bangalore is situated in the southeast of Karnataka, at an average elevation of 920m
above mean sea level (refer Map 4.1). The topography of Bangalore is flat except for a ridge
in the middle running NNE-SSW. The highest point in Bangalore is 962 m and lies on this
ridge.
The modern Bangalore came to its location in 1537 in the form of Bangalore Fort, which was
divided into two parts. The kingdom was passed on to many empires and finally, during the
reign of Tipu Sultan, the British took over the city. Bangalore became the capital only in
1804, was abolished in the year 1843 only to be revived in 1881 at Bangalore and to be
closed down permanently in 1947, with Indian independence. It got a railway connection to
Madras during the British period (refer Map 4.2).
In the 19th century, Bangalore essentially became a Twin city, with Kannadiga and Tamilian
residents, respectively. Bangalore's reputation as the Garden City of India began in 1927.
Several projects such as the construction of parks, public buildings and hospitals were
41
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instituted to beautify the city. After Indian independence in August 1947, Bangalore
remained in the new Mysore State.
By 1961, Bangalore had become the fifth largest city in India due to high migration rates. In
the decades that followed, Bangalore's manufacturing base continued to expand with the
establishment of private companies. Bangalore experienced a growth in its real estate market
in the 1980s and 1990s, spurred by capital investors from other parts of the country who
converted
the
citys
large
plots
and
colonial bungalows into
multi-storied
apartments. Information technology companies came up by the end of 20th century.

Bangalore had firmly established itself as the Silicon Valley of India.
Economic, social and population growth translated into spatial development of the city
indicates an urban form of Bangalore that is characterized by a radio-concentric system
structured by ring roads, five major radial roads and five secondary radial roads that
converge towards the centre of the city. The major and secondary radial roads that form a
ten-pointed star, constitute the organizational system of the city, and are important as they
support both industrial and commercial development (refer Map 4.2).
In 2003, the citys area increased to 565 sq. km, indicating a 100% increase in 12 years and
an average progression of about 2200 Ha per year with a growth rate of 5.4%. This is a
considerably significant growth rate and is the highest in the country. In the absence of a
defined natural boundary, the city has spread in all directions and along the major roads.
Development along these roads is generally industrial and the intermediary areas between
these radial roads are occupied by residential development. Only the agricultural land zone
has limited urban expansion to some extent as it was fairly respected. Star like growth array
along the major roads; mark the change from a concentric spatial growth to a sectoral and
linear radial development.
The urban form and sprawl has implications on the overall density in the city at 107
persons/ha, which is a relatively medium figure. The residential density in the city is
approximately 300 persons/ha, a relatively high density.
Bangalore is endowed with numerous heritage landmarks given its rich history. It has
heritage buildings and sites that reflect its culture and heritage. Vidhana Soudha, Tipu's
Palace, Bangalore Palace, High Court Building, Vidhana Soudha are some of the heritage
42
Chapter4
areas/ buildings which need to be conserved and have been identified in the CDP of
Bangalore. Also, natural heritage, such as, Ulsoor Lake & Sankey Tank, Cubbon Park,
Lalbagh Gardens , etc. in the form of lakes, flora-fauna and lakes can be seen in Bangalore.
Bangalore is one of the most visited destinations primarily due to its economic growth, but
also as a tourist spot and as a transit hub for other tourist destinations in South India.
4.1.3
DEMOGRAPHIC AND SOCIO-ECONOMIC CHARACTERISTICS

The Comprehensive Development Plan area comprises of Bangalore Mahanagara
Palika (BMP) with an area of 226sqkm, seven City Municipal Councils (CMCs) covering an
area of 300.9sqkm, and peripheral villages. Bangalore has a population of 5.7 million as per
the 2001 census and the Comprehensive Development Plan, 2005-15 estimates the Bangalore
Metropolitan Area (BMA) population as 6.1 million (including peri-urban and rural
settlements). The annual growth rates for Bangalore indicate high trends relative to other
cities in the country at 3% for the total population; 6% for employment; and 9% for the
incomes & the emergence of Bangalore as a leading metropolitan city of India. Thus,
Bangalore is experiencing a steady increase in population and its population is likely to be 10
million by 2021. The Bangalore Urban District is divided into three taluks. It covers an area
of 2,190 sqkm.
As per the 2001 census, the slum population in the erstwhile BMP area was 430,000, which
is about 10% of the total BMP population of 4.3 million. The JnNURM CDP has taken into
account all slums spread throughout Bangalore (encompassing area under the BMP,
including erstwhile City Municipal Councils and Town Municipal Council). The total
number of slums captured in the survey is 542 & the no. of households proposed to be
redeveloped is estimated to be 217,257.
Bangalore has a strong and balanced economy, stimulated by light and heavy engineering
(automobiles, earthmoving, and aeronautics), textiles, and high technology (IT, ITeS,
Biotech, R&D). Public Sector Undertakings and the textile industry initially drove
Bangalores economy, but the focus in the last decade has shifted to high-technology service
industries. Bangalores US$ 47.2 Billion economy makes it a major economic centre in India,
and as of 2001 Bangalores share of US$ 3.7 Billion in Foreign Direct Investment made it the
43
Chapter4
3rd highest recipient of FDI for an Indian City. Industrial/commercial employment is the
highest, at over 90%, while employment avenues in the rest of the sectors are relatively
minor. While the IT based formal sector accounts for 15% of its economy, the informal
sector contributes 60-70%.
4.1.4
LEGAL FRAMEWORK
The Bangalore Development Authority(BDA) is responsible for the task of preparing
the Comprehensive Development Plan as per the Karnataka Town and Country Planning
(TCP) Act, 1961 (refer Annexure III). The Act has laid down rules for planning of Local
Planning Area (LPA) and its section 25 mentions that the Plan needs to be revised every 10
years. The Comprehensive Development Plan 2005-15 for the LPA has been prepared under
the same legislation.
4.1.5
JURISDICTIONS
The Comprehensive Development Plan 2005-15 has been prepared for LPA which
has an area of 1279 sqkm (refer Map 4.3). Out of this, the Green Belt area covers 682 sqkm
i.e. 53%. The conurbation area (urbanisable area) is 597sqkm including spotted development.
Out of this conurbation area, about 225 sqkm is the Bangalore Mahanagara Palika area. The
Local Planning Area consists of 387 villages, 7 City Municipal Councils (CMC) and 1 Town
Municipal Council (TMC). It serves as the foundation for developing strategic plans and
local area plans, and finally, designing neighborhoods. Metropolitan area of BDA covers the
following taluks:
Bangalore North
Bangalore South
Bangalore East (Now called)
Anekal(Part)
Hoskote(Part)
Devanahalli(Part)
Magadi(Part)
Nelamangala (Part)
44
Chapter4
The area in the jurisdiction of BDA is also called the Bangalore Metropolitan Area (BMA).
Thus, the terms BDA area, BMA area and LPA have all been used for the same area, i.e., the
metropolitan area. Also, to give a regional context of the city, the Plan has talked about the
Bangalore Metropolitan Region (BMR). It can be observed that the Comprehensive
Development Plan has clarity of boundaries and they coincide everywhere including the
Planning District Report, the City Development Plan, etc.
4.1.6
PLANNING PROCESS
The Town and Country Planning Act, 1961 was enacted to enable preparation of
development plans for settlements in Karnataka. After this, the first step towards planning for
development in Bangalore was initiated with the Outline Development Plan (ODP), 1963
prepared by the Bangalore Development Committee. A chronological detailing of the noted
events related to the planning process in Bangalore can be found in Table 4.1 as follows.
Table 4.1: Evolution of the Planning Process in Bangalore

Year
Major Events
1945
City Improvement Trust Board was constituted
1949
The City Municipality and Cantonment Municipality were amalgamated to form the
Corporation of the city of Bangalore
1961
Karnataka Town and Country Planning (KTCP) Act was published
1964
Bangalore Water Supply and Sewerage Board was constituted
1975
Karnataka Slum Clearance Board was constituted
1976
The Bangalore Development Authority Act, 1976 was enacted
1976
Bangalore Development Authority (BDA) came into being with effect
1985
The Bangalore Metropolitan Region Development Authority Act, 1985 was enacted
1985
Bangalore Metropolitan Region Development Authority was constituted
1993
Karnataka Urban Infrastructure Development and Finance Corporation constituted
1997
Bangalore Metropolitan Transport Corporation was constituted
Source: Comprehensive Development Plan 2005-15, City Development Plan
45
Chapter4
The Bangalore Development Authority (BDA) is entrusted with the task of preparing a
Comprehensive Development Plan (CDP) as per the KTCP Act. The KTCP Act requires that
the CDP be revised every 10 years. Consequently, BDA's mandate is to update the Revised
CDP of 1995. The Draft Comprehensive Development Plan - 2015, prepared under the
KTCP Act, covers a planning area of 1306 sq. kms and consists of 387 villages, 7 City
Municipal Councils (CMC) and 1 Town Municipal Council (TMC). It serves as the
foundation for developing strategic plans and local area plans, and finally, designing
neighbourhoods. The Plan is powered by state-of-the-art technology consisting of an
innovative and robust spatial data infrastructure at the metropolitan level. It comprises of a
Geographical Information System (GIS), a Management Information System (MIS) and
comprehensive data models enabling a plan that is up-to-date.
The Comprehensive Development Plan 2005 and 2015
Under Section 25 of the KTCP Act, 1961 Revision of Comprehensive Development Plan
(CDP) activity is periodic, once in ten years. The CDP of Bangalore, which was originally
prepared and approved by Government in 1984 and later revised (first revision) and approved
in 1995. Then the second revision for CDP 2005 started. The following Table gives the
details of Plans in Bangalore in a chronological order.
Table 4.2: Chronology of Plans in Bangalore

PLAN
Year of
Notification/
Publication
Perspective
Period
Outline Development
Plan
1971
First Comprehensive
Development Plan
Second
Comprehensive
Development Plan
1985
1985-1995
1995
1995-2005
2007
2005-2015
2007
2007-2013
Third Comprehensive
Development Plan
City Development Plan
Planning Area
Local Planning Area/
Bangalore
Development Area
Bangalore
Development Area
Bangalore
Development Area
Bangalore
Development Area
Bangalore Mahanagar
Palika Area
Preparing
Organisation
Bangalore
Development
Authority
Bangalore
Development
Authority
Bangalore
Development
Authority
Bangalore
Development
Authority
Bangalore Mahanagar
Palika
Source: Bangalore Development Authority

46
Chapter4
Accurate, comprehensive and scientifically prepared base maps at different scales were
prepared for second Revision to CDP. To tackle the CDP revision exercise in the time frame
and legal frame work (section 25 of the KTCP Act), four main components have been
initiated simultaneously:
a. A holistic data collection process among the main private and public stakeholders.
b. A comprehensive existing land use survey including the CMC's and the BCC areas
c. "Urban diagnosis" and furnishing the "scientific" elements for 2020 "Bangalore vision"
d. The mapping and data consolidation activities, comprising of the preparation of the
spatial data for urban planning and city management perspectives (data modelling,
detailed data base and GIS design, etc)
4.2
CRITICAL APPRAISAL OF COMPREHENSIVE DEVELOPMENT PLAN

2005-15, BANGALORE
The Comprehensive Development Plan , 2015 for the Bangalore Metropolitan Area is
a statutory document that identifies growth perspectives, develops land use plans addressing
the urban agglomeration areas growth, and lays out Development Control Regulations
(DCRs) to regulate the citys development.
4.2.1
VISION, AIM AND OBJECTIVES

Vision for Bangalore in the Comprehensive Development Plan 2005-15 is To retain
its per-eminent position as a City of the Future through its cosmopolitan character and
global presence, and to enable and empower its citizens with: growth opportunities to
promote innovation and economic prosperity; a clean and green environment; high-quality
infrastructure for transport and communication; wide-ranging services aimed at improving
the quality of life for all; conservation of its heritage and diverse culture; and responsive and
efficient governance.
The vision for Comprehensive Development Plan was formulated parallel to the City
Development Plan 2007-13. For this, a series of stakeholder consultations were carried out
and the key result areas were taken up to set out the decision parameters for the vision. The
entire process has been carried out and coordinated by the Bangalore Development
47
Chapter4
Authority. To address Bangalores Vision within the adopted growth scenario framework, the
following guidelines formed the basis for translating the growth scenario and vision into
urban space:
1. City Growth- Develop a compact city and optimize the economic cost of service
delivery, undertake urban renewal of the city-centre and redevelop derelict industrial
lands; and develop a sustainable transportation system to connect the city and its
socio-economic activity centers.
2. Economic Development- Foster economic development by encouraging local
business, promote a variety of employment opportunities through strategic
interventions in enhancing the productive output of traditional industries, and build on
existing key events.
3. Environment and Energy- Preserve the citys natural resources inter-alia
comprising the ground water, natural drainage channels and the water bodies,
identify, protect and conserve sites of cultural/heritage value, provide and manage a
comprehensive, city-wide, public open space network, ensure sustainable use of
energy sources and emphasize on use of renewable resources, reduce the negative
effects of (air, water and noise) pollution on the environment, and dispose solid and
liquid waste in an environmentally and culturally acceptable way.
4. People and Well-being- Address urban community upgrading to ensure equitable
distribution of urban basic services, ensure that programs for the poor and
economically disadvantaged sections address basic service requirements, and address
basic health and education requirement of the community.
5. Leisure, Art, Culture and Sports- Preserve the citys and regions art, cultural and
heritage values, promote sports and other leisure activities for maximum benefit of
the community, and develop affordable and accessible infrastructure to support
leisure, art, culture and sports facilities.
4.2.2
PLANNING METHODOLOGY
The preparation of the Comprehensive Development Plan in partnership with the
community through a consultation and participation process began in the year 2003 and
48
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identifies the citys Vision in the long-term. It drew from various reports and documents
prepared for the specific purpose of developing the Comprehensive Development Plan, 2015
and were adequately supported through data and information from baseline primary and
secondary surveys. Field investigations and information provided by Government and
parastatal institutions formed key inputs to the Comprehensive Development Plan. An
Advisory Committee gave its recommendations on the Draft Comprehensive Development
Plan which were incorporated while making proposals. Citizens, local, state and national
officials were consulted at several stages during the plan preparation. The consultation
process involved various stakeholders citys political planning partners (Mayor and
Councilors), citys key stakeholders (business groups, academicians, state-level utilities), and
community planning partners (citizen representatives and members of community based
organizations). Thus, the planning is more participatory, founded on the principles of
collaboration and consensus building & scope for all stakeholders to be involved in the
decision making process the planning methodology attempts to ensure that neighborhoods,
the city and region accommodates growth in ways that are economically sound,
environmentally responsible and socially supportive of community liveability, now and in the
future.
4.2.3
PLAN PREPARATION
As per the mandate in the Karnataka Town and Country Planning (TCP) Act, 1961,
the time period for the Comprehensive Development Plan is 10 years (2005-15). It can be
said that the long time frame of Comprehensive Development Plan makes it a dead
document. Thus, it can be beneficial if the Plan is continuously revised and updated.
The preparation of Comprehensive Development Plan was started by the Bangalore
Development Authority in 2003. Bangalore is the first city to have a private consultant for
the Comprehensive Development Plan, as part of Indo-French collaboration (6.5 million
euros). BATF (Bangalore Action Task Force) had worked with BDA to work out the agenda
for the 3 projects:
Revision of Comprehensive Development Plan
GIS Data Information
49
Chapter4
Capacity building exercise
This was a kind of pioneer exercise. Ecological mapping was done for the first time for any
city.
From 2003-05, extensive stakeholder consultations were carried out. The final
Comprehensive Development Plan should have been ready by 2005 for implementation, but
only a draft was ready to be put up in public domain by then but the Plan exceeded both the
time limits. After this, suggestions from the Advisory Committee report and the various
stakeholder consultations were incorporated in the Comprehensive Development Plan. There
is no record of the approval time but the final document of the Comprehensive Development
Plan was notified only in 2007. The Comprehensive Development Plan took around 4 years
to be prepared and brought in public domain which should be 2 years as per the TCP Act,
1961. As per the KTCP Act 1961, stages by which the plan is to be carried out should be
worked out in the Plan. Phasing of the projects has been discussed in the Plan separately for
various aspects, such as housing, transportation, water supply, etc. But phasing of the entire
Plan (Landuse) has not been done, which is mandatory.
Table 4.3: Comprehensive Development Plan Preparation

Comprehensive
Development Time as per the Key
Dates Public
Plan preparation and approval

act
(actual time)
Commencement of Comprehensive 12 months (max Jun 2003
Development Plan exercise
Existing Land Use surveys
Consultation meetings
Comprehensive Development Plan
Participation
NA
18 months- if the
State
permits )
Development
Draft Comprehensive Development
Govt. Jun-Dec 2003 (7 No

months)
Jun 2003- Jun Yes
Jan 2004- Jun No
2005
Jun 2005
Yes
Plan released to Public

Consultation meetings
Jun 2003- Jun Yes

2 months
Report of the Advisory Committee
2005
Nov 2005
410
Announcement of JNNURM
Starting of CDP exercise
Consultations
under
the
Not Applicable
Chapter4
Dec 2005
Mar 2006
CDP
Apr-Jun 2006
exercise
Preparation of Sectoral Plans for
Jan-Dec 2006
approval under JNNURM

Revised
Comprehensive 4 months
April 2007
Development Plan (incorporating

Sectoral
Plan
and
Advisory
Committee recommendations)
Approval of the Plan from the State 6 months
Not Available
Govt.
Total time= 24 Actual total time
months
= 47 months
Source: Comprehensive Development Plan 2005-15, Bangalore; Karnataka Town and
Country Planning Act, 1961
4.2.4
CONCEPT
The objective of the Plan is to achieve integration of spatial, economic, social,
transportation, and ecological planning. It includes new concepts relating to town planning,
land use controls, and management of urban fringes. The concept of long-term sustainable
city development has been adopted by the Comprehensive Development Plan.
While the citys spatial growth defines the framework for service delivery and governance
actions, from a larger perspective, the Comprehensive Development Plan will address the
cornerstones of sustainable development economic, social and environmental development.
The Comprehensive Development Plan therefore proposes to address long-term sustainable
development through the following directive principles of nature, economic efficiency, social
equity and historical heritage.
Based on the above directive principles, the Comprehensive Development Plan was
developed to address the overall Vision for the city. The governing concept of the
Comprehensive Development Plan is to ensure structured continuity in the Bangalore
Metropolitan Area through: (i) selective extension of urbanization, while preserving large
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Chapter4
parts of the Green Belt; (ii) access to new extensions through the Peripheral Ring Road; and
(iii) renewal of areas already urbanized.
The governing concept is based on the Structure Plan for BMR, which is a conceptual
diagram that serves as a framework for future development of the city.
The natural resource potential of the city has not been considered while making a plan for the
area which should have been a key consideration. The natural resource potential is an
important instrument for economic growth or strength.
4.2.5
DECISION SUPPORT SYSTEM

The Comprehensive Development Plan has been prepared taking the information and
data that supported the Plan preparation process and it broadly included information systems
and the norms, standards and assumptions. These have been worked out in detail for
preparation of the Plan, based on the baseline data collected for the city.
a. Information System:
The information system requires both spatial and non-spatial information/ data for the
preparation of Plan. Primary and secondary survey (field investigations) was carried out from
various Govt. and parastatal institutions. The data collected and analysis included:
i.
Demographic profile of Bangalore municipal and planning area including growth of

population, the age-sex ratio,
ii.
Spatial growth, including urban form and sprawl and its characteristics
iii.
Existing landuse and road patterns, including landuse distribution for 2003
iv.
Factors affecting the growth of Bangalore such as IT, international airport,

manufacturing industries, metro, etc.
v.
Demand and supply gap in service delivery including all services (water supply,
sanitation, solid waste management, storm water drainage, transportation and green
areas)and their investment scenario
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b. Norms, standards and assumptions

For some of the aspects, norms and standards of service provision have been mentioned but
in some places their sources have not been mentioned. Hence, it is difficult to say whether
the consideration is proper or not.
There were some assumptions made while plan preparation, which included:
The rate of growth of population cannot be sustained at the current rates, but will
reduce in the long-term. This assumption has been made as the annual growth rate has
been decreasing in the metropolitan area of Bangalore.
Based on a 1999 survey conducted in Bangalore, a 10% growth rate in the no. of
slums was assumed for the next two years, indicating an estimate of 680 slums in the
year 2001.
In the development of existing and new parks, the cost of development has been
assumed at approximately Rs. 10 million in the Bangalore Mahanagar Palika area.
4.2.6
ASSESSMENT OF NEEDS
The Plan promotes the concept of basic services to the urban poor including security
of tenure at affordable prices, improved housing, water supply, sanitation and ensuring
delivery through convergence of already existing universal services of the Government for
education, health and social security.
a.
Population and Work Force estimates: The work studies done for the estimation of
population included the trends observed from the Census data for 1991 and 2001 for
Bangalore and its rural areas, the annual growth rates of the city, the various factors that have
lead to the growth of the city and also the probable factors for growth, the economy of the
city and the possible growth scenarios for the city- such as IT corridor, integrated urban
corridor etc. Also, the composition of population growth, i.e., natural, migration, etc. has
been mentioned in the Plan. Thus, it is clear that the Comprehensive Development Plan has
done sufficient base-work to calculate the population growth which will help in the
assessment of future needs of the city.
The Plan has discussed a lot on industry, trade and commerce but it has not carried out any
studies to calculate the future workforce of the city. Although the requirement of
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infrastructure and land for various sectors has also been discussed, it does not give a
distribution of the workforce and its estimation for the city.
b.
Density and Land Requirements: The overall density in the city is 107 persons/ha,
which is a relatively medium figure. The residential area in the city is approximately 300
persons/ha, a relatively high density occurring due to the high rate of land utilization in the
residential areas and the size of the large vacant public lands in the city. Within the old BMP
area the overall density increases to 191 persons/ha, a very high figure justified by the
intensity of land utilization in the urbanized areas. The density in the citys core area has not
increased between 1991 and 2001, an occurrence that is attributed to the reduction in the size
of households, competition between trade and housing in the core area and transfer of the
growth in population to the other parts of old municipal areas. Also, ward-wise density has
been worked out, including a map which will help in the assessment of the wards that need to
be focused up for service provisions.
c.
Housing: 1991 and 2001 Census data on the availability of housing for various
classes of people, including the vulnerabale group in the metropolitan area was collected. A
primary survey in 2003 was carried out for Bangalore which gave the latest data but the Plan
was ready only in 2007 and thus, the data became outdated. The housing stock of the city
during 1991 and 2001 has been taken to understand the deficit in the housing sector. Various
housing providers in the city were identified and their capacity to supply so that the housing
demand can be met. Also, the key issues related to housing such as overcrowding in the old
city areas, small (one room) houses, etc. were identified. The growth in population and the
need for housing in the city as per the trend was calculated and thus, the requirement of
housing was worked out. Also, various categories of housing including housing on rent in the
city have been worked out. But the stakeholders have not been involved in calculating their
requirements and no surveys have been carried out for demand assessment.
d.
Infrastructure: To assess the need for various infrastructure facilities, the existing
situation has been analyzed. For solid waste management, the Municipal Solid Waste
Management rules 2000 has been studies; for water supply, CPHEEO norms have been
referred to; for electric supply, study of national policy to electrify all the villages and also,
the 11th 5 year plan has been taken into consideration; etc. Similarly for social infrastructure
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facilities, some study on education system, health status, leisure, etc. in Bangalore has been
done which includes existing situation analysis, the norms and standards set for a city for
these aspects and also what would be required to set the city apart from other cities in terms
of health and education facilities. But this is somehow weak in content and there is not much
justification for most of the statements on infrastructure in the Comprehensive Development
Plan.
It is seen that in any of the sectors, for assessment of needs, public participation has not been
taken care of. Public participation can be an effective tool to know the needs of the people,
their issues and priorities, the current levels of services, etc. Thus, public participation should
have been done as a part of the work studies carried out for need assessment, especially in
case of infrastructure facilities.
4.2.7
COMPONENTS OF THE COMPREHENSIVE DEVELOPMENT PLAN

The Karnataka Town and Country Planning Act, 1961, has mentioned the contents of
a Comprehensive Development Plan, indicating the basic requirements such as land use
maps, areas to be conserved, etc. It states the need to prepare a series of maps and documents
indicating the manner in which the development and improvement of the entire planning area
within the jurisdiction of the Planning Authority are to be carried out and regulated.
Physical Aspects
a. Settlement pattern and Land use
The Comprehensive Development Plan area (BDA area) includes both urban and rural
areas and thus the pattern and distribution of urban and rural settlements has been discussed.
The population distribution in urban areas (mostly metropolitan area) and rural settlements
has been mentioned in the Plan but the village-wise distribution has not been done. Also, the
infrastructure requirements, such as water, power, etc. have been worked out as per the ruralurban distribution, but not the settlement pattern in terms of class and order of towns. This
information has been worked out for the Metropolitan area but not for the region or the
district which is crucial as it influences the overall development and growth in the
metropolitan area.
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The Comprehensive Development Plan mentions that the land utilization in the residential
area is very high. Land as a separate subject has not been discussed but at various stages
optimal utilization of land has been focused. The Comprehensive Development Plan shall
ensure that vacant lands in strategic areas are occupied and the spread of layouts minimized.
The TCP act mentions that areas earmarked for future development and expansion;
reservation of land for the purposes of Central Government, the State Government, Planning
Authority or public utility undertaking or any other authority established by Law, and the
designation of lands being subject to acquisition for public purposes or as specified in
Comprehensive Development Plan should be worked out. The projected land requirement for
the BMA area, to incorporate its requirements and the basic services and also a land use
distribution has been worked out. Also, the opportunity of recycling of dilapidated industrial
land has been incorporated which working out strategies. The necessary amendments in the
Land Acquisition Act 1984 required for implementing strategies, the corresponding needs of
economic players for land, the land needs for housing and various infrastructure facilities,
etc. has been recognized. The concept of compact city has been adopted to reduce the
pressure on land. Mixed land uses have been proposed at the required places as per the
market demand and land values. Housing sector talks about optimal utilization of land,
applying the concept of land as a resource in urban areas.
As per the Karnataka TCP Act 1961, the Comprehensive Development Plan should include
proposals for zoning of land use for residential, commercial, industrial, agricultural,
recreational, educational and other purposes together with Zoning Regulations (refer Map
4.4). It also states that certain areas, as areas of special control and development need to be
delineated where regulations as may be made in regard to building line, height of the
building, floor area ratio, architectural features and such other particulars as may be
prescribed. Thus, for proposing land use and zonal regulations for Bangalore, the entire Local
Planning Area of BDA is categorized into three major areas for the application of zonal
regulations, and consists of:
(i) Main Area
(ii) Specific Areas
(iii) Constraint Area
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b. Shelter
The census data and the primary survey conducted in 2003, made the data base for
availability of housing stock in Bangalore. The Plan has identified various stakeholders in the
system and the issues in the sector. Thus, work studies were carried out to make provisions
for housing facility in the city. The key issues identified are:
The persistence of small houses and overcrowding in households
The stagnation of occupancy status
The persistence of tenants in small houses (one room)
Insufficient level of amenities in housing
The aspect of housing has been worked out in detail in the Comprehensive Development Plan
which is an important issue, especially looking at the need to house the urban poor. The Plan
also discusses the sources of funds to ensure land and services for housing.
c. Infrastructure
The Comprehensive Development Plan of Bangalore has not taken the traditional approach
of dividing the infrastructure in a city into two sections- physical and social. But the Plan has
explained the status of service delivery in the city and then, under its one of the major headsEnvironment and Energy identified various key components such as water supply, sanitation,
etc. Similarly, under the major head of people and well-being, social infrastructure facilities
such as health, education, fire fighting, etc. have been taken up. The Comprehensive
Development Plan explains the status of these infrastructure aspects and gives strategic
interventions required for them.
Water Supply
The Comprehensive Development Plan says that water supply is a key concern when it
comes to the problem of the citys infrastructure. The Bangalore Water Supply & Sewerage
Board (BWSSB) provides water supply and sewerage services in Bangalore. Though initially
restricted to the area under BMP's jurisdiction, BWSSB is progressively increasing its
services coverage area to the entire Bangalore Metropolitan Area. The strategic outlook of
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the Comprehensive Development Plan for water supply services depends on the BWSSB
achieving the following:
Ensuring that water is accessible to all citizens on a continuous basis, everyday;
Ensuring that the quality and quantity of water available to citizens conforms to the
CPHEEO standards;
Ensuring that full cost of water service is achieved by the year 2015 and the funds
utilized for long-term asset strengthening and management.
The significant actions required to achieve this have been identified as Medium-term Steps
which includes rectification of the distribution system, etc.; Holistic Planning for Water
Services; Augmentation and Rehabilitation; Public Awareness; and Revenue Enhancement
and Cost Recovery.
Thus, the Plan has discussed water supply but the presence of public water taps, water supply
for the marginalized population and the steps that the local govt. needs to take to reach these
people have not been worked out in the Plan. Also, the Plan has not identified the projects it
needs to take up to implement these strategies.
Sewerage and Sanitation

The number of households connected to the sewage network increased from 157,000 in 1991
to 344,000 in 2001, and the population grew from 18.9% to 30%.The significance of this
rate, which just concerns the connections to the formal well-to-do category of the population,
indicates, the lack of sewage network on one hand and on the other, the fact that often
covered storm water drains are used for sewage disposal. The result is that about 70% of the
BMP population uses a drainage system that translates to a geographical area of about 40%
of the total LPA area.

The production of waste in Bangalore is approximately 2200 tons/ day, with 0.4 kg of waste
produced per day/ person. While collection is carried out regularly, waste treatment is an
issue of concern. Only 300-350 tons of waste is currently treated every day for composting
and the remaining waste is disposed in an unhygienic manner. At present the City has
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treatment and disposal facilities with combined capacity of 2000 MT and 1600 MT,
respectively. The Plan mentions that new dump sites and landfill sites are to be identified and
developed to serve the purpose.
Drainage
The growing geographic spread of Bangalore and construction activity has interrupted the
natural valley system of the region. The flooding of drains during each monsoon exposes its
poor state and their inadequate capacity. The no. of lakes has reduced to 64 from 400, and
small lakes and tank beds have vanished because of encroachment and construction
activities. This has resulted in storm-water drains reducing to gutters of insufficient capacity,
leading to flooding during monsoon. Dumping of MSW in the drains compounds the
problem. To control floods, it is important to remove silt & widen storm water drains to
maintain the chain flow and avoid water from stagnating at one point.
The Plan mentions about coverage of the facility, both in term of population as well as its
spatial extent. It is observed that the aspects have been taken up in the Plan but the system
details in any of the sectors have not been given. Also, the status of facility in the poor
communities has not been worked out in the Comprehensive Development Plan. A
Comprehensive Development Plan also needs location of various disposal mechanisms with
their location in the city to assess the environmental status in and around the area. This is
absent in the map as no maps have been prepared indicating infrastructure facilities in the
city, which is required to know the deprived areas which when combined with health status
may give information and reasons of various health hazards in the city. This is also important
from the point of view of natural drainage system and rain water harvesting as they depend
on the topography, location of various lakes, tanks, reservoirs and drainage channels.
The Plan has identified significant actions to meet strategic outlook. They include phased
development of the sewerage system, conforming to urban densification and treatment
options based on appropriate recycling and reuse technology is critical from a long-term
service provision perspective; development of Storm Water Master Plan & remodeling of
drains; procurement of waste collection & transportation vehicles and equipment to ensure
100% waste collection & disposal, as well as construction of sanitary landfill to dispose
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rejects; and construction of roadside drains, desilting of existing natural drainage, and
construction of a protection wall along drainage channels to check soil erosion.
The Plan has not made any projections for the future requirements of these faculties in the
city. But it proposes that a separate Storm Water Master Plan should be prepared which
should take care of the projections. The Comprehensive Development Plan should include
some basic projections on which, the phasing and funding of the Plan can be based. The other
alternative to this would be to make the Storm Water Master Plan & run as a supporting
document to the Comprehensive Development Plan which will also reduce the conflicts and
improve coordination between authorities.
Electricity
The Karnataka Power Transmission Corporation Limited (KPTCL) is responsible for power
transmission in the State. Growth in consumption, maximum demand and substations to
facilitate the power supply in Bangalore Urban and Rural Districts between FY2001 and FY
2007 has been given in the Comprehensive Development Plan. The Bangalore Electricity
Supply Company (BESCOM) is responsible for power distribution in the Bangalore
Metropolitan Area (Urban District) and the Bangalore Rural Area (Rural District) both
areas comprising the Bangalore Metropolitan Region. As electricity is a state subject and
cannot be seen in isolation, the Bangalore Comprehensive Development Plan, which has
been prepared for the BMA discusses the availability of power at state and BMR level. The
Plan also discusses national level goal for power sector and aims at achieving it. Maps have
been prepared showing the linkage of power infrastructure including location of transforms,
sub-stations, etc. in BMA and also Bangalore rural districts.
Although it seems that the Comprehensive Development Plan has worked out the details of
power sector in Bangalore, it needs to be noticed that the Plan has not discussed the
consumer-wise availability of power supply in urban areas. Thus, there is idea of the status of
power supply in poor communities of the city, which makes their upgradation questionable.
The Plan has not identified any alternative sources of energy, although the demand for
electricity is much higher than what is available in the city and state.
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Transportation
The road network in Bangalore has a star-like structure where all the major roads converge
on the centre of the city. In the absence of transverse roads and links along with the non
optimized public transport contributes to traffic congestion in the citys core area. It has led
to increase in accidents and especially loss of time, which hinders the functioning of the
economy. The road system in the city has two drawbacks. During the last six years, this
system has developed by only 11%, which is relatively small when compared with the extent
of spatial expansion of the city. Several major efforts including building new flyovers and the
Outer Ring Road have been implemented to reduce the thoroughfare traffic inside the city
and facilitate the links within the peripheral areas. However, the existing radial and
convergent road structure is a very restrictive and the absence of a bypass system around the
citys core area is felt.
In line with the National Urban Transport Policy, the Comprehensive Development Plan
proposes development of a networked city through a sustainable transportation system
focusing on development of a structured road network, organizing transportation/logistics
facilities and developing a multi-modal public transportation system. For each of these
strategies, the Plan has also provided relevant maps showing the proposals which will
support the need to make sub-projects for them. Thus, the Comprehensive Development Plan
has done the base-work required to carry out the analysis of the existing status of
transportation facility in Bangalore including the concept and the standards that need to be
followed for the proposing strategies and action plans for the identified issues. Transportation
also requires large investment which is difficult to procure for the local bodies. Thus, it
would be beneficial for the local bodies to prepare plans for the city and implement them
phase-wise.
Education
Bangalore, known for its high quality educational system and training institutions has about
80% literacy rate, which is high in comparison with the state average of 67%. The Plan
mentions that at the city level, the existing norms for higher primary schools and for high
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schools are higher than that of primary schools. Primary level education faces unfavorable
conditions as compared to the others, which benefit from more facilities.
The strategic outlook of the Comprehensive Development Plan is to promote Bangalore as a
centre of excellence in education and strengthen existing institutions to cater to future
requirements. Significant actions shall expect the city to play the role of a facilitator to
catalyze the development of educational institutions, while the actual education infrastructure
would come from private finance. In some cases the city may also lobby with the State or
Central Governments to locate specific centers of excellence in Bangalore. The
Comprehensive Development Plan makes provisions for land in urban corridors for
enhancing the number of players that can enter the domain of education, and will provide for
land banks for educational institutions. Although the Comprehensive Development Plan
identifies the issue of lack of basic education centers in the city, the strategic outlook and
significant actions required to cater to the issue have not been worked out in the Plan. The
Plan lacks in statistics-, i.e., categorization and the exact no. of educational facilities at
various levels in the city and also calculations for future requirements.
Health
The Plan has worked out various health indicators such as infant mortality, life expectancy,
etc., as a part or upgrading the urban poor communities. The Plan has taken various data
available for the city such as census data and BCIP data. It mentions that health infrastructure
in the city has improved including the no. of hospitals as well as beds. It also identifies the
need to upgrade the poor communities located in the peripheries as well as in the city core.
Shadow areas in the city have been mapped giving a spatial idea of the deprived
communities. This helps in identification of the problem areas/ zones in the city. The
strategic outlook related to improving basic health in the city would entail building upon the
base of excellent hospitals and medical care already available, and undertaking some of the
possible developments such as clean environment, with green spaces, parks, and gardens;
revival of lakes and water bodies; & focus on developing special areas/facilities for medical
care and rehabilitation. The private sector would be encouraged to invest in the actual
projects/facilities and the govt. will act as a facilitator. The Plan has talked about making
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Bangalore a world-class centre for health facilities, but is has not given any specifics about
the facilities in the urban villages, the poor communities, etc. thus, hierarchy of facilities in
the city is lacking.
Recreational facilities
These include parks, playgrounds, theatres, sports complexes, etc. Bangalore City occupies a
prime place in the sporting arena of the country having has exclusive international standard
sporting facilities for Cricket, Football, Badminton, Hockey and Lawn Tennis. The
exclusivity and specialty of these infrastructures have ironically restricted the access of these
facilities to common people. Above all, most of these facilities are located in Central
Bangalore, further limiting reach. Most of the extensions in the city lack space for sports and
physical activities. Bangalore City is growing both vertically and horizontally with few
playfields for the increasing population. Gardens and parks are generally overcrowded.
Private Clubs with gym facilities are mushrooming across the city but catering to those who
can afford them. The strategic outlook for Bangalore to develop its recreation and sports
facilities focuses on:
Availability of a good playfield of minimum 4.5 acres for every 50,000 persons;
Space for creation of facilities for Basketball, Volleyball and other small area
games;
Creation of gym facilities in all the extensions with necessary equipments at
affordable user changes
In addition to the parks developed by BDA, the city considers developing a Sports City with
good sporting and hospitality infrastructure by reserving about 150-200 acres of land to
providing sports and recreation facilities for national and international events.
The parks cover an area of 14% and the four important parks in the city have been
identified as Lalbagh, Cubbon Park, Bannerghatta National Park, Dhanvantarivana. Parks
have been categorized as small parks -365, well developed parks-55, partially developed
parks-105, and not developed parks-180. Thus, it can be said that the Comprehensive
Development Plan has focused upon provision of recreational facilities in a hierarchical
manner, but statistics regarding the facility for LIG and EWS is missing.
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d. Urban form
The urban form has not been given any emphasis in the Plan. As such, the Plan does not have
any focus on the public spaces, precincts, nodes, landmarks, etc. which require special
guidelines. The concepts of place-making and imageabilty; use, activity and movement
system, etc. have been ignored in the Plan. Morphology study has not been carried out. The
newly included villages should also have been given some emphasis while working out the
Plan and special guidelines for the form of these urban villages needs to be framed.
The Plan refers to planning in various zones with special development regulations wherever
required. Also, transit corridors in the city have been identified which is crucial to a city of
metropolitan scale. A map has been prepared for the same identifying the IT corridor in the
city and using it as a part of the concept. Also, the importance of Bangalore-Mysore
Infrastructure Corridor has been highlighted in the Plan which is one of the most important
aspects considering the regional level of the Metropolitan area. The concept of compact city
has been mentioned but its need and the way it will be achieved through various aspects has
not been worked out in detail in the Plan.
e. Built Heritage
It has not been taken up separately as a content of the Plan but has been included as a part of
Artistic and Cultural Development from the point of view of Tourism development. In order
to showcase the regions culture and heritage, and more importantly, to preserve the memoirs
of Bangalore, the strategic outlook for the sector comprises conservation of all architectural
and heritage monuments in Bangalore. For the purpose one of the three significant actions
proposed comprises of Renovation of Heritage Buildings. It is proposed to renovate the 300
heritage buildings in the City in two equal phases at an estimated expense of Rs. 1.5 million
per building for renovation. It has also been included in vision and the concept of the Plan.
The plan identifies the no. of heritage buildings, the significance of natural heritage and
green spaces, and also the potential they have for tourism.
As mentioned under the three major zones delineated in the city, heritage areas have been
marked as constraint areas and special regulations have been proposed in the zonal
regulations. Thus, the Comprehensive Development Plan identifies the importance of
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heritage structures in the area and the need to conserve them through regulations in the
precincts. But a special emphasis on heritage such as conservation old/core city area,
categorization of heritage areas built heritage is required. Also, no details of the projects
being undertaken for the conservation of heritage have been mentioned. A justification for
this could be that under JnNURM, the subject has been covered in detail and the projects to
implement it have been identified.
Environmental Aspects
Natural Resources: The city is rich in natural heritage in the form of lakes and parks and it
has been given emphasis in the Plan. Under the natural environment, the urban environment
of the city including parks, water bodies, forests and other natural open spaces have been
worked out including a map of the natural features and their status. It also includes the
actions required such as redevelopment of lakes and development of new and existing parks,
for the issues arising. The guideline for implementation of the Vision for the city has been
worked out identifies environment and energy as one of the major factors. Under the same,
the Plan states that there is a need to preserve the citys natural resources inter-alia
comprising the ground water, natural drainage channels and the water bodies. Another
important resource in the city, i.e., the quarry sites have been identified in the city, but as
discussed, insufficient details are available for them.
The Plan includes strategies for conservation of the resources in Bangalore. Some of the
strategies identified include: (i) Public awareness for water conservation, (ii) Conservation of
natural, cultural and built heritage through tourism, (iii) Delineation of conservation zones,
(iv) Regulations and initiatives for open spaces and green areas, (v) Redevelopment of Lakes
and Urban Afforestation, (vi) Development of Existing and New Parks, (vii) Improvement of
sanitation, solid waste management and drainage system.
The Plan has taken into account sustainability concerns in the city and suggests that the
natural resources should be conserved and be utilized optimally. For example, it says that the
locations where water resources are present in abundance should be restricted from
urbanization as it may pollute or destroy the resource. This has been adopted in the growth
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scenario undertaken for development of the city, thus taking the required action for
conserving the resources.
Climate Change: Climate change, although is a current issue has not been discussed in the
Comprehensive Development Plan. Thus, issues like protection of heat sinks, Open space
versus Built-up ratio, Home to work relationship, Walkability / Cycling, CO2 emissions, etc.
have not been worked out in detail.
The Plan has identified Environment and Energy as one of the major strategic interventions
required in the city. It includes in the Environment and Energy as one of the major criteria in
framing the Vision statement for Bangalore. It says that it is required to preserve the citys
natural resources inter-alia comprising the ground water, natural drainage channels and the
water bodies, identify, protect and conserve sites of cultural/heritage value, provide and
manage a comprehensive, city-wide, public open space network, ensure sustainable use of
energy sources and emphasize on use of renewable resources, reduce the negative effects of
(air, water and noise) pollution on the environment, and dispose solid and liquid waste in an
environmentally and culturally acceptable way.
The importance of parks which contribute in conserving the urban environment and arrest air
pollution through green spaces has been highlighted in the Plan. It also identifies various
parks in the city. Also, Redevelopment of Lakes and Urban Afforestation have been looked
into. The projects proposed include development of recreational spots, fencing, desilting of
lakes, diversion of sewage, prevention of garbage dumping in the lakes and initiation of
activities such as gardening. The remodeling of drains by the BBMP and the Comprehensive
Development Plan specification on buffers along drains (in consultation with the Karnataka
State Pollution Control Board) provides for clear and uninterrupted drainage of storm water.
Urban Environmental Quality: The Comprehensive Development Plan includes Pollution

Control laws applicable in the city, i.e., the Water (Prevention and Control of Pollution) Act,
1974, the Air (Prevention & Control of Pollution) Act, 1981 and the Environment
(Protection) Act, 1986. The authority in-charge for implementation and monitoring of the
acts is Karnataka State Pollution Control Board (KSPCB). In its mission statement for
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Energy and Environment, the Comprehensive Development Plan talks about reducing the
negative effects of (air, water and noise) pollution on the environment. Under natural
environment, the Plan identifies the importance of green areas for reducing air pollution.
Also, control of pollution for uninterrupted flow of drains has been identified as one of the
significant actions. While discussing the sanitation in the city, a statement on the pollution of
the ground water has been made. But the base works, i.e., the pollution levels have for either
of the pollutions has not been mentioned in the Plan. There is no mention in the Plan about
land degradation and noise pollution. The KCTP Act should also be amended to incorporate
the environmental concerns.
Disaster Management: Disaster Management is one of the major aspects which need to be
included in Comprehensive Development Plans of all the cities, especially after the 2005
Tsunami, when the Disaster Management Act, 2006 for India was made. In the Bangalore
Comprehensive Development Plan, disaster management has been briefly discussed and the
strategies proposed include:
The department aims to provide effective Fire Preventive, Fire Fighting & Safe
Evacuation measures to Life and Property in Bangalore Area;
Within a minimum response time of three minutes, by zoning the Bangalore Area based
on nature of fire risks;
Enhancing number of fire station by scientifically designing and locating the fire
stations, along with need based hi-tech vehicles and equipments;
Imparting a state of the art advance training to personnel and officers;
Adopting fleet management and location finding gadgets to all emergency vehicles;
Adopting a static as well as mobile command and control systems,
Procuring multi-role and all rounder vehicles and equipments;
Bringing all the fire station and other allied agencies under a computer network for
disaster management and real time management of a situation;
Standardizing the operational procedures;
Overall improving the service conditions by means of reforms in the department;
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To live up to the expectation of the dictum We Serve to Save, both during peace as
well as war times.
The Plan talks about making provision of Information, education and communication (IEC)
programs will be developed aimed at building the capacity of the people and the community
to take an active role in addressing the citys Comprehensive Development Plan cornerstones
of sustainable development economic, social and environmental development. But the Plan
needs to discuss the actions taken for disaster management in various situations in the city for
both natural and manmade disasters.
Social Aspects
Inclusivity: Bangalore has a population of 5.7 million, as per the 2001 census, and its
composition, i.e., natural increase, migration and jurisdictional change, and also, population
growth based on various factors has been worked out. As per the 2001 census, the slum
population in the erstwhile BMP area is 430,000, which is about 10% of the total BMP
population of 4.3 million. The increase in number of slums in Bangalore is a problem that has
not yet been completely addressed.
Poverty is addressed through a multi-pronged and inclusive strategy that focuses on
upgrading, regularization, institutional reform and making the voice of poor people heard in
planning for the future, project identification and monitoring of services. Thus, inclusivity
only in terms of urban poor has been considered in the plan whereas children, ageing
population, the informal sector, single parents and population with special needs have not
been given any importance in the plan. The vision of the Plan identifies the importance of
diverse culture in the city that has come in due to the inmigration from the entire nation,
especially due to the IT sector. This has resulted in a cosmopolitan setting. There is no
mention in the plan about the ethnic community groups existing in the city. Also, the abadi
areas of the surrounding villages which have been included in the Planning area have not
been given any special emphasis in the Comprehensive Development Plan. Thus, the Plan
has taken care of the mix of population in terms of age, sex and class but these have not been
included in any of the major aspects of the Comprehensive Development Plan such as
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Planning and design, decision making and implementation. In the present day, it is not
sufficient carry out primary surveys of these people to know their living conditions and
needs, but it is required to include them in the entire planning process.
Equity: The plan mentions social equity as one of the key directive principles of the conceptthe principle of equal access to infrastructure facilities, public transportation and safe decent
houses for the economically weaker sections must be ensured. Availability of jobs which
increased to around two times between 1991and 2001 has reduced the growth in the poverty
revels but still the key challenge is to remains growth devolution to all sections of the
society.
As discussed, the Plan gives special importance to distribution of housing, especially to the
poor. The Plan talks about providing night shelters and budget housing and also
redevelopment and improvement of slums for better quality of life. Relocation of slums
would be resorted to only in those cases where conditions pose a danger to health and cannot
be improved, or where the lands are required for a public purpose. It is evident from the Plan
that the distribution of services such as water supply, electricity will not be equal for all the
classes of people due to affordability factors. Thus, the poor get lower quality and quantity of
services as compared to the middle and higher classes which will again create social
disparity. At the same time, providing a facility to the marginalized population does not give
any returns and the local bodies are at a loss doing so. The Plan identifies the need to relax
the zonal regulations to make these projects viable from a private-public-partnership angle.
This will have a critical influence on whether Bangalore will be able to obliterate its slums
and put in place an effective program of housing for the poor. The Plan has mentioned the
need to improve delivery of services in the vulnerable areas and thus, at all the required
stages, it discusses about the necessary steps required to make it work.
Capacity Building & Community Empowerment: The vision of the Comprehensive

Development Plan for Bangalore states that the local communities/ citizens need to be
empowered for growth opportunities promoting economic prosperity, high quality of services
and environment for better quality of life, conservation of heritage and diverse culture and
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responsive and efficient governance. This involvement of public can be seen only in the
vision, as the public has not been involved in decision making and implementation of the
plan. The public was consulted in making the vision and also, in the final stage when the plan
was put up in public domain, they could come up with their views, but they were not
involved in various stages of plan preparation. Thus, it can be seen that capacity building and
strengthening of local communities can be seen only in the concept but has not been actually
converted which makes the accomplishment of the Comprehensive Development Plan
uncertain.
Economic Aspects:
As Bangalore became the sixth largest city in India by 1961, the employment opportunities
initially in the public sector, and then in textile and high technology industries resulted in
migration of people to Bangalore. One of the factors of growth of Bangalore from a town to a
metropolis
has
been
development
of
textile
industry
and
Information
Technology/ITES/Biotech based industries. Industrial/ commercial employment is the

highest in the city at over 90% while employment avenues in the rest of the sectors are
relatively minor. Thus, the employment opportunities in various sectors have been worked
out in the Plan.
Local Economic Development: Economic sufficiency and Employment in various sectors

have been mentioned and also its social context has been discussed. The Plan says that
Economic Efficiency to be achieved through economic competitiveness to facilitate quality
spaces for the service sectors, industrial activity, advanced technology training and
distribution of transport and logistics facilities must be achieved. But the unemployment rates
have not been worked out. Also, there is no provision in the Plan to be revised as per the
current economic and financial conditions in the national and world.
For local economic development, City cluster development has been talked about in the Plan.
It promotes the services sector, strengthens and extends existing employment areas along
major roads and other clusters such as Peenya, Bommasandra and the Electronic City.
Besides these, the Comprehensive Development Plan has identified areas to develop several
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new industrial/ employment areas focusing on general industrial activities and hi-tech zones.
The vision talks about empowering its citizens for economic prosperity, stating the
importance of empowering the local societies. The Comprehensive Development Plan even
talks about empowering the street vendors for promoting self-compliance amongst street
vendors, through organizations of street vendors, establishing participatory mechanisms for
orderly conduct of urban vending activities. It also introduces measures for promoting a
better future for child vendors, and promoting social security and access to credit for street
vendors.
4.2.8
INVESTMENT PLAN
As the Plan has mentioned that its implementation will be done in parallel to/
collaboration with the City Development Plan 2007-13, it has not talked about the investment
strategies in detail. While discussing the status of delivery of services, the Plan has worked
out the decline in investment in public services during 1991-97 and it establishes the need for
an increased investment in the public infrastructure and developmental activity. For this
purpose, data concerning investment was collected.
In the CDP 2007-13, the investment strategies for various infrastructure sectors have been
worked out in detail, including generation and consumption of funds. But the investment
required for the implementation of the entire Comprehensive Development Plan has not been
worked out. Thus, the aspects other than infrastructure, such as landuse, transportation, etc.
are lacking investment plan/ strategies. Thus, it is critical to have an investment Plan for
Bangalore city and its absence in the Comprehensive Development Plan is a major drawback.
4.2.9
IMPLEMENTATION, MONITORING AND REVIEW
Implementation
The plan has been prepared for a time period of 10 years and no phasing has been done for its
implementation. Phasing ensures implementation of the priorities of the city and is a crucial
requirement of plan implementation. Thus, the certainty of implementation of the Plan is
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under question. The tools used for implementation of the Plan are Zonal regulations, reports
for Planning Districts, landuse plans and projects which have been detailed as:
Zonal Regulations: Zonal regulations and guidelines for development have been worked out
dividing BDA area into three major parts (as discussed in the delineation of urban zones).
The Land Use Zonal Regulations framed for the city are specified and detailed in Volume 3
of the Comprehensive Development Plan.
Planning Districts Report: Forty seven planning districts have been identified in Volume 5
of the Comprehensive Development Plan called as Planning Districts Report document. The
document describes details of each planning district along with an existing landuse map.
Based on various ward boundaries, existing physical features and analyses of the existing
development trends, the city of Bangalore has been divided into 47 planning districts for ease
of implementation of the Comprehensive Development Plan-2015. The delineation of the
planning districts is based on two factors:
Study of the common stakes and concerns shared by areas
Boundaries of local bodies that handle management of the areas
Taking into consideration these factors, the 47 planning districts have been organized in three
rings:
1st Ring: The Core area
2nd Ring: The developed urban areas surrounding the core area
3rd Ring: The Urban extension areas in the Citys outskirts
Based on field investigations and in-depth understanding of the main stakes, these reports
specify the guidelines and principles that facilitate proper implementation of the future urban
development for each planning district. Each report considers the following in its content:
the ground reality
urban planning principles
current urban development and impending issues
the directions foreseen in the Comprehensive Development Plan
the planning recommendations made by applying new zoning regulations
These Planning District Reports are the tools for implementation, when read along with the
Proposed Land use Maps and Zoning Regulations and the Comprehensive Development Plan
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document that outlines the general principles of the Comprehensive Development Plan. An
outline (aspects) for the preparation of these reports has been prepared and detailed land use
plans have been prepared. Also, planning recommendations have been worked out and
projects for each of these districts have been identified to support implementation. Synthetic
social index has been taken to give an idea of the social situation in the Planning Districts.
But the preparation of these Planning reports should have included public participation at all
levels including implementation of the Plan. A localized approach is required at this level as
it is one of the major aspects for success of a Plan.
The Plan has talked about implementation through projects for various aspects of the city
such as water supply, transportation, etc. but it has not identifies the exact project- their area
of focus. JnNURM plays an important role in implementation of the Plan, especially in case
of infrastructure. Also, its time period almost coincides with the Comprehensive
Development Plan.
Monitoring
A dedicated Monitoring Unit with modern data processing facilities has been proposed in the
Comprehensive Development Plan, which would be responsible for collection and analysis of
primary and secondary data and bringing to notice important changes in the Comprehensive
Development Plan. This unit would also be in-charge of overall monitoring of
implementation of the approved development plans and layout plans. A suitable mechanism
by way of a high-level committee under the Chief Secretary, Government of Karnataka is
also proposed to be established for periodic review and monitoring of the Comprehensive
Development Plan. To enable this, apart from targets arising from various infrastructure
plans etc., other action points emerging from the proposals made in the Plan for various
sectors would also be listed out, in order to enable monitoring of timely implementation and
identifying the need for any changes corrections.
There is no involvement of the local community, women, youth, academia, NGOs, CBOs,
SHGs, Private Sector, etc in the monitoring of the Plan. This is a drawback on the part of the
BDA who has not identified these groups as stakeholders for monitoring of the Plans.
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Thus, monitoring of the implementation of the Plans has been ensured as far as the govt.
local bodies are concerned, also as functions of the Monitoring Committee have been worked
out in detail in the Plan. Public participation is absent as far as monitoring of the Plan is
concerned. If the public were involved in the monitoring, they can ensure implementation of
the Plan for their own benefit. Also, as the implementation of the Comprehensive
Development Plan and the CDP will run parallel, the required provisions to do so should
have been mentioned in the Comprehensive Development Plan itself, as CDP is only a tool to
implement the Comprehensive Development Plan.
Review
The Monitoring Unit has been assigned the task to review the Plan and various sustainability
indicators over three periods of the Comprehensive Development Plan 2007-09, 2010-12,
and 2013-15. There is equal distribution of the time duration of the Comprehensive
Development Plan, according to which the Plan has to be reviewed every three years. As
most of the projects, through which Plans are implemented area of duration of 1 year, the
Plan review period should be distributed accordingly and annual review of the
Comprehensive Development Plan should be done to ensure proper implementation of the
Plan and its constant feedback from the public and other major stakeholders. Review at
various levels should be done to have a bottom-up approach to the entire planning process
but in the Comprehensive Development Plan, there is no provision to review the Plan wardwise/ Planning district-wise. Bangalore Development Authority, the nodal authority for Plan
preparation in Bangalore is responsible for reviewing the Plan but the exact functions and the
methodology in which review has to be carried out have not been discussed in the
Comprehensive Development Plan. Thus, the time period in which review is required has
been mentioned in the Plan, i.e., reviews have been scheduled. But the provisions for
incorporating changes after the report from Monitoring Committee have not been mentioned
in the Plan. There is no surety of the incorporation of changes after the suggestions from
Monitoring Committee.
Again, public participation has not been taken into consideration to review the Plan. This
stage is a contiguous process of reviewing not just the implementation of the Plan but also
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the effects (both positive and negative) that the Plan has on its stakeholders. Thus, it becomes
all the more important to include the stakeholders in reviewing process of the Plan.
Institutional Framework
Functions of all the authorities have not been clearly stated in the Comprehensive
Development Plan but have been worked out in detail in the City Development Plan. The
overlap and issues related to governance have been worked out in the Comprehensive
Development Plan. There are a number of institutions performing municipal and urban
development functions in the Bangalore Metropolitan Area. These institutions can be
categorized as Urban Local Bodies (ULB), Statutory Authorities, & Government
departments.
Elected ULBs include BMP (City Corporation), Bommanahalli (CMC), Byatarayanapura
(CMC), Dasarahalli (CMC), KR Puram (CMC), Mahedevapura (CMC), RR Nagar (CMC),
Yelahanka (CMC) and Kengeri (TMC). Statutory Authorities in Bangalore are Bangalore
Development Authority, Bangalore Metropolitan, Region Development Authority, Bangalore
Water Supply & Sewerage Board, Bangalore Metropolitan Transport Corporation, Lake
Development Authority, Karnataka Slum Clearance Board, Karnataka Urban infrastructure
Development and Finance Corporation, Bangalore International Airport Area Planning
Authority
Bangalore Development Authority was the nodal authority in planning process. But various
local self government institutions(LSGIs) are responsible for addressing the citys growth
which include: Bruhat Bangalore Mahanagar Palika (BBMP), Bangalore Metropolitan
Transport Corporation (BMTC), Bangalore Development Authority (BDA), Bangalore Water
Supply and Sewerage Board (BWSSB), Karnataka Slum Clearance Board (KSCB), ITBT,
Bangalore Metropolitan Region Development Authority (BMRDA), Karnataka State Road
Transport Corporation (KSRTC), Heritage Board, Karnataka Housing Board (KHB),
Bangalore International Airport Area Planning Authority (BIAAPA), Tourism Department,
Karnataka Urban Infrastructure Development and Finance Corporation (KUIDFC) and the
Bangalore Electricity Supply Company (BESCOM).
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A number of government departments -regulatory and development, including the Police

Department, Public Works Department, Health Department, Education Department, Revenue
Department, Town Planning Department, Horticulture Department, Motor Vehicles
Department, et-al, also have interplay in the metropolitan area. Thus, there are a lot of
authorities involved in plan implementation in BMA but some of the agencies are not
functional in the entire area. This issue has not been taken up in the Comprehensive
Development Plan.
In the context of these inconsistencies, overlaps, organizational conflicts, managerial voids,
and legal complications, the following options are being considered: (i) redefining the roles
of the major urban authorities in the Bangalore Metropolitan Area, with particular reference
to the BBMP, BDA, and BMRDA, to meet the challenges of future metropolitan
management; (ii) tackling the managerial voids in the peri-urban/ suburban areas of
Bangalore; (iii) introducing necessary legal reforms to meet the new planning and
developmental needs of the Bangalore Metropolitan Region; and (iv) ensuring transparent
processes, with citizen participation, in the Citys planning and governance.
The proposal to create the Greater Bangalore Municipal Body requires integration of the
various developmental initiatives and institutional responsibilities of local self government
institutions in the city. Designing and developing a seamless, effective and well coordinated
management structure is therefore important for not just the Greater Bangalore Municipal
Body but also for the entire Bangalore Metropolitan Region (BMR).
This imminent directive also takes cognizance of the framework laid down in the 74th
Constitutional Amendment Act (CAA) and the emphasis the CAA lays on planning for social
and economic development. The Government of Karnataka has constituted an Expert
Committee for the planned development of the Bruhat Bangalore Mahanagar Palike (BBMP)
within the above context. The Committee is currently preparing its recommendations on the
subject.
While the aforesaid committee on BBMP reviews multiplicity of functions and overlaps in
service delivery, GoK has formed the Bangalore Metropolitan Land Transport Authority
(BMLTA) for the Bangalore Metropolitan Region (BMR). The BMLTA shall function as an
umbrella organization to coordinate planning and implementation of urban transport
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programs and projects and provide an integrated management structure. All land transport
systems (excluding the railways) in the BMR shall be brought under the purview of the
BMLTA.
As already mentioned, at Plan making level, public participation from all the sectors has been
taken which includes stakeholders from all classes, age, religions, etc. but no special
emphasis to any of the groups has been given in the Plan.
a.
Interface of the Comprehensive Development Plan 2005-15 with the City

Development Plan 2007 -2013 (CDP)
The CDP of Bangalore seeks to address the needs and challenges of the City in a systematic
manner with the participation of all its stakeholders and citizens. This CDP for the JNNURM
has wide objectives that seek:
Guided growth of the City
Citizens participation
Reform in governance leading to a well-managed society
Clear estimates of financial investments and sustainability
One of the positive aspects about the Comprehensive Development Plan of Bangalore is that
it has been prepared parallel to the City Development Plan, as a lot of investment is available
for the projects under the CDP and also, it will avoid repetition of work and reduce
overlapping of functions of various local bodies. This will save the limited resources
available in the metropolitan city and ensure better quality of services through sub-projects,
at least in the field of infrastructure provision and upgrading the poor communities.
The CDP of Bangalore has been worked out in detail and the work has been adopted in the
Comprehensive Development Plan of Bangalore in its Vision statement. The vision is to
retain its preeminent position as a City of the Future. But it should have been the other way
round, i.e., the CDP should have formulated its vision in line with that of the Comprehensive
Development Plan, as CDP is just a tool to improve urban services. Also, as CDP is not a
statutory document, it becomes all the more important for it to follow the Comprehensive
Development Plan.
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City growth, economic development, environment and energy, people and well being,
leisure, art, culture and sports formed the basis for translating the growth scenario and vision
into urban space unlike the CDP which focuses totally on infrastructure provision, amenities
for the urban poor and the institutional and legislative reforms. Thus the CDP lacks an
overall balanced approach in terms of vision for the Metropolitan area. The improved
services and governance will improve the quality of life of people but these cannot be taken
up in isolation, spatial characteristics have to be focused upon as well.
The Comprehensive Development Plan addresses long-term sustainable development through
the following directive principles of Nature, Economic Efficiency, Social Equity and
Historical Heritage. Thus, the Comprehensive Development Plan covers the important factors
that lead to development of the city. At the same time, the CDP has a short term goal and is a
short term project in literature. The goals of the CDP are difficult to achieve in its limited
duration of seven years. The Comprehensive Development Plan although is also for 10 years
only but it will be revised contiguously as per a mandate in the KTCP Act, 1961.
The Comprehensive Development Plan included primary surveys which gave the latest
information not only on the population but also the spatial conditions in all the areas unlike
the CDP which depends on projections.
In CDP, vision formulation and the methodology in which the Plan preparation process took
place have been worked out in detail. It includes stakeholder consultations in every stage
including formulation of vision, assessment o infrastructure status, finances, etc. The various
types of stakeholders involved at various steps/ stages have been given in the CDP which is
absent in the Comprehensive Development Plan which does mention about stakeholder
consultation but not in every stage and thus, it does not discuss the participants in various
aspects.
Most of the aspects of the Comprehensive Development Plan have been worked out based on
the CDP available. The maps have been prepared by the BDA through primary survey for the
Comprehensive Development Plan and have also been used in the CDP. This has lead to
common base-work and data, reducing conflicts and difference in the existing situation in the
city. Thus, good coordination between the two Plans can be seen in case of the maps
prepared and data collected.
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Some of the aspects have been discussed in the Comprehensive Development Plan, some in
the CDP and some of them in both. As the two Plans are supposed to run parallel to each
other, it is important to create a link between the two in all the aspects and the
Comprehensive Development Plan is expected to set out lines on which CDP can be based.
Environment and energy aspect which becomes very important especially in case of
infrastructure projects is missing from the CDP but have been included in the Comprehensive
Development Plan. Power supply has not been taken into consideration in the CDP where as
sanitation and SWM have not been worked out in detail in the Comprehensive Development
Plan. Thus, there is lack of clarity and the missing links between the two Plans should be
reviewed.
Spatial representation of proposals for various aspects have not been included in have been
prepared in CDP which otherwise forms a part of the Comprehensive Development Plan. It is
important to include proposal maps in the CDP as it is a tool to implement the
Comprehensive Development Plan and to set out the base-work/ guidelines on which the subprojects can be taken up for processing.
Only health and education as a part of social infrastructure have been mentioned in the CDP
unlike the Comprehensive Development Plan. The CDP discusses city core under heritage
conservation and the Comprehensive Development Plan has not worked it out. City core is
one of the major areas that need to be looked into, not only from the heritage point of view
but also in the form of livability, as most of the old city areas are in dilapidated.
The aspects of urban poor and their up-gradation have been worked out in both the plans but
are more detailed the CDP, it being one of the major objectives of JnNURM. To achieve
social equality and economic equilibrium, it is required to uplift the local communities and
marginalized population. Thus, the Plans should work out ways to upgrade these
communities.
Although the Comprehensive Development Plan has been prepared after the CDP, it does not
mention about the Detailed Project Reports (DPRs) that have to be prepared for the
implementation of the Comprehensive Development Plan as well as CDP. DPRs are
important to ensure implementation of the Plans.
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The CDP also includes the structure of the project report and the various documents
prepared. According to JNNURM norms, the sub-projects shall be financed as - 35% (GoI);
15% (GoK) and 50% from the institutions concerned (ULBs, BDA, BMTC, BWSSB, &
KSCB). The 50% contribution is a decision to be made by the local body. The
implementation of the Comprehensive Development Plan and the CDP are running in
parallel. So, funds for most of the projects from the local bodies should not be a problem.
But, if some of the local bodies disagree to accept the project, the alternative source of fund
has not been mentioned. The CDP has not worked out any alternatives in case, the local
bodies which usually lack funds back out and financially do not support the implementation
of CDP.
Finances/ availability of funds from various sources form a key component in the preparation
of CDP and which have not been worked out in the Comprehensive Development Plan. Also,
the CDP includes a detailed investment plan which is absent in case of the Comprehensive
Development Plan for Bangalore. Incoming and outgoing finances related to various
infrastructure aspects have been worked out in detail in the CDP where as the
Comprehensive Development Plan works out the finances only for a few aspects. It is very
important for the Mater Plan to work out finances required for the implementation of the
entire plan and it should include landuse implementation also.
Institutional framework has been prepared in both the plans but is more implicit in the CDP
than the Comprehensive Development Plan. In CDP, the institutional arrangements for
various stages of the Plan such as plan processing, implementation, etc. This should have
been explained in detail in the Comprehensive Development Plan also, as there are some of
the aspects in the Comprehensive Development Plan which are not a part of the CDP. Also,
the duration of the Comprehensive Development Plan is two years more than the CDP. If
functions of various bodies are not specified, then implementation of the Plan cannot be
carried out.
As discussed earlier, the Plan making process and implementation of the two Plans in
Bangalore will be carried out together. Thus, it becomes important to coordinate the two
Plans in all the stages Plan processing, preparation, implementation, monitoring, etc.
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As CDP is a short term project, it totally lacks a very important aspect of monitoring and
review of the implementation of plan. It is vital for any project/ sub-project to work out
provisions for monitoring and review to check if the implementation of the Plan is serving
the purpose it stated on with. For example, slum redevelopment has been identified in the
Comprehensive Development Plan as one of the actions required for urban community upgradation but to verify its success it is required to know if the poor are accepting it and if it is
serving the purpose of improving the quality of life.
Although the preparation of the Comprehensive Development Plan was delayed due to the
declaration of the JnNURM project, it may ideally prove beneficial for the city as it has lead
to good coordination and common concerns in the two Plans.
b. Public Participation
As discussed, various stakeholders citys political planning partners (Mayor and
Councilors), citys key stakeholders (business groups, academicians, state-level utilities), &
citizen representatives and members of CBOs were involved at various stages. The
participants have been involved only before vision formulation, and not in any other aspect
of the planning process, implementation, monitoring and review.
Initially, surveys were conducted before the plan preparation on what people want to
incorporate their needs in the Plan in various aspects. But the public views were incorporated
only in the vision statement, which was not actually converted the objectives and while
working out details of various sectors which form the content of the Comprehensive
Development Plan.
Later, when the Plan was ready, it was displayed for the public inviting suggestions and
objections. This was done only for the draft Comprehensive Development Plan and the final
Comprehensive Development Plan was never put up in public domain, which is not
acceptable as a lot of changes in the Comprehensive Development Plan were done, including
revision of the vision and the mission statements, due to the collaboration of the
Comprehensive Development Plan and CDP exercise in Bangalore city. People should be
involved prior to this stage. Public participation should start at the inception of the project, as
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this would also help in prioritizing issues. Thus, the Mechanism adopted for public
participation was well worked out and it ensured partial participation.
Karnataka town and country planning act 1961 progressively proposes the idea of public
involvement in 4 stages. But the problem of the act is that it is based on western standards
and does not suit our cultural and traditional system.
Thus, the suggestions and complaints of the public (received through public participation)
should form an integral part of the Plan at various stages. Where as it is seen that the Plan has
promised a lot on public participation and has not converted it into the various levels of the
Comprehensive Development Plan, even the Planning District Report, which is supposed to
have a more localized approach.
Public consensus should be build at neighborhood level before any development is being
done. It is also important for the Govt. to make sure that the people need to invest time in
community level activities and it is the duty of the local public to get involved in the various
schemes prepared by the Govt. to make the Plan successful.
Also, there is no process for participation in the governance system. The poor make the city,
they contribute to around 80% of the economy and maximum population in the city, thus
special importance should be given to the marginalized population in the city not only in
taking suggestions after the Comprehensive Development Plan has been fully prepared buyt
also, in demand assessment, plan processing, enforcement, implementation, monitoring and
review.
The Karnataka TCP Act, 1961, under which the Plan has been prepared does not talk about
grievance redressal. There is an e-governance system and provision for that have been made
by the local government for grievance redressal but the system lacks transparency and has
not been included in the Comprehensive Development Plan. One of the ideas that were taken
up I parallel to the Master Paln preparation, while outsourcing it was preparing a GIS model
for the entire city, which is due and could have facilitated better e-governance system. Thus,
the Plan has no regulatory framework for grievance redressal.
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4.3
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STAKEHOLDER CONSULTATION
Bangalore is the first city in India to have a private consultant for the Comprehensive
Development Plan, as part of Indo-French collaboration (6.5 million euros). BATF
(Bangalore Action Task Force) had worked with BDA to work out the agenda for the 3
projects:
Revision of Comprehensive Development Plan
- GIS Data Information
- Capacity building exercise
This was a kind of pioneer exercise. Ecological mapping was also done for the first time.
Criticisms on the Comprehensive Development Plan

The Plan: Comprehensive Development Plan is a rigid document, planned for a 20-25yrs.
There is a long gap between present and the future perception. The transition period is not
considered. Because of this it is often a back-dated and a speculative document. Thus the
time frame of preparation and perspective period of the Plan is questionable. Bangalore has
192 wards with 180 villages. There is no vision for them. It is only planned for the IT sector.
People should shape cities / plans. Plans should travel to people. There is no community
discussion involved in process. 80% of the city is made by the informal sector. Apart from
their place of work, space for living and recreation for them needs to be thought of.
Reserving only 20% land for EWS might not be able to clear 90% the backlog.
Legislation: The town planning act which is prevalent is actually not followed and the plan
is not in coherence with the Karnataka Town Planning Act. The Act also does not have any
micro-level implementation mechanism.
Violation of Plan: There is a major disconnect between the planning body and the
implementation body leading to violations. Implementation problems and violations have
happened mainly due to inadequate capacity and institutional infrastructure for
implementation and monitoring of the Plan. The transitional no-plan period due to time
delays is also a major factor for such a scenario.
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Suggestions
Institutional structure for Plan implementation, monitoring and review needs to be in place in
addition to the plan making framework. Comprehensive Development Planning process is
not a linear process; all aspects need to be handled parallel to each other vision / strategy /
action plan / policy. Intertwining of various sectors along with prioritizing the important
sectors and phasing for development is needed for better results. Implementation policy
needs to be a legal tool. Dove-tailing is required between various plans for e.g. Regional Plan
and Comprehensive Development Plan, also between policy and implementation framework.
In Bangalore public participation is only at the draft plan stage. People should be involved
prior to this stage also. Public participation should start at the inception of the project, as this
would also help in prioritizing issues. To make planning better and more efficient, the 73rd
and 74th Amendment Acts should be properly implemented in the state.
4.4
CONCLUSION
Based upon the critical appraisal of the Plan document and the inputs from
stakeholder consultations, the Comprehensive Development Plan, 2015 for Bangalore is

observed to be one of the better documents in terms of contents of the Plan as it seems to
have referred many of the emerging issues, although not in detail. One of the major
drawbacks of the Plan is with respect to its sole focus on the IT and other high-end sectors
leading to non-inclusion of other substantial share of population like that of the villages.
Another major issue that may be observed based on the inputs from stakeholder consultations
is that of implementation, monitoring and review of the Plan. Also time delays in the plan
making, approval and implementation processes have lead to failure of the plan document.
Public Participation has also to be given due importance at all stages to make the whole
process more meaningful, transparent and realistic.
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CriticalAppraisalofPlanningFrameworkinCaseStudyCity:Kolkata
Chapter5
Chapter 5 KOLKATA
5.1.
CITY PROFILE
5.1.1.

Kolkata formerly called Calcutta is the capital of the state of West Bengal. Kolkata is
the cultural capital of India and the commercial capital of eastern India. Kolkata is ranked as
Gamma World City. It is located on the east bank of the Hooghly River. The Kolkata
metropolitan area including suburbs has a population about 15 million, making it the third
most populous metropolitan area in India and one of the most populous urban areas in the
world. According to 2001 Census, 14.72 million people were distributed over 1,851.41 sq.
km. of Kolkata Metropolitan Area forming an overall density of 7,950 persons per sq. km.
The city is also classified as the eighth largest urban agglomeration in the world.
Kolkata served as the capital of India during the British Raj until 1912. Since the year 2001,
economic rejuvenation has spurred on the city's growth with extensive urbanization,
commercialization and job creation. Kolkata boasts of eastern India's only IT hub, its
software sector growth by large growing in leaps and bounds transforming Kolkata as one of
the hotbeds of Indian IT Industry. It has one of the fastest developing corporate sectors with
an influx of a plethora of multinational corporations.
Kolkata is noted for its revolutionary history, ranging from the Indian struggle for
independence to the leftist and trade union movements. Kolkata was the launch pad of
the Bengal Renaissance era of the 19th Century.
5.1.2.

The growth of Kolkata started from the Sutanuti area. In the middle of the 16th
century, Sutanuti was extended from Chitpur to the old Mint House. The area between the
old Mint House and Chandpal Ghat belonged to Calcutta proper. Gobindapur occupied the
site of new Fort William, including the Race Course. Sutanuti was the main seat of trade and
commerce, while Calcutta and Gobindapur were the places of residence. After 1757,
Govindapur was cleared for the construction of new Fort William and Hastings was born as a
coolie bazaar. Dalhousie Square, now called Binoy Badal Dinesh Bag, was transformed to
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house various offices. Till the establishment of manufacturing industry in the suburbia of
Calcutta by about middle of nineteenth century, Calcutta essentially remained as enlarged
market centre boosted up by the intrusion of European traders.
By the end of nineteenth century, Kolkata (Calcutta) emerged as the most powerful
metropolitan node, the citadel of the British Capital in India, the major gateway to London
and the world at large. Demographically from a population of 12,000 in a bunch of
settlements, the city by 1901 had grown with nearly 8,50,000 inhabitants. Some of the
suburban towns of Kolkata were already in full existence long before Kolkata began its run
as English factory settlements. Chinsura, Hoogly, Chandernagore, Serampore on the west
bank of the river Hooghly were thriving markets patronised by Portuguese, the Dutch and the
French. According to the Census of 1872, the population of Hooghly and Chinsura together
was nearly 35,000 while Serampore had a population over 24,000. During this period:
The history of growth of Calcuttas suburbia took place in the manner that many of the
suburban towns were independent entities for a long time associated with the rise or fall of
European powers rival to the English, basically, Dutch and Portuguese.
The transference of these settlements to the English hand and subsequent establishment of
the manufacturing industry, the relationship with Calcutta did not appear to have been
substantially altered except for the links the mills had with their head office at Dalhousie
Square, and with the port of Calcutta.
The option of developing stronger links between Calcutta and its suburban areas in the
interest of metropolitan growth was never seriously considered even later.
Thus the industries grew mainly along the western bank of the Bhagirathi- Hooghly River
about the middle of the nineteenth century. The first effort to link between east and west
banks of the river Hooghly was established through a pontoon bridge, while the present
cantilever bridge was opened only two years before the independence. However the Bally
Bridge while inaugurated in 1927-28, the Bridge at Naihati was a much later addition some
40 km. north of Calcutta.
These transportation links made effective integration of suburb and the metropolis into an
organic whole, that leads to the all round development of the suburbs through opening of new
streets, betterment of civic services and so on. The suburban areas thus depend on the central
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city of Calcutta for their own growth. The introduction of the suburban train services along
both banks improved the situation to some extent in post independence period, but highway
linkages were still grossly inadequate. A massive geographical barrier in the form of the
Bhagirathi-Hooghly River has further complicated the situation.
In the post-independence period, the suburban movement around the city received some
momentum from those who were deprived of a foothold in the city due to steep rent and land
speculation. Many concepts are available in the census reports to indicate the urban explosion
of the Kolkata metropolis since 1951 Census. In fact, before the Second World War,
formation of the conurbation with regard to the city of Kolkata and its adjacent urban tract
that have grown over the centuries was not recognized. During this period the concept of
Greater Kolkata (GK) was first conceived for the purpose of rationing. It covered all
municipalities along a stretch of over 65 km on both banks of the river from Budge Budge in
the south and Halisahar in the north, including Kolkata. The area of GK was more than 690
sq. km. The Census of 1951 officially recognized the Kolkata Industrial Region (CIR) for the
first time and included 36 towns over an area of about 420 sq. km. In the 1961 census, apart
from continuation of the concept of CIR, another entity of the Town Groups (TG) was
considered.
In 1971, a new concept viz. Urban Agglomeration (UA) was introduced. The Kolkata Urban
Agglomeration (KUA) included the entire city of Kolkata and some of the urban portions of
the districts of North 24-Parganas, South 24-Parganas, Howrah. Hooghly, and Nadia.
Another new concept of Standard Urban Area (SUA) was also developed in the Census in
1971, and included contiguous territories of an urban core that were likely to be urban over
the next 20 year period or so under the influence of the core town. These areas are often in
the category of rural area. The Calcutta Metropolitan Standard Urban Area (CMSUA) for
Kolkata, as defined in 1971 Census, however, was similar to that of Calcutta Metropolitan
District (CMD), which was adopted as the planning base in the Basic Development Plan
1966-86, prepared by Calcutta Metropolitan Planning Organisation (CMPO) during 1960 and
was subsequently considered for Calcutta Metropolitan Area (CMA) for the purpose of Town
and Country (Planning and Development) Act, 1979. Thus, the planning concept of the CMD
was recognized in 1971 Census. Therefore, a continuous and interdependent urban explosion,
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stretching far beyond the statutory boundary of the municipal limits of Kolkata, was realised
four and a half decades ago.
Now, according to 2001 Census, there were 115 towns in Kolkata Metropolitan Area (KMA,
previously CMA), out of which 41 are statutory towns like municipal corporations and
municipalities and the remaining 74 Census Towns.
Kolkata city has a unique urban form. The metropolitan area is situated along the River
Hooghly, which is one of the main distributaries of the Ganga. The urban area stretches north
to south along the Hooghly. The urban area is generally very narrow, often extending only
five miles (eight kilometers) from one side to the other (west to east). The urban growth in
has been characterized by a highly mono-centric urban hierarchical structure with Kolkata
Metropolitan Area occupying a primate position. The industrial development, especially the
growth of engineering and jute industry along the two banks of river Hugli initiated the urban
growth process in the KMA; supported by trading and other non-agricultural activities that a
large metropolis like Kolkata nurtures for its vast hinterland. The KMA, with a population of
nearly 15 million, has emerged as the dominant urban centre of this vast hinterland stretching
over West Bengal, Bihar, Orissa, Assam, Arunachal Pradesh, Meghalaya, Mizoram,
Manipur, Nagaland, Tripura and Sikkim. This hinterland today covers an area of 6.8 lakh sq.
km with a stunning population of about 239 million (2001 Census). The KMA acts as the
main producer and distributor of goods and services to the entire state and the Eastern and
North-eastern regions as well. The city of Kolkata is located in the southeastern portion of
the metropolitan area. The commercial core occupies considerable space, with office
buildings and markets along the east side of the Maidan, the central city park. The
commercial district continues north to Mahatma Gandhi Avenue, an east-west thoroughfare
ringed with multi story buildings. Outside the core of Kolkata, there are principally low rise
residential buildings. Farther to the north, the buildings become simply one or two stories.
Even in the commercial core, there are few truly high rise buildings. The tallest building in
Kolkata is less than 30 floors, and, with the exception of some new construction in the Salt
Lake City area, there is little high rise development of recent vintage.
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Kolkata is endowed with numerous heritage landmarks given its rich history. It has heritage
buildings and sites that reflect its culture and heritage, mainly from the colonial period. The
landmarks within the core area are the stately Victoria Memorial, the St. Pauls Anglican
Cathedral, the Howrah Bridge, the Indian Museum, etc. These are also heritage structures.
Also, natural heritage, in the form of lakes, such as, Salt Lakes, Wetlands, etc. and florafauna can be seen in Kolkata. Kolkata is one of the most visited destinations primarily due
to its economic growth, but also as a tourist spot and as a transit hub for other tourist
destinations in East India.
5.1.3.

Size of population and its distribution over space play a very significant role in spatial
planning. According to 2001 Census, 14.72 million people were distributed over 1851.41 sq.
km. of Kolkata Metropolitan Area forming an overall density of 7950 persons per sq. km.
The Kolkata Metropolitan Area contains the whole of the Kolkata Urban Agglomeration
along with rural pockets. This is almost similar to the Kolkata Standard Urban Area as
defined by the Census authority. Kolkata Municipal Corporation with an area of 197.54 sq.
km. of area accounts for 10.67% of KMAs area and 45.73 lakh people, which is 31.07 % of
KMAs population. Other two municipal corporations i.e. Chandannagore and Howrah
extend over 3.98 % of KMAs land accounting for 7.95% of KMAs population. 33.8% of
KMAs land is under 38 municipal towns that shelter 45.07% of KMAs residents. The 77
census towns occupy only 10.81 % of KMAs area providing home to 6.69% of KMAs
population. A vast chunk of KMAs land i.e.40.31% is rural in nature accounting for only
8.75% of KMAs population. In terms of the District-wise distribution, KMA is spread over
the districts of Kolkata (100% of the district), Hooghly (partially), Howrah (partially), Nadia
(partially), North 24-Parganas (partially) and South 24-Parganas (partially).
5.1.4.
LEGAL FRAMEWORK
The Calcutta Metropolitan Development Authority is responsible for the task of
preparing the Land Use and development control Plans as per the West Bengal Town and
Country (Planning and Development) Act, 1979.
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5.1.5.
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JURISDICTION
Kolkata Metropolitan Area (KMA) has two major components:
The conurbation meaning the continuous stretching in a linear pattern along the east
bank and west bank of the river Hooghly.
The rural areas lying as a ring around the conurbation and acting as protective green belt.
The concept of KMA (erstwhile CMD of 1960s) was first introduced by the Calcutta
Metropolitan Planning Area (Use & Development of Land) Control Act of 1965. Through
passage of time the boundary of KMA has changed several times. The present size of KMA
and the composition of the different categories of area are presented below.
Table 5.1: Composition of KMA: 2001

SL. NO.
Categories of Area
No.
Area in Sq. Km.
Municipal Corporations
271.31
Municipalities
38
615.49
Non Municipal Urban (NMU)/ Census Towns
77
200.10
Out Growths
16
18.19
Rural Area
445
746.32
Total KMA
1851.41
Source: Perspective Plan for Kolkata, 2025
5.1.6.
PLANNING PROCESS
Urban planning and development came to be recognized as a focused area of
governmental attention starting from Third Five Year Plan, which commenced in 1961. Apart
from realizing the necessity of developing master plans for major cities, the Central
Government earmarked special financial assistance for development of city infrastructure.
This was time when the city of Kolkata was not only exhibiting mammoth growth but also
beset with severe inadequacy of civic infrastructure and services. The cholera epidemic of
1958 drew attention of national government and also international agencies like World
Health Organization (WHO). This led to creation of the first ever planning organization in
West Bengal, the Calcutta Metropolitan Planning Organisation (CMPO) in 1961. The Basic
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Development Plan: 1966-86 published by CMPO in 1966 presented a perspective plan first
time of its nature in India. This was followed by two master Plans namely Comprehensive
Traffic and Transportation Plan and Master Plan for Water Supply, Sewerage and
Drainage. The Basic Development Plan recommended a short-term action program relating
to improvement of civil infrastructures, primarily with a view to arresting further
deterioration in public utilities and services.
Table 5.2: Evolution of Planning Process in Kolkata

Year
Event
1961
Creation of Calcutta Metropolitan Planning Organization (CMPO)
1970
Creation of Calcutta Metropolitan Development Authority (CDMA)
2001
Creation of Kolkata Metropolitan area Planning Committee (KMPC)
Source: Kolkata Metropolitan Development Authority, 2010
The Fourth Five Year Plan provided for special allocation for implementation of
infrastructure development schemes in Kolkata, but the same soon turned out to be too small
compared to needs. It was also concurrently appreciated that for implementation of any
massive infrastructure development programme in a co-ordinated manner, a dedicated agency
was required to be set up. Calcutta Metropolitan Development Authority (CMDA) was
created in 1970 under a separate statute of the same title with the primary objective of
formulating development programme, channelizing funds to implementing agencies and coordinating their implementation. Very soon, CMDA set up its own execution Directorates
and a little later a Planning Directorate of its own. The Planning Directorate has so far
produced several planning documents. Important among these are Development Perspective
and Four Year Program with multi-centred development strategy (1976), Perspective Plan
and Action Program (1981), followed by the Preferred Structure Plan (1983). Integrated
Transportation System for CMDA prepared in 1983 is also another important planning
document. Following review of the development perspective for CMA, the State Planning
Board, Govt. of West Bengal, published the draft A Perspective Plan for Calcutta: 2011, in
1991. This was closely followed by a series of planning reports prepared by CMDA, namely,
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Plan for Metropolitan Development: 1990-2005 in 1990; Development Need of Calcutta

Metropolitan Area: 1992-2002 in 1992 and lastly the Calcutta Megacity Program: Project
Profile and Investment Plan in 1994. on behalf of Housing Department, Govt. of West
Bengal, CMDA prepared the Concept Plan for New Town at Rajarhat in 1994. A Concept
Development Plan of a New Town at Sonarpur Baruipur Area was also prepared by CMDA
in 1995.
Simultaneously, as statutory obligation in terms of the West Bengal Town and Country
(Planning and Development) Act, 1979, CMDA has been engaged in preparation of existing
Land Use Maps and Registers (LUMR) and Land Use and Development Control Plan
(LUDCP) [renamed from Outline Development Plan (ODP) by an Amendment in 1994].
CMDA is also carrying out development control functions in terms of LUDCP, as required
under the Act. In addition to CMDA, planning and design of specific projects and programs
had been carried out in CMA by various other organisation like Calcutta Municipal
Corporation (CMC), Calcutta Improvement Trust (CIT), Howrah Improvement Trust (HIT),
Calcutta Metropolitan Water and Sanitation Authority (CMW & SA), Housing Board,
Hooghly River Bridge Commissioners (HRBC), Transport Department, Irrigation &
Waterways Department, PWD (Roads) Dept. of Government of West Bengal, central
government agencies like Metro Railways, Eastern Railways, South Eastern Railways etc. In
1997, the Environment Department, Govt. of West Bengal, completed the Calcutta
Environmental Management Strategy and Action Plan (CEMSAP) for the CMA. In 1999
Calcuttas name was change to Kolkata by the State legislature and in December 2000, the
same change was accepted by the Central Government. The Kolkata Metropolitan area
Planning Committee was constituted in 2001, in pursuance of the 74th Constitutional
Amendment Act. Under the provisions of the same Act, the Draft Perspective Plan for KMA
Vision 2025, was prepared by the KMDA, which has been put forward to the KMPC for
feedbacks. The Plan is yet to be sanctioned and notified.
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Table 5.3: Chronology of Plan documents in Kolkata

Year of
Notification/
Publication
Perspective
Period
Basic Development
Plan
1966
1966-1986
CMA
Perspective Plan and

Action Program
1981
N.A
CMA
Preferred Structure
Plan
Integrated
Transportation System
for CMDA
1983
N.A
CMA
1983
N.A
CMA
Plan for Metropolitan

Development
1990
1990-2005
CMA
Perspective Plan for

Calcutta
Development Need of
Calcutta Metropolitan
Area
Calcutta Megacity
Programme: Project
profile and investment
Plan
1991
1991-2011
CMA
1992
1992-2002
CMA
1994
N.A
CMA
Draft Perspective Plan

for KMA
2001
2001-2025
KMA
2007
2007-2013
Kolkata Municipal
Corporation area
PLAN
Preparing
Organisation
Planning Area
Planning Organisation
Development
Authority
Development
Authority
Development
Authority
Development
Authority
State Planning Board,
Govt of West Bengal
Development
Authority
Development
Authority
Kolkata Metropolitan
Development
Authority
Kolkata Municipal
Corporation
Source: Kolkata Metropolitan Development Authority, 2010
5.2.
CRITICAL APPRAISAL OF DRAFT PERSPECTIVE PLAN FOR K.M.A

2025
5.2.1.
VISION, AIM & OBJECTIVES

The Vision is to provide sustained and improved quality of life through basic urban
services in an inclusive manner and create enabling environment for attracting domestic and
international investors to live, work & invest in Kolkata Metropolitan Area.
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Goals and objectives
The Objectives as mentioned are:

Metropolitan Kolkata shall continue to remain as the strong industrial and intellectual hub
to the country as well as in its regional context
Utilize all resources efficiently including urban land
Conserve natural reserve and heritage
The major centres within the metropolitan region and their role in future shall be taken into
account
Provide healthy and sanitary living conditions to all
Provide social amenities, community facilities and securities to all
Stabilize urban growth in KMA at a time horizon for 2025 AD
Achieve an aesthetically pleasing cohesive form
5.2.2.
The methodology adopted for the plan preparation has not been clearly mentioned in
the Perspective Plan. The approach that was kept in mind for plan preparation was the bottom
up model. The planning exercise was scanned by the elected peoples representatives
constituting the Kolkata Metropolitan Planning Committee (KMPC). Their recommendations
were incorporated in the plan. The formation of the KMPC, the first of its kind in India, has
strengthened the process of democratically decentralized Urban Planning
5.2.3.
PLAN PREPARATION
Perspective Plan of CMA 2025 is the most comprehensive document that is
available for Kolkata Metropolitan area prepared by the Kolkata Metropolitan Development
authority. The Plan preparation was initiated in 2001 and the duration for the plan
preparation was 4 years. Yet the plan has not been notified till date. The plan was reviewed
by the Kolkata Metropolitan Planning Committee and as per the decisions on the first
meeting of KMPC, sectoral committees were formed for preparation of sectoral master plans
on traffic and transportation, water supply, drainage, sewerage and sanitation, environment/
wetland, urban amenities of heritage, and education, health, self employment and industries.
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Recommendations have been given by the KMPC and these have been incorporated in the
Plan
Delineated area
While preparing the perspective plan for the metropolis of Kolkata, the outlying areas over
which the Metropolis exercise a good amount of influence was kept in view. The zone of
influence of the metropolis was identified.
Kolkata Metropolitan Region Influence area of the city as may be defined through daily
commutation for the purpose of supplying workers to the city and the metropolitan district.
Intermediate Metropolitan Region Influence area of the city as may be defined mainly
through the supply area of fresh vegetable and other perishable food items to the city and the
metropolitan district.
Inner Metropolitan Region The influence area of the city as may be defined through the
area of daily city bus services, milk supply zone as well as from nearest town criteria of
census.
Kolkata Metropolitan Area Kalyani Budge Budge on east bank and Bansberia Uluberia
on the west bank of the river Hooghly containing the whole of the Kolkata Urban
Agglomeration along with rural pockets. This is almost similar to the Kolkata Standard
Urban Area as defined by the census authority.
Metro Core Twin city of Kolkata and Howrah; with intensively built up surrounding areas
spreading from Bally-Dakhineswar-Kamarhati to Andul-Garden Reach-Garia occupying
about 34% of the KMA area.
Central Business district (CBD) Major locus of urban activities and covers about 8% of the
citys municipal area and about 1% of the KMA area.
Municipal and Panchayat areas In view of the constitutional mandate following the
provisions of the West Bengal District planning Committee Act 1994 and West Bengal
Metropolitan Planning Committee Act 1994, Municipalities and Panchayats will be
responsible to prepare the development plan for their respective jurisdictions.
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5.2.4.
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CONCEPT
The main objective of the state government has been to make the process of urban
growth and development sustainable; to make urban areas more environment friendly; and to
make the urban areas investment friendly, particularly the metropolitan area of Kolkata. The
State Government has assigned high priority to democratically decentralised urban
governance structure in the state as a whole. The sustained practice of decentralized urban
planning and development, as a matter of policy and strategy, has rendered the interventions
more sustainable through better resource allocation between alternative uses and effective
peoples participation. The establishment of Kolkata Metropolitan Planning Committee
(KMPC), the first of its kind in India, has strengthened the process of democratically
decentralized urban planning.
There have been qualitative changes in issues, policies and strategies Matters like
environment, urban agriculture, application of information technology, and remote sensing/
satellite imagery, heritage and urban conservation have gained prominence in preparation of
the Perspective Plan for Kolkata.
Kolkata is now a happening city facilitated both by external and internal factors. Its
importance in the eastern India has always been immense. The hinterland of Kolkata extends
much beyond and also to the neighbouring countries of Nepal, Bangladesh, and Bhutan. The
Kolkata Port and the international Airport in Kolkata connect Kolkata to the rest of the
world. The first spell of industrialisation in the country had taken place in the areas in and
around Kolkata and resultantly the traditional industries like jute, chemicals, engineering etc.
were located in and around Kolkata. In terms of not only the manufacturing industries, but
also the wholesale and retail trades, Kolkata occupies a pre-eminent position in eastern India,
primarily helped by Kolkata Port. Agglomeration of all these major economic activities here
have rendered Kolkata the character of a metropolitan city, which is by far the largest in
eastern India in terms of demographic, social and economic parameters.
A number of large and important infrastructure projects like North-south and East West
Corridor under Golden Quadrilateral program, Kolkata Logistics Hub, West Howrah
Township, Rajarhat Township, Second Vivekananda Bridge, Belghoria Expressway, Kalyani
DumDum Expressway, West Howrah Township etc., are likely to create major direct impact
on the developmental scene of KMA. The importance of KMA would continue to be
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significant in the context of various other factors. The Look East Policy of Government of
India strives to enhance trade between India and other countries in the East, especially China,
Korea, Myanmar, Bangladesh- the neighbouring countries. In implementation of this Policy,
the strategic importance of Kolkata along with Siliguri cannot be underestimated. With China
being targeted as a major trading partner of India, to be facilitated by resumption of trade via
Nathu la Pass, freight traffic to Kolkata port is slated to rise considerably. Kolkata has
already seen a spurt in real estate and service sector industries, especially IT & ITES
industries. The IT & ITES industries have been growing at around 100 percent per annum.
The IT and ITES have opened up vast possibility of introducing e-governance in ULBs and
also in management of infrastructure. The comparative edge of West Bengal in this area
reinforces the possibilities. A number of steps in this direction have already been initiated by
the ULBs. The municipal accounting system is undergoing a total overhaul.
Another major area of departure in the arena of urban policy has been that of enlisting private
sector participation in infrastructure development and management. The State Governments
Policy on Infrastructure Development through Public Private Partnership (PPP) has been a
notable step in this direction. The PPP Policy provides for participation of private sector in
development and management of power, telecommunication, transport including roads,
bridges, flyover, waterways, ports, airports, water supply, drainage & sanitation, township &
area development, housing & commercial complexes, recreational projects etc.
5.2.5.

The Perspective Plan has been prepared taking the information and data that
supported the Plan preparation process and it broadly included information systems and the
norms, standards and assumptions. These have been worked out in detail for preparation of
the Plan, based on the baseline data collected for the city.
a.
Information system
The information system requires both spatial and non-spatial information/ data for the
preparation of Plan. Spatial information included urban sprawl, spatial and settlement pattern
over the decades which have been mapped. Non spatial information includes demography,
economic profile, housing units, etc. Major baseline data and analysis included the following.
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Urbanization and demography:

Population and its trend
Sex ratio; age sex distribution
Migrant population, migrants distribution, their origin, economic activities
Level of urbanization- in %( decadal)
Density
Decadal Growth for the past 4 decades
Details of administrative units, area and population
Urban sprawl data
Economic profile
State domestic product (SDP) in West Bengal and KMA by major sectors
Annual average growth rate of SDP for KMA and West Bengal by major sectors
Distribution of non- agricultural establishments Registered employment
Labour output ratios
No. of industries (large and medium), Investments
Rate growth of SDP in tertiary sector
Traffic and Transportation

Movements of passengers within KMA
Traffic volume count data
Movement pattern of different categories of vehicular traffic
Housing
Existing number of housing units
Size of household and size of house
b. Norms, standards and assumptions
Norms and standards

The norms and standards have been laid down for health and water supply.
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Health:
As per the recommendations of the KMPC, there shall be a Municipal level Health and
Family Welfare Committee in each ULB (except Kolkata Municipal Corporation Area)
which will function under the supervision of the district Health and Family Welfare Samiti.
The Municipal level health and family welfare committee would be responsible for
coordination, supervision and implementation of all the health activities in an integrated
manner at different levels of health infrastructure, and the committee should participate in all
public health programmes and activities.
Water supply:
Supply norms as per the Master Plan, i.e. supply in Kolkata Municipal Corporation Area
should be 200 lpcd, in Howrah Municipal Corporation Area-150 lpcd, in Municipal and nonmunicipal areas-135 lpcd. In order to satisfy the demand of industrial, commercial and
institutional uses from the proposed water system, 10% allowance over the estimated
domestic demand has been made. Demand for floating population has been considered @5
lpcd
Assumptions
In absence of adequate data related to the demographic variable like fertility, migration for
the KMA as well as age-sex distribution, it is difficult to estimate future population using the
various demographic methods mostly known. Therefore several alternative mathematical
projections were applied to determine the future population of KMA using various functions.
For calculating the projected employment scenario in Kolkata Metropolitan Area, it has been
reasonably assumed that the employment elasticity would register a gradual increase from
the.17 to 0.18 in 2007, then to .20 in 2011, and further to 0.25 by 2025. The underlying
explanation for the assumptions being that tertiary sector activities are expected to experience
a rapid growth, faster than that of the secondary sector, which would help create increasing
employment opportunities as the employment absorption of the tertiary sector is generally
high.
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5.2.6.
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The components of the Vision document 2025 are as follows:
Physical Aspects
a.
Settlement pattern and Land use
The Perspective Plan 2025 document gives strategies for using urban land efficiently in a
planned manner .The Control of use and development of land is being exercised under West
Bengal Town and Country (Planning and Development) Act 1979, under which the Land Use
and Development Control plan has been published. Also, under the Urban Land use (ceiling
and regulation) Act, 1976, the objective is to ensure that the vacant land, including cultivable
land, wasteland, water bodies etc. never becomes less than 33% of the total land.
It has been the policy of the state government that in all the new development projects, it
shall be necessary to ensure that the land is available for the economically weaker sections
and low income groups of people for housing purposes
b.
Shelter
These are the indicators used for working out the housing needs
Existing housing deficit
Availability of land, provision of infrastructure in the area
Natural topography.
The supply of housing needs has been worked out in totality and the break up has not been
detailed out. The plan has presented the status and number of low income settlements and
under privileged population also but the proposals do not give any details.
c.
Infrastructure
Water supply
For Kolkata Metropolitan area, a detailed sectoral Master Plan on water supply has been
prepared. Vision 2025 focuses on the different water supply schemes and the supply norms
has been worked out according to the area, but the basis on how this has been worked out is
not mentioned. For KMA, the present daily water supply is 135 lpcd-200 lpcd. Supply of
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treated surface water is to be provided within KMA as far as practicable by replacing the non
dependable ground water source where it exists. It also states the need for equal water supply
to whole of KMA without any division. It has been also recommended that the pricing of
water has to be conceived as a powerful tool to the service provided for sustainable
management. In the pricing and tariff, the slum areas and bustees and the paying capacity of
these people have been kept in mind and accordingly subsidized as compared to the normal
tariffs.
Drainage
The Perspective Plan stresses the need for KMA to be divided into 25 nos. of drainage
basins, and that all municipal towns should be sewered by 2025.The Plan also takes into
consideration the various drainage basins. Wetlands have also been emphasized in the plan

The plan has specified that all the local bodies shall prepare a long term plan for waste
management within a definite time frame so that SWM can cover all the municipalities by
2025 (100% area). Treatment plant at Haldia will cover entire hazardous waste generated in
West Bengal by BOT system. The plan does not give the location of solid waste disposal
sites. The plan talks about integration of informal sector by allowing unorganized rag
pickers/ waste collectors to work as waste collectors under registered NGO's/ private parties
if they so desire. It also states that NGOs/ private parties/ registered waste collectors shall be
appointed for door to door collection of segregated biodegradable and recyclable waste on
payment basis.
Education
The plan gives recommended strategies but lacks data like hierarchy, number and distribution
and also spatial information.
Health
The Perspective Plan has stated the policies and strategies for this sector as recommended by
the committee. The recommendations cover the wards where the health care centres should
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be set up, the hierarchy and type. Special consideration for the urban poor and the facilities
for them have been mentioned.
d.
Urban Form
The plan does not mention any urban design framework for the city level as a whole. The
plan mentions that in lieu of the high growth rate of KMA "dispersal of population is a must
and planning should be done accordingly through a settlement pattern that may even spill
beyond the boundary of KMA, to accommodate the projected population of 21.05 million by
2025. Alternatively, further extension of the boundary in a progressive manner may be
necessary ".The Plan mentions important considerations to be kept in mind for the future
metropolitan structure of KMA, some of them are
Balanced distribution of centers within the KMA area
Availability of predominantly vacant land masses with favourable topography, road
linkages and drainage facilities
Development programmes of the state and central governments w.r.t transport,

trading centres etc.
Environmental considerations
Control of unplanned urban sprawl in the urban fringe areas
To provide areas for holding increased population and to generate space for social
and economic infrastructures for production and employment generation in a planned
manner
Present trend of urban development with participation of public and private sector
The spatial structure of the metropolis has been conceived in the form of the following, i.e
hierarchy of centres (i.e. metro centre, metro sub- centre, major centre and the trans-metro
city centre), industrial centers, new settlement areas and industrial growth centres.
Vision 2025 focuses on the Central Business districts and central areas of Kolkata which are
suffering from extreme congestion which in turn has resulted in loss of efficiency. The
CBDs will be revitalized and modernized through conservation surgery. The programme of
urban renewal includes restructuring of land use of the central area by removing certain nonconforming uses, shifting of institutions that need not be located within the CBD, promotion
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of compatible economic activities in the CBD, improvement
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and strengthening
the
infrastructure facilities in the CBD.

The Land Use and Development Control Plan for the Calcutta Municipal Corporation area is
a legal document prepared under the West Bengal Town and Country Planning Act, which
serves as a tool for the Kolkata Municipal Corporation area which gives guidelines for land
use and control, building byelaws, preservation and conservation of areas and buildings,
thus maintaining the urban form of the area
e.
Built Heritage
At city level, heritage buildings and precincts requiring preservation and conservation for
historical, architectural, environmental or ecological point of view has been identified for the
Kolkata Municipal orporation area by the LUDCP document
Natural resources: A committee has been constituted for formulating the guidelines for the
preparation of a Management Plan for the East Kolkata Wetland Area. The KMPC
recommends guidelines and development controls which are as follows - the land use
patterns have to be recorded on plot to plot after ground verification, and the whole area
under the East Kolkata wetland systems shall be classified into 5 major land use sector
namely wetland, agricultural land, garbage farming urban/rural settlements and
added/peripheral sectors.
Urban Environmental Quality

Air Pollution: In Kolkata, National Environmental Engineering Research Institute has been
entrusted with the National Ambient Air Quality Monitoring Programme, while in Haldia
and Howrah the state board has been entrusted with this responsibility. The vision document
lists down the actions to be taken for controlling of air pollution and automobile pollution
control.
Water Pollution: The Perspective Plan highlights the importance of the Ganga Action Plan
and the various actions that need to be taken for control of water pollution, i.e. provision of
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sewer connections for individual houses in the towns covered under the Ganga action Plan,
ban on indiscriminate tapping of ground water, introduction of rainwater harvesting,
scientific management of municipal solid waste, scientific management of biomedical wastes
and hazardous wastes.
Disaster Management: No strategy has been mentioned with respect to flooding and
cyclonic disasters that have occurred in Kolkata. Vision 2025 only highlights chronic Arsenic
toxicity due to drinking arsenic contaminated water which has caused one of the biggest
health hazards in this region. Thus a committee on Arsenicosis prevention, Management and
control Programme has now been constituted. Actions to be taken for mitigation of Arsenic
contamination include
Identification of Arsenic contaminated as well as safe sources
Ground Water legislation
Change of cropping pattern
Upgradation of traditional water harvesting system
Exploitation of deep aquifers
Conjunctive use of ground and surface water
Arsenic removal measure and safe disposal of arsenic sludge
Task force should ensure effective community participation
There has not been any attempt to identify the vulnerable communities and Disaster Risk
Management programmes.
Social Aspects
Throughout the vision document, the plan has also included marginalized groups, i.e.
women, children, slums and urban poor in its various sectors. Almost one third of KMAs
population lives in slums. All urban development programmes would attempt to reach the
poor directly so that their accessibility to basic urban service, including primary health,
education, employment and community development can be ensured. KMPC Sector
Development Plan for Slums has been given priority attention.
There are also many schemes for providing self-employment for the unemployed, and also
for the development of women and children in the city.
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Affordable technology is discussed as a policy matter in the Master Plan. In all the urban
development programmes, attempts should be made to choose the technology in such a
manner that the same is affordable by the local community.
Economic Aspects
The prospects of employment in the primary sector, secondary sector (eg. Food processing,
IT and ITES, jute production, leather production etc) and tertiary sector have been analysed
in the Perspective Plan. Employment projection has been done for the years of 2010, 2021
and 2015 It has been assumed that the tertiary sector activities in Kolkata are expected to
experience growth, faster than that of secondary sector, which would help create an
increasing employment opportunities as the employment absorption potential of tertiary
sector is generally high.
The Perspective Plan has also mentioned promotion of labour intensive methods of
production in industries in general and encouragement of small-scale industries and selfemployment activities in particular. The plan lays down strategies for employment generation
by the KMPC Sector Committee also.
The plan talks about the development of the city economy in terms of the various sectors i.e.
primary, secondary and tertiary, and the prospects in each sector, thus incorporating the
concept of economic sustainability. It however does not talk of local economic development.
5.2.7.
INVESTMENT PLAN
The Perspective Plan document has listed a number of recommended short-term
investment plans according to the different sectors- traffic and transportation, water supply,
drainages, sewerage and sanitation, environment, wetland and heritage. 64 short term
investment plans have been recommended as part of the plan under these different heads
Traffic and transportation- 15 Plans; Total budget is Rs. 1252.51 crores
Water supply- 16 Plans ;Total budget is Rs. 1252.5 crores
Drainage, Sewerage and Sanitation- 6 plans; Total budget is Rs.2537 crores
Environment-27 plans; Total budget is Rs. 5419.8 crores
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5.2.8.
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The acute primacy of Kolkata and imbalanced distribution of urban population across
the state not only affected the economy and urban structures of West Bengal but has also
proved to be detrimental to healthy and orderly development of the metropolis. In the late
seventies the Government of West Bengal moved towards a policy of decentralised urban
development.
To develop small and medium towns and growth centres of the state so that they can
play appropriate role in discharging urban functions and thus reducing the unhealthy
dependence on the metropolis,
The municipal towns within the CMA are to be properly developed so that there may
be dispersal of activities from the metropolitan core to other areas within the metropolis,
Devolution of power to the local bodies has been attempted in the districts and also in
metropolitan areas for the purpose of planning, development and management functions is in
terms of 73rd and 74th amendments of the Constitution of India.
It is important to note that the rapid growth of large cities during the last decades including
that in Kolkata has resulted in problems of crowding, congestion, squalor and deprivation.
This requires sustained efforts of planning and development in right direction over the future
years. There is still a huge backlog of accumulated deficits in the infrastructure facilities and
services that will have to be wiped out. A massive programme has to be undertaken to
expand the infrastructure facilities and services for supporting the new growth. Millions of
people will have to be provided with shelter, civic services, health and education facilities
and millions of jobs would have to be generated.
KMDA has already prepared plans for the proposed spatial frame of development in KMA,
broadly indicating the locations of nodal centers of settlement, conservation and preservation
areas, distribution of infrastructure development across the entire metropolis. Within the
overall metropolitan structure, a number of centers have been identified for developing the
future settlement in a planned and controlled manner as far as possible depending upon
allocated population on the basis of gross land holding capacity of KMA Possible spatial
structure for settlement of the spill-over population has also been conceptualised as far as
possible on the basis of available data and information. Protection, preservation and
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conservation of prime agricultural land and wetland including large water bodies has been
considered from environmental and ecological points of view, while suggesting the
settlement pattern for KMA for 2025. Future transport network plan has been prepared
integrating the principal modes of transport in KMA, the road network, the railways and the
waterways have also been planned to suit appropriately the suggested settlement pattern.
It has thus been resolved that all urban development programme would attempt to reach the
urban poor directly so that their accessibility to basic urban services, including primary
health, education, employment and community development, can be ensured.
Action has already been taken at the state level for improving the conditions of small and
medium towns. This would be continued and sustained.
The first initiative towards decentralized urban planning and development in KMA was taken
up during CUDP-III under the Municipal Development Program in 1983. The local bodies
have been strengthened with financial and human resources to respond effectively to the new
tasks. The overall monitoring, coordination, appraisal and evaluation of the total programme
has, however, been done by CMDA. This process will be continued in future. Given the size
and magnitude of urban problems of KMA, the investment need is quite high.
This is proposed to be achieved through the following measures.
Two types of financing, Capital and Revenue, are generally involved in implementation and
sustenance of urban development programmes. As for capital financing for infrastructure
development, the revenue earning implication of which are limited, plan/budgetary outlay
would continue to be a major source of capital financing. Besides this, loans from financial
institutions and international donor agencies have been found to be alternative sources of
capital finances. With increasing scarcity of resources at the disposal of public sector as well
as the international donor agencies, and also with the difficult financial viability related
conditionalities of the financial institutions, private sector participation is increasingly being
viewed as a source of infrastructure financing. As the financing sources increasingly take the
form of capital loans rather than capital grants, the question of debt service is becoming
important.
Given that cost recovery from infrastructure services has limited scope, especially in a
metropolis with a good deal of urban poor, it is necessary to design cost recovery mechanism
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in a manner that the very strategy of targeting urban poor for delivery of rudimentary basic
services is not adversely affected.
From this point of view, the projects may be categorized under three groups:
The projects that may permit recovery of cost involving O&M and debt service
obligations leading to generation of surplus funds;
Projects where full cost recovery is not feasible, but the operation and maintenance
cost may be met through collection of user charges;
Projects where collection of user charges and cost recovery will not be feasible.
Nonetheless, it is imperative to gradually get into the regime of cost recovery and design
service specific user charges structure, subject to protecting the interest of urban poor, and
also enforce such regime without impunity.
Role of ULBs: The ULBs will need to take all efforts to improve their revenue base. Apart
from improving collection from property tax, the mainstay of municipal income, and other
fees and taxes, special attention towards levy and collection of service specific user charges
needs to be provided. Both the Central and the State Governments will have to provide
adequate budgetary support for meeting the investment needs of CMA. The State
Government will have to allocate more funds out of the State Plan for meeting the cost of
development projects in the CMA. It would also be necessary for the Governments to
provide as much grant support as possible as in most cases of infrastructure development,
cost recovery is not likely to be enough for debt servicing against loan funds.
a.
Interface Between CDP and Perspective Plan
A comparison of both the CDP and the Perspective Plan for KMA reveals that the vision of
the CDP has been created in the background of the Vision Document, and all the
development plans have been prepared as such. Both the CDP and the Vision Document has
been prepared for the same area boundary i.e. KMA
Both documents have specified the same Strategies for development, i.e. Through
Decentralized Urban Planning and Development, Protection and conservation of
Environment and Heritage, Targeting the Urban Poor for redistributive justice, Sustainability,
Promotion of Economic Growth, Urban Land Use Policy, Development of Infrastructure,
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Resource Mobilization, Private sector participation in Infrastructure Development,

Affordable Technology. JnNURM is set to provide opportunities for mobilization of
resources for basic infrastructure development that will be necessary for realization of the
vision and the goals. The concept of revolving fund under JnNURM would help achieve
sustainability, one of the prime strategies, in facilitating operation and maintenance of assets
to be created under JnNURM. In this context, the requirement of reform Agenda under
JnNURM would also play a crucial role in achieving the sustainability strategy of the
Perspective Plan document
The city Investment Plan in The CDP has listed Sector specific investment proposed for the
1st five years in KMA, and these projects are in accordance to the recommended Short term
Investment Plans as listed in the Perspective Plan. The estimated costs of projects also match.
Recommended projects in the Perspective Plan have been detailed out in the CDP, with the
estimated costs also. But since CDP is a short term project, it totally lacks a very important
aspect of review and monitoring of the implementation of plan. Thus the CDP of KMA has
been prepared under the background of the Perspective Plan, since we can infer that the
strategies for achieving the vision are also the same in both cases. The role of JnNURM and
the CDP in this case has been to facilitate the operation of the projects and finance it.
b.
Public Participation
The planning exercise for the Perspective Plan was scanned by the elected peoples
representatives constituting the Kolkata Metropolitan Planning Committee (KMPC) and their
recommendations were incorporated in the plan. The formation of the KMPC, the first of its
kind in India, has strengthened the process of democratically decentralized Urban Planning.
As laid down under the JnNURM, 2/3rd are elected members, 1/3rd are nominated members.
Out of the elected members, 34 representatives are from urban areas out of which 14 are
from the Kolkata Municipal Corporation. The remaining 20 seats are from the other 40
municipalities.
The Perspective Plan document is still in its draft stage and has not been published yet to the
public for objections and hearings. In case of the Land Use and Development control Plan,
the draft Plan was made open for Public hearings and then after getting approval by the
government, the draft Document was published for public hearings and objections.
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5.3.
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Following are the criticisms and suggestions received during the Interviews and
Round Table Discussion with various stakeholders held at Kolkata in December 2009.
Comments
The Perspective Plan document has been prepared in accordance with the 74th Amendment.
Even though the 74th amendment is a bottom-up approach, but in reality, ground level
problems are not addressed. Peoples aspirations are ignored. It was also commented that
peoples participation in the plan has not been adopted in its true sense.
Perspective Plan is not a statutory document as is not a published and notified document; it is
still at a draft stage. It could be a policy document for 2025, but not a master plan. Under the
Town and Country Planning Act 1979 the statutory document at present is Land Use
Development Control Plan 1995 (LUDCP).Yet this plan is concerned only with the physical
aspects e.g. Land use zoning, regulations, development controls etc. This Plan is not a master
plan.
In case of Indian cities, high population density, huge unemployment goes hand in hand with
bad planning and worse politics. There is a sharp duality / stark contrast visible in planned
cities with respect to the informal sector. Thus even though this sector cannot be anticipated
or planned for formally, provision should be made for them in our plans because the Indian
economy depends a lot on it. Also, Planning authorities do not realize the significance of
urban design.
Criticisms on the Master plan

The Plan: Master Plan is a rigid document, planned for 20-25yrs. There is a long gap
between present and the future perception. The transition period is not considered. Because
of this it is often a back-dated and a speculative document.
Legislation: The town planning acts which are prevalent in various cities are actually not
followed. According to the TP acts, the plan would be published and adopted after hearing
public objections. LUDCP (future land use / zoning plan) requires going through publication,
objections and formal adoption.
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Violation of Plan: Public departments are the biggest violators of the plan. During the
interim period, different departments keep doing different work. The proposed plan does not
reflect these realities, thus becomes a static document with 2 time periods present and
proposed. We cannot take care of the future demand of infrastructure as the state departments
such as Roads, Railways, keep making their own Master plans, programs and policies. Thus,
the Master Plan becomes only a physical plan, often neglecting these city networks.
Suggestions
It is necessary to prepare a document / approach addressing real problems logically in a
scientific method, i.e. a plan where a Conservative Approach and Inclusive planning is
adopted a plan that is more people centric. Also, Decentralization in the Administrative
Machinery is needed which will help to address Trans-borough, trans-ward, trans-municipal
issues at higher levels.
The alternative to the Master Plan is a better Master Plan. For Indian cities, we need to
understand our capabilities, demands and social conditions. Primacy of the city needs to stop
and capital centers can be shifted. Our Master Plans need to be grounded to realities of Indian
Urbanism. Also we need paradigm shifts; one of the paradigm shifts could be Accountability
of the Informal sector, with respect to demographic growth, housing needs and economic
profile. One needs to design sensitively.
We need planning at the micro level. In India, there is concept of only singular plan,
however, in the West, in case of development projects, various optional plans are created.
Only after the public review, one of the options is selected. Communicative Planning could
be an alternative. Having a dialogue with the people you are planning for and responding to
the needs will make a plan closer to realities.
Transformative Planning could be another possibility. For e.g. bringing in issues of ecology
in a transformative sense, such as climate change, sustainability, combining ecology, equity
and thereby reducing cost. There is also a need of an over-arching autonomous design body
like Delhi Urban Arts Commission (DUAC) introduced in every city which is answerable
directly to the PMO. Urban Design checks are required for long term harmonious growth of
the city. It is needed to identify and define the purpose of the Master Plan. For new towns we
need a master plan. Aspects like planning horizon and planning cycle are very important
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which are not followed very strictly. If the plan is prepared for a long time frame, a review
should be done in maximum 5yrs. This should be a regular task. The Plan document should
be flexible, phased out and have a price tag (Future financial requirements). Thus, a
successful plan should be financially, environmentally, socially and politically sustainable.
5.4.
CONCLUSION
Perspective Plan is not a statutory document as it is still at its draft stage and has
not been open for public hearings and opinions. Even though this plan has been prepared
under the purview of the 74th Constitutional Amendment by the KMDA and a Metropolitan
Committee (KMPC) has also been elected for recommendations and suggestions, yet the
question of whether this plan addresses the real needs of the people still remains. Public
participation, in this case, has not been fully exercised.
The vision in the Perspective Plan has talked about sustainability through provision of urban
services. It has also incorporated the aspect of inclusivity in the vision. Yet the aspect of
sustainable social environment leaves a lot to be desired, because it means not only
sustainable economy but should also include safety and security. The vision does not give an
insight into the aspect of the informal sector. Issues like heritage conservation and sensitivity
towards environment have been discussed, yet the vision misses out on what Kolkata aspires
for as a megacity in this age of globalization. Pressing emerging issues such as climate
change and disaster management have not been dealt with in the Perspective Plan document.
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CriticalAppraisalofPlanningFrameworkinCaseStudyCity:Mumbai
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Chapter 6 MUMBAI
6.1
CITY PROFILE
6.1.1

Mumbai (known as Bombay until 1996) is located on the west coast of India, in the state
of Maharashtra, facing the Arabian Sea and is the capital of the state of Maharashtra. It is the
financial and commercial capital of India. The Mumbai Metropolitan Region extends over an
area of 4355 sq. km and comprises Municipal Corporations of Greater Mumbai, Thane, Kalyan,
Navi Mumbai and Ulhasnagar; 15 municipal towns; 7 non-municipal urban centers; and 995
villages. The Metropolitan of Greater Mumbai has a high level of rapid urban growth,
commercialization and industrialization. Major highways that terminate at Greater Mumbai are
NH8 and NH3. Mumbai is a mega city and the largest city in India with a population of 11.99
million (2001 census).
6.1.2

The city of Mumbai was originally a cluster of seven islands, which were of volcanic
origin. There is an evidence to show that these seven islands were inhabited since the Stone
Age. The East India Company started development of Mumbai as a naval base, which
subsequently metamorphosed as a large port with flourishing trade and commerce. The first
cotton textile mill was established in Mumbai in 1854 marking the beginning of an industrial
era in the history of Mumbai. With rapid growth and industrialization, there was a need for
civic services and local Government. The Mumbai Municipal Corporation Act was
introduced by the British Government in the year 1888. Thereafter at successive intervals
various legislations were introduced and various schemes were undertaken to improve
quality of civic life and also to ensure planned growth of the city. At the same time, as the
city developed into commercial capital of the country, there was large-scale influx of
migrants into the city.
AlternativeApproachestoDevelopmentPlanSchoolofPlanningandArchitecture
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Mumbai has a peculiar geography, a narrow wedge-shaped land surrounded by waters on

three sides that has for decades dictated its spatial growth. While the early growth of Mumbai
took place in the south near the port, it spread northwards along the suburban rail corridors.
Till 1968, most of the urban growth was confined to the municipal limits, i.e. Greater
Mumbai through it had begun to occur in Thane, Kalyan and surrounding areas beyond
Greater Mumbai. In the post 1968 period along with Mumbais suburbs, the growth occurred
in Thane, Kalyan, Mira-Bhayander, Navi Mumbai and Vasai-Virar areas. This led to increase
in the built-up area from 234 sqkm in 1968 to 575 sqkm in 1987.
The urban built-up area of the Greater Mumbai region accounts for about 12 percent of the
Regions total area. Most of this growth has taken place by conversion of agricultural land or
by reclamation of wetlands. Despite rapid urban sprawl of the past few decades, agriculture
still accounts for the largest land use in the region accounting for 42% of its area. About 26
percent of the regions area is covered by forestlands, which are relatively well protected.
Greater Mumbai has witnessed rapid growth of built-up area during the past four decades
1971 to 2001. The built-up area has more than doubled during this period from about 25% in
1971 to about 52% in 2001. The shift in land cover is primarily from coastal wetlands and
forest/agricultural lands. Coastal wetlands have experienced substantial decrease from about
29% in 1971 to 19% in 1991. Similarly the land under forests (reserved Sanjay Gandhi
National Park) and agriculture/plantations (Madh Gorai areas) have reduced from 32% in
1971 to 19 per cent in 2001. The conversion of wetlands to built-up areas occurred largely
(up to 15% of total land) during 1971 to 1991 while during 1991 to 2001, substantial areas
(up to 12% of the total land) of forests/plantations were converted to built-up areas of
residential and commercial uses.
The prominent heritage structures in Mumbai include the Gateway of India, the Central
Library, the Sailor's Home, the Crawford Market, C.S.T. Railway Station, Municipal Head
Office, the High Court, King Edward Memorial Hospital & Seth G.S.Medical College,
Mumbai University, Veer Jijimata Bhonsale Udyan, Dr.Bhau Daji Lad Museum and Kanheri
/ Mahakali Caves. The importance of heritage of Greater Mumbai has been acknowledged by
the local and state govt. and thus, they have been taking necessary steps in conserving the
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built heritage of the city, such as enforcing the Heritage Conservation Act 1995 through
amendment in the DCR, listing of heritage buildings, conservation measures in the old city
areas, etc. Apart from the built heritage, Mumbai also has a bounty of natural heritage in
form of coastal wetlands and forest areas, marshes and other ecologically rich areas. The
Sanjay Gandhi National Park with its 3 lakes and the Wetland along the eastern coast of
Mumbai are such areas.
6.1.3

Mumbai is a mega city and the largest city in India with a population of 11.99 million
(2001 census). The city experienced substantial growth rates during 1950 to 1981 due to high
levels of industrial development and growth in the suburban areas of Greater Mumbai
jurisdiction. The population growth during the last two decades has been moderate at about
1.8 to 1.9 per cent per annum, primarily due to an economic slowdown and saturation in
population densities in the island city area of Greater Mumbai. The population growth in the
city is largely constituted by the growth in suburban areas; over two-thirds of the citys
population resides in the suburbs. The city witnesses significant migration every year. Over
the past five decades, migration contributed 17% to the increase in population in 1981-91.
Between1971-81, migration had contributed 47% to the increase in population. 54% of
Mumbais population lives in about 1950 slums which are located both on public and private
lands and lack basic services
Mumbai Metropolitan Region accounts for about USD 15 billion out of Maharashtras
economy (NSDP) of about USD 37 billion about 40% of the total size of the states
economy. Greater Mumbai alone contributed about USD 10 billion to the states economy.
Mumbai contributes to 33% of income tax collections, 60% of customs duty collections, 20%
of central excise tax collections, 40% of Indias foreign trade and a significant quantum to
corporate taxes. Although the city of Mumbai has prominently figured as the hub of
economic activity in the nineties, one is witnessing the reduction in contribution of MMR
districts to Indias GDP. The GDP growth in Greater Mumbai is surprisingly low at 2.4 per
cent per annum (1998-2002). And this slowdown has undoubtedly affected the growth of
Maharashtra, since Mumbai and its surrounding regions contribute over 35 per cent of the
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state's GDP. Mumbai, at present, is in reverse gear, as regards the economic growth and
quality of life.
6.1.4
LEGAL FRAMEWORK
The Development Plan is prepared by the Municipal Corporation of Greater Mumbai
under the Maharashtra Region and Town Planning Act, 1966. (Refer Annexure III)
6.1.5
JURISDICTIONS
Mumbai Metropolitan Region (MMR) comprises Municipal Corporations of Greater
Mumbai, Thane, Kalyan, Navi Mumbai and Ulhasnagar; 15 municipal towns; 7 nonmunicipal urban centers; and 995 villages. Its administrative limits cover Mumbai City and
Mumbai Suburban Districts, and parts of Thane and Raigad District. The MMR is 4355 sqkm
bounded by the Tansa River in the north, the Patalganga River in the south, the Arabian Sea
on the West and the Sahyadri ranges in the East. Greater Mumbai is divided into 2 districtsMumbai City District (67.79 km) and Mumbai Suburban District (370 sq. km). Greater
Mumbai has 24 wards and there are 40 Planning Authorities in the Region that are
responsible for the micro-level planning of the different areas.
6.1.6
PLANNING PROCESS
Municipal Corporation of Greater Mumbai (MCGM) had its first Development Plan
for the period 1967 to 1977. Subsequently a Revised Development Plan for the period of
1981 to 2001 was prepared by MCGM. The Revised Development Plan was sanctioned in
parts between 1991 and 1993, for the period 1991 to 2013. This sanctioned Revised
Development Plan is the guiding plan for spatial development of Mumbai till 2013. The
Revised Development Plan was prepared taking into cognizance many of the critical
problems faced during the earlier Development Plan of 1967-77.
Customized planning standards pertaining to population density, FSI, open space
provisioning, primary education & health facilities, etc. were established by the Urban
Development Department of the State Government, considering availability of land for the
island city, suburbs and extended suburb areas. There is an attempt to address the
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implementation through the Development Control Regulations (DCR) incorporating

innovative mechanisms for resource mobilization such as Accommodation Reservation,
Transfer of Development Rights for lands under reservations and also for built-up amenities,
allowing commercial / residential user on industrial lands by insisting on amenity spaces for
the additional population. Also, provision was made in MRTP Act, 1966 for collection of
development charges on lands as well as buildings so as to create a fund for implementation
of the Development Plan. The DCR also incorporated higher FSI for Urban Renewal
Schemes, redevelopment of old and dilapidated buildings and rehabilitation of slum dwellers.
Special provision has been made for the protection of environment along the beaches and the
development along this stretch has been restricted as provided under D.C. Regulations.
The Mumbai Metropolitan Region Development Authority (MMRDA) was set up in 1975, as
the planning and co-coordinating agency of the Mumbai Metropolitan Region (MMR) of
which the Mumbai Municipal Area is only a part. Also, the MHADA was set up to provide
housing in the Maharashtra state and works efficiently in Mumbai where housing is a major
issue.
The Slum Rehabilitation Authority (SRA) was set up in 1995 under the provisions of the
Maharashtra Slum Areas Act, 1971 with the Chief Minister of Maharashtra as Chairperson, a
senior IAS officer as full-time CEO and 14 other members. The SRA has the status of a
corporate entity from 1997. By amendment to the MRTP Act, 1966, it has been declared as a
planning authority, to function as a local authority for the slum areas under its jurisdiction. It
can survey slum areas, formulate schemes for slum rehabilitation and get them implemented.
As such, its work for slums relates to work done by MHADA and MCGM. But it enjoys a
privileged position, being a specialized body.
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Table 6.1: Evolution of Planning Process in Mumbai

Year
1872
1888
1898
1915
1948
1952
1954
Events
Bombay Municipal Corporation formed as Mumbai's fully autonomous
civic body.
Bombay Municipal Corporation Act was enacted by British Govt.
Creation of City Improvement Trust
Bombay Town Planning Act was enacted
First Development Plan was prepared by Er. Modak & Ar. Mayer.
Could not be enforced because the plan had no statutory backing under
any of the acts.
Suburban areas were merged with the MCGM
Mumbai Town Planning Act, 1954,replaced the earlier Act of 1915
1967
Maharashtra Town and Regional Planning Act, 1966 came into force.
1976
Urban Land (Ceiling & Regulation) Act, 1976 came into force
1991
Draft Second development plan was sanctioned ( some parts in 1993)
Source: Revised Development Plan 1981-2001, Greater Mumbai
The Development Plans: The Development Plan of Greater Mumbai started with
declaration of revision/ preparation of Development Plan. The Plan preparation started in
1976. For this firstly, an appraisal of earlier Development Plans and analysis of their
implementation status was carried out. Then a survey for the existing land use and building
conditions was carried out but detailed survey were carried out only for the Island city and
not entire Greater Mumbai, as Island city was considered as the most critical area in the city.
Then the preparation of Draft Development Plan started and it was ready by 1983-84 which
was put in public domain for their suggestions. After this, the Development Plan was
finalized in 1986. Then the Plan was sent to the State Govt. for sanctioning and its rules got
approved by 1991 and the Plan got approved only by 1993 and then was published in the
Government Gazette. The Plan took a long time to get approval which made the
Development Plan outdated and a dead document. Then Implementation of the Plan started
through Development Control Regulations.
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Table 6.2: Chronology of Plan documents in Mumbai

Year of
Notification/
Publication
Perspective
Period
1964
1964-1981
1973
1970-1991
Second Development
Plan
1986
1981-2001
Second Development
Plan extended
1993
1991-2013
1999
1996-2011
2007
2007-2013
PLAN
First Development
Plan
First Regional Plan
Regional Plan
Planning Area
MCGM area
Mumbai Metropolitan
Region
MCGM area
MCGM area
Mumbai Metropolitan
Region
MCGM area
Preparing
Organisation
Municipal Corporation
of Greater Mumbai
Bombay Metropolitan
Regional Planning
Board
of Greater Mumbai
of Greater Mumbai
Mumbai Metropolitan
Region Development
Authority
of Greater Mumbai
Source: Revised Development Plan 1981-2001, Greater Mumbai
6.2
CRITICAL APPRAISAL OF DRAFT DEVELOPMENT PLAN 1981-2001
6.2.1
VISION, AIM AND OBJECTIVES

The Municipal Corporation of Greater Mumbai is responsible for formulation of
vision, aim and objectives for the city but it has not been formulated while the Development
Plan was prepared. It is seen that the Development Plan has been prepared only to
accommodate the growth in the city, for which calculations have been done and proposals
have been made. It is important for a plan to have a vision for the city it is planning for, as it
helps in understanding what exactly the city needs and should be planned for. The aim and
objectives help in realizing what needs to be achieved out of the planning intervention. Thus,
it can be said that the Mumbai Development Plan is incomplete without the vision, aim and
objectives.
6.2.2
The methodology adopted for the formulation of Revised Development Plan has been
to study the database of last four decades and prepare the two possible scenarios of proposals.
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For this, the trends in population have been the major focus and population projection is the
only projection done for development of the city and the rest of the aspects have been
assumed based on this. Population should be only one of the criteria to define cities. The
Govt. should have gone beyond the population, with respect to infrastructure, housing, etc.
which in sometimes better in a lot of villages than in the cities. Also, there is no justification
given in the Plan for adopting such a methodology. The Plan could also have conducted some
case studies across the world for development of the regional centre of a metropolis and
learnt from their experiences.
6.2.3
PLAN PREPARATION PROCESS

The Development Plan for Greater Mumbai had been prepared for a period of 20
years. This period is justifiable for a concept with respect to the Plan. But phasing of this is
required and setting up of short term objectives is required in this case which has not been
done for Greater Mumbai. The provisions made in the Maharashtra Regional and Town
Planning Act to prepare a Development Plan for the entire jurisdiction of Planning Authority
and submit to govt. for sanction and also revise the Plan at least once in 10 years after the
sanction are obligatory on the MCGM. The Act is framed on democratic setup involving the
public at every stage of plan preparation. The Plan has been prepared for MCGM area, i.e.,
Greater Mumbai but since the Plan is based on the Regional Plan, there is a section of the
Plan that talks in detail about the Mumbai region, i.e., the Metropolitan area. The Plan has
also mentioned the authorities responsible for various aspects in the city.
The primary agency responsible for urban governance and preparation of Plan for Greater
Mumbai is the Municipal Corporation of Greater Mumbai (MCGM). It is responsible for
provision of municipal services, provision of infrastructure including public transport and
supply of electricity. Its planning department is responsible for the Development Plan of the
City and enforcement of the Development Control Regulations. It is not directly involved in
public housing; however, it is responsible for providing basic amenities to slums, which are
encroaching on its own lands or other lands within its jurisdiction.
Pursuant to the 74th Constitutional Amendment Act (CAA), most of the 18 functions listed
under the 74th CAA find a place in the obligatory or the discretionary duties of the MCGM
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under the MMC Act with the exception of urban planning including town planning,
regulation of land use and construction of buildings.
6.2.4
CONCEPT
The Development Plan has not talked about the concept it has adopted for the city and
its plan preparation but it can be seen that it has followed the basic diagnostic theory of
Planning. It mainly concentrates on finding out the issues and the problems in the city and it
aims at accommodating the growth in the city. Based on this approach, the Plan has
identified various issues in the city and then has worked out the proposals for each of it.
Although, it has talked about regional development and also development of rural areas to
reduce inmigration in the city so as to reduce the demand of housing and other facilities in
the city. The Plan does talk about public participation and its importance in all the stages of
plan preparation and implementation. But it has not included the then evolving and the
current requirement of making a city sustainable. Thus, the Plan should have focused on
having a concept for development of the city, having an image or a vision for the city and not
just solving its problems. Having a concept for development also keeps the city integrated,
setting a base for development of city on the whole.
The salient features of the Sanctioned Revised Development Plan 1991 to 2013 are:
a. Creation of commercial centers at various places in suburbs to create job
opportunities near residences and decongest South Mumbai.
b. Shifting of wholesale markets from city to suburbs and even outside to Navi Mumbai
and ban on new office premises in city.
c. Reduction of FSI in the City to 1.33 for residential and commercial zones and 1.0 for
industrial zones.
d. Reduction in the area of industrial zone, MMRDA directed about 800 hectares of
industrial land to be placed in residential zone.
e. Upgrading the mass transportation system by developing North-South expressways,
East West connectors, etc.
f. Earmarking No Development Zone to serve for future development.
g. Laying down policies to satisfy the housing need within available resources.
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Analysis of the trend in Demography, land use, economic activities, housing, Traffic
& Transportation, Utilities and Services have been carried out.The Development Plan of
Greater Mumbai has considered some planning standards to work out development proposals
for the city. The Planning standards have been based on three factors, viz the population
threshold, space standards and accessibility standards. The population threshold has been
worked out in terms of minimum population which will support a particular amenity,
population of about 6,000 which can economically and physically support a primary school,
few convenient shops and a small park but cannot support higher grade facilities like
hospitals, cinema, theatre, college, etc.
Space standard indicates the amount of land needed for a particular facility and is prescribed
according to the category and functions of the amenities and facilities at different levels. It is
expressed in terms of area required for a particular facility. This is worked out on the same
principle as population and a particular amenity should be able to serve at the peak hour.
Accessibility standard is based on the catchment area of the facility considering the
maximum distance required to be travelled to utilize the facility. For example, location of
nursery schools should be such that the children dont have to travel more than km.
Thus, based on the above standards, the adequacy and inadequacy of a particular facility and
even the level of its utilization was tested. Then the Plan has explained the evolution of the
planning standards and then the various aspects for which standards have been considered or
made. They include recreational open spaces, primary schools, roads, markets, library, fire
station, cinema, theatres, cemeteries and burial grounds, shops, etc. The Plan has explained
about the various aspects but the standard on which the land use plan that forms the base of
implementation plan has not been mentioned. These standards included various norms at city
state and national level which help in the actual conversion of planning standards to planning
level and demand-supply gap level.
The major assumptions that lead to the preparation of the Development Plan for Greater
Mumbai were in the population projections. According to 1971 census, 40,000 households
were without any shelter and the plan has assumed it to have increased to 80,000 or more.
Similarly, the 1976 survey by Govt of Maharashtra said that the city has about 5.76 lakh
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hutments and the plan assumes that in 1981 it must have increased to 7 lakhs. In the housing
sector, some more assumptions have been made but there is not justified basis for these
assumptions and demand assessment cannot be done completely on the basis of such
assumptions.
6.2.6
ASSESSMENT OF NEEDS
a.
Population estimates, Density and Land Requirements: In Greater Mumbai, the
distribution of population is uneven. There is wide variation in densities from Central

Business District at the southern end of Island city to the north western part of metropolis
from maximum to minimum respectively. The maximum gross residential density is 3713
persons/ha in 1971 census in Bhuleswar division of Ward C. Similarly, the Plan has also
mentioned the next high densities in the city- ward and location wise. Also, a map has been
prepared showing the ward-wise density in the city. It has then identified the areas of
saturation, i.e., where densities have not changed between 1961 and 1971, as these areas do
not show any growth. In the suburbs, the gross density is as high as 873persons/ha,
immediately on the western side of Bandra railway station in H ward. It also says that the
density further decreases as we move towards the north. The Plan has then worked out the
residential densities in the city to have a clearer view of the situation in the city.
b.
Housing: To assess the housing stock required, the present deficiency in housed and
the additional tenements required to be constructed for housing the families to be displaced in
the course of implementation of the Development Plan as well as those to be re-housed due
to demolition of old buildings and due to the increase in families has been worked out in the
Plan. For this, considerations have been made also for the slum population which needs
major attention and also the dilapidated building which have low future life have been
considered. Rehabilitation which is required due to land acquisition also forms a part of the
assessment of housing need in the city.
The natural increase in population has also been considered but the consideration for migrant
population has not been done in the Plan. Migration is a major reason for development of
slums in metropolitan cities all around the world. Thus, it is crucial for a Plan to understand
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the migration trends and as the fact that as the city starts developing in terms of economy and
infrastructure, the population and the need for housing will automatically go up. The final
need calculated in the Plan based on all the above factors the housing need for Greater
Mumbai has been calculated as 19.4 lakhs households. This figure was not appropriate and
still the slum population in Greater Mumbai is more than 50%. Thus, it can be said that
insufficient factors have been considered for calculation of housing need and also there is no
strong base for these calculations.
6.2.7
Physical Aspects
a.
Settlement pattern
The settlement pattern and distribution of urban and rural population have been worked out
in the Development Plan for the metropolitan region of Mumbai. The Plan says that the
major towns in the Region are all located along the Bombay-Pune Railway Corridor and are
extended beyond Ambernath-Ulhasnagar. Only Bhivandi is not along the Railway lines and
is located on Bombay-Agra Road. The entire Salsette Island is almost uninterrupted
conurbation while the area beyond, falling within an open semi-circular ring skirting Virar,
Bhiwandi, Ambernath, Panvel and Uran contain almost all the urban population of the
region. The only urban settlements beyond this ring area Matheran, Karjat and Pen and
Alibag, which are comparatively small. Recently developed Thal-Vaishet Fertilizer Project
with petrochemical complex and proposed development of Nava Sheva Port has extended the
phenomenal growth of urban settlement in the otherwise peaceful areas of MMR. Of the total
urban population of the region which was 15.7 lakhs in 2001 census excluding Greater
Mumbai, the towns in this zone accounted for 10.37 lakhs, i.e., nearly 66% of the urban
population is outside Mumbai.
It is important to understand the location of the rural communities as the city was
expanding at that time and the rural communities need extra consideration to prevent them
from being converted into slums.
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Land utilization/ Landuse
The Development Plan says that land is the platform on which human activities function and
this is available in limited amount. Planning is therefore necessary in relation to the use and
development of land. The past experience emphasizes that the developments of any town
cannot and should not be left to chance. In order to plan future developments judiciously
subjecting the lands for best possible appropriate purposes, it is necessary first to collect and
analyze the existing land use data to assess whether we stand and tend to act. Further under
the provisions of Maharashtra Regional and Town Planning Act, it is obligatory on the part
of Municipal Corporation to carry out the existing land use survey for the entire area under
its jurisdiction and prepare the existing land use map within the stipulated period. It has also
stated the importance of land in the city and thus, the relation of FSI to land has been worked
out in the Development Plan. The Plan has stated the reasons for framing the land use plan
for the city as- determining predominant uses of localities, selecting sites for reservation of
public purposes by locating the uses in vacant land, determining the extent of nonconforming land uses with a view to providing for the rehabilitation, the existing amenities
available in the localities and the deficiencies, the extent of marshy lands and creek lands
needing reclamation, etc. Similarly, land use characters have been mentioned in the Plan and
the distribution of these land uses has been worked out to the ward level but a detailed land
use plan has not been prepared. The importance of relation between transportation and
various land uses has been mentioned in the Plan.
c.
Shelter
The Plan has talked about the history of housing supply in Greater Mumbai and established
the need to supply housing to the public. There was a survey conducted to calculate the life
of buildings in Island city as it had many old structures and also a ward wise distribution of
dilapidated structures was seen. The Island city had around 22% building with life lower than
5-15years. To understand the poor living conditions in the city due to in-migration, MCGM
also found out the average no. of persons per room for various no. of rooms in a household,
which reveals the overcrowding in areas where no. of rooms in a housing unit are 2 or less.
Also, the household density has been worked out and it is seen that it is maximum
(2130HH/ha) in Kalbadevi area in Island city.
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The Development Plan then focuses on classification of houses by material of roofs and walls
and by their uses (if there is a change in use, etc.). This gives a picture of the poor living
conditions in the city. A detailed analysis of the slums in the city has been done and rapid
industrialization has been identified as the major reason for people squatting in vacant land.
This is because of the inability of the government to provide for the adequate no. of dwelling
units as per the growing demand. Also, a classification of slums into these categories has
been done in the Plan, such as permanent, semi-permanent, and unauthorized temporary.
Maps of household density in Island city, location of slums in Greater Mumbai and
comparison of slum population with population in its respective ward have been attached in
the Development Plan.
The Plan has worked out the proposals and policy measures to be adapted to tackle the
problem of housing and the National Building Code standard for occupancy area of
12sqm/person has been adopted. There is a Reconstruction Board which is supposed to house
all the existing tenements in the existing area. The accommodation has to be provided to
meet the deficiencies and also house the families living in dilapidated buildings. It has also
been said that the Maharashtra Vacant Land Act, 1975 is not able to prohibit people from
squatting which is not happening. Urban renewal and upgradation of squatter settlements
have been identified as the two major economical solutions to poor living conditions. Other
than this, rehabilitation of hutment dwellers in areas where some other development is
proposed and sites and services projects which provide good housing at minimal prices to the
urban poor have also been identified as solutions to the problem of housing the poor in the
city. Also, there have been some amendments made in the various acts and policies in the
sector to facilitate provision of housing to the poor and also involvement of the private sector
for improved quality of service for the urban poor.
Thus, it is seen that the Plan has worked out housing sector in detail as it is one of the major
problems in the city. It emphasizes on provision of housing for all communities including the
Low-income communities and making it affordable for them. Thus, there is equitable
distribution of housing supply in the city. It is also seen that various indicators for poor
standards of living have been worked out in the Plan. The Plan has also worked out the
housing need in detail but there is not much justification for projection of housing for 2021.
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Infrastructure
The city is characterized by large infrastructure deficits- 2-6 hours of water supply, poor
condition of transmission and distribution system, 35% of households without sanitation, old
storm water drainage network which cannot take a rain intensity of more than 25 min/hour,
average travel speed (proxy for road efficiency) of 6-8 kms/hour, drainage capacity limited to
carrying 50% of the potential sewage. Thus, the city has a substantial decline in the quality of
life, attributing it to these deficits and growing number of people living in slums. There has
been little renewal or replacement of city based infrastructure, with the result that the city is
forced to manage with infrastructure assets which are aged and which operate at sub-optimal
efficiency.
The Development Plan has a section on access to services in the city which broadly includes
transportation, water supply, sanitation, fire brigade system and conservancy system, i.e.,
solid waste management. Other physical infrastructure aspects of electricity and drainage
have not been worked out in the Plan. Social infrastructure in Greater Mumbai has been
worked out in terms of health, education, recreation, utilities, commercial infrastructure, etc.
These aspects have been explained in the Development Plan:
Water Supply
Under the urban systems that the Plan has identified, water supply has been discussed for
Mumbai city. The importance of water supply for human settlements and the works that has
been commissioned in Greater Mumbai inspite of the financial constraints with the MCGM
has been mentioned in the Plan as an introduction to the issue of water supply. The Plan also
mentions about the history of water supply in Greater Mumbai with the details of all the
schemes, which is not important for a Development Plan. Then the Plan has discussed about
the current situation of water supply in Greater Mumbai in which the setting up of River
Bhatsai as the major sources of water for the city. The quantity of water available in the city
has been discussed but the per capita availability of water has not been worked out. Thus,
sector-wise distribution of water in the city is not really clear esp. availability of water in
slums, etc. The sources through which the local govt. will repay the loan for water supply
projects have been identified in the Plan. But it is seen that the Plan has not evolved as per
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the changing scenarios in the city also the latest technologies and the calculations as per the
demands in the city have not been worked out.
Sewerage and Sanitation

The Development Plan of Greater Mumbai has discussed the sewerage system. The Plan has
given various sewerage projects that have been taken up in the city in the two previous
development plans. The Plan has also discussed the cost of implementation of various
sewage system projects in the city right from 1971. Phasing of the implementation of the
sewerage system has been done in the Plan as 1981-1991 and 1991-2001. Zone-wise
distribution of sewage has been worked out in the Plan which is crucial from the point of
view of treatment systems and upgradation required in various zones and the capacity
required for discharging submarines. The major treatment plants were proposed in Marve,
Chembur and Bhandup with different capacities, other than the existing ones. In
Development Plan III, reuse of effluent from treated sewage was again in consideration and
finally zone-wise recommendations have been given such as installation of treatment plants
of the required capacity, the process of treatment and disposal, also including the type of
disposal which is partly landfill and partly discharging into the sea. The Development Plan
includes a map on the sewered and unsewered areas in the city and the years/ stages of
various development plans in which they were installed. A map showing sewage pumping
stations is also a part of the Development Plan for Greater Mumbai. The proposals of the
Development Plan include installing waste water management system in all the areas,
extension of submarine outfalls, sedimentation and sludge handling, chlorination of effluent
and expansion of aerated lagoons. The detailed cost estimates of installation and
improvement of sewage system in city have been given in the Plan zone-wise. The
distribution of sources of funds, i.e., foreign and local have also been worked out in the Plan.
One of the most important factor that is absent when the Plan talks about waste water
management is class-wise distribution of facility, i.e., no emphasis to access of the facility by
the low-income groups and slum areas has been given. Thus, it can be said that there is
unequal distribution of the facility among various sectors of the society.
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The Plan mentions the importance of sanitation in the city for good health and it establishes
the need to have a solid waste management system in the city, especially in the slums. For
this, the old situation of waste management in the city has been mentioned and the need for
its expansion, especially with the extension of the municipal boundary has been stated. The
Conservancy Board in the city handled the SWM system in Greater Mumbai. For waste
collection both dump to dump system and door to door system are being used in the city,
depending upon the localities. For this, location of temporary dumps and finding sweepers
has been discussed in the Development Plan. The disposal methods include landfill,
incineration and composting. These have been mentioned in the Plan. Also, the sites required
for them have been discussed in the Plan but this is not happening. The Plan has talked about
establishing a composting plant, but the composition of solid waste in the city has not been
worked out and there is no provision made for segregation of waste for various types of
treatments.
The major problems that have been identified in the Plan as inadequacy of transportation
system, labor problem, heavy influx of population creating slum spots, lack of civic sense in
an average citizen. The Plan has talked about the need of labor force to carry out the activity
of SWM and thus has built up chawls for 40% of its workers, making them a part of the
entire system. But there is no provision in the Plan for inclusion of the informal sector in the
field which is involved in a big way in Mumbai through rag-picking. It is important to
include them as they help in segregation of recyclable waste and if the govt. involves in the
same field, they can generate higher revenues out of it. With the expansion of the city, the
conservancy department is now called solid waste management department. One of the
important points that the Plan makes is that the existing facilities should not be disturbed
unless any alternate site suitable for department smooth working is assured and available.
The Development Plan has given details on the refuse dumping grounds in Greater Mumbai
which include their ownership, total area, whether in use or not, etc. but the spatial location
and extent of the waste dumping sites have not been given, which affect the surrounding land
uses. Also, the environmental degradation caused due to poor solid waste management
system has not been discussed in the Plan.
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Drainage
The Development Plan has not considered the aspect of drainage system of Greater Mumbai.
Drainage is a major problem in the city and there have been many incidences of floods which
have turned into big disasters. Generally after floods, there is an outbreak of epidemic
diseases and results in deaths and poor living conditions. Thus, the natural drainage system,
the watershed areas, the river basins, drainage network, etc. have not been worked out in the
Plan. There is also no provision made in the Development Plan for rainwater harvesting in
the city at any level.
Electricity
This is one of the major aspects in a city, especially in a metropolitan city which serves as the
main centre for economy. Another important aspect is that even if the city in general has
electric supply, but it need to ensure equitable distribution of power supply, i.e., it should be
made available to the poor class also. Mumbai gets maximum power supply in the state due
to its high population and being the economic capital of India but the distribution/
consumption of power sector-wise, i.e., in commercial, residential, industrial, etc. has not
been mentioned in the Plan. As there is scarcity of power, it is also important to identify
alternatives sources of power supply in the city. The network and location of transformers is
not available in the Development Plan which was a part of the 1964 Development Plan.
Thus, the Plan needs to work out the aspect of power supply in the city.
Transportation
The Development Plan of Greater Mumbai has worked out the urban systems in Mumbai and
one of the major aspects of it is transportation. The Plan says that transport plays a key role
in the growth and development of cities, dispersal of population and land use location. The
Plan talks about transportation system at intercity (regional) transport problem in Mumbai,
taking care of the metropolitan area of Mumbai. This includes railways, air transport and
roads. For road transportation, the Plan has worked out the increase in no. of cars, vehicle
density, etc., the reasons for increase in traffic such as increase in population, haphazard
parking, bad driving sense, etc. Classification of streets into major arterial, minor arterial,
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collector streets and local and other streets has been given in the Development Plan. It also
includes the excessive CBD traffic, the cyclists, the hawkers, material goods vehicles while
discussing about the provisions that the Plan needs to make. A Traffic Management Policy
was worked out by the study team to correct the systemic deficiencies. Improved signal
systems, high penalties for violation, development of urban enforcement standards
throughout the city, etc. have been discussed as the tools for enforcement of Transportation
Plan. But it is difficult to understand the problems in relation to the home-workplace, the
actual problem areas in the city, dilapidated areas and areas with poor connectivity, etc. Also,
modal split has not been worked out in detail the Plan which forms an important base to
understanding the traffic problems in Greater Mumbai. The issue of heritage conservation
which is a major barrier in road widening has also not been taken care of in the Development
Plan.
Education
The Development Plan has talked about hierarchy of educational institutes, namely, primary
schools, secondary schools, libraries and colleges, poly-technique and other technical
institutes. It has given the importance of various levels of education, especially the primary
schooling and also the proposals made in the previous development plans. As the Plan has
talked about the availability of municipal schools, it can be said that the Plan has made some
consideration for poor students but there is no separate mention on the level of education in
slums and among other lower-class of people. Also, the spatial distribution of these education
facilities is not available, not even the ward wise distribution of the schools to find out the
focus ward. Mumbai being the state capital and a metropolitan city, there is a lot of
dependency on the city for educational facilities also. Thus, it is important to work out the
aspect of education facility in the city in further detail
Health
Under section 61 of Mumbai Municipal Corporation Act, it is one of the obligatory duties of
the Corporation to serve the area within its jurisdiction in all matters relating to public health.
Some of the reasons identified for poor public health include overcrowding, poverty,
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malnutrition, etc. The Plan has mentioned that the no. of hospitals and maternity homes in the
city are inadequate as per the projected population.The Plan says that a major problem is that
majority of the population cannot afford to have these facilities as they live in slums and
have poor economic conditions and also the city has maximum of middle class population
who cannot afford these facilities either. Thus, it is required to have more no. of beds by the
public sector. The total no. of municipal dispensaries in Greater Mumbai is 154 including 2
ayurvedic and two unani dispensaries. The Plan has worked out the aspect of public health in
good detail at all the required levels and the statements are well supported with quantitative
data which is crucial in such aspects. But the source of these hospital standards has not been
mentioned and also the spatial distribution of various facilities is absent. The Plan also
considers the affordability of health facilities and thus focuses on equitable distribution.
Commercial Infrastructure
Providing markets and slaughter houses is task of the Municipal Corporation in Greater
Mumbai. Under section 406 of the Mumbai Municipal Corporation Act, byelaws have been
framed for establishment, maintenance and working of the municipal and private markets and
slaughter houses. The markets have been identified and their ward-wise distribution has also
been given in the Plan. The Plan says that due to scarcity of land, open markets in the city are
not feasible and thus, multistoried stores or markets were proposed in the Plan. Each site of
0.2 ha serves a population of 50000 in the city and 20000 in the suburbs. It is observed that
the hierarchy of commercial infrastructure has not been worked out in the Development Plan,
which is important. The distribution of this facility around the city has not been worked out
which should have been done with the help of a map.
Recreational facilities
The provision of open spaces and recreational facilities to the public is a discretionary duty
of the Corporation under section 63 of the Mumbai Municipal Corporation Act. Open spaces,
which are a category of recreational facilities in a city, have been classified in the
Development plan as recreational grounds, gardens and parks, stadia, clubs, gymkhanas,
swimming pools, sea beaches and promenades along sea fronts and green belts, wetlands and
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outer parks. The plan has made provision to keep the National park at Borivili and the Aarey
Milk Colony at Goregaon as reserved areas. The Plan has discussed the availability of open
spaces in all the wards of various types such as places having full access, partial access to
public, etc. A major reason for reduction in open spaces in the city has been identified as the
coming up of slums in the open spaces. The recreational facilities provided by the Municipal
Corporation are 294 gardens, 36 gardens attached to municipal premises, 151 playgrounds, 1
museum, etc. The Plan has discussed about the beaches in the city such as Chowpatty, Dadar,
Mahim, etc. but there is a restriction from the State Govt. on any further development on the
seaside. It is seen that the total open space in the city is insufficient and needs to be
increased. The Plan has discussed about increasing the open space to almost double and has
allocated new areas for the same. But a map of the existing and the proposed recreation
facilities in the city is required to understand the spatial distribution of these facilities.
Thus, the Plan has worked out the types of recreational areas, their number and their wardwise distribution. It can be said that required fields of entertainment have all been worked out
in the Plan. But the major issue of slum dwellers has not been emphasized and its remedy has
also not been discussed in the Development Plan.
Other facilities & Services

The Development Plan has made reservations for public utilities in consultation with the
appropriate departments which include post and telegraph, airport, refuse disposal,
electricity, water supply, sewage treatment departments and police stations. The Plan has
worked out details of these sectors such as hierarchy, typology, etc. while discussing the
respective aspects. The Plan has also talked about reservation for some miscellaneous
facilities in the city which include Municipal offices, stores, Govt. offices, cattle ponds,
octori offices, public sanitary grievance, industrial estate, civil defense, etc. Ward-wise
provisions to be made have been discussed in the Plan but the spatial location of these
facilities has not been given which is a point of concern.
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e. Urban form
There is no direct discussion on urban form in the Plan but the Plan does talk about the FSI
other aspects such as open spaces, height restrictions, setbacks, street widths, etc. that form a
part of the urban form have been worked out in detail in the Development Control
Regulations of Greater Mumbai. The concepts of place making & imageability, and transitoriented corridors or any special areas have not been worked out in the Development Plan.
There are no special regulations in the Plan even for the railway corridors which is the spine
of development in Mumbai. The concept of transit-oriented development should have been,
as the same is happening without any planning. Also, the Plan has created a base of FSI and
density on which the DCR have been framed for the city. But there are no provisions in the
Plan for sustainable urban form and design components. Large developments have come up
in the city without any planning, some of them are unauthorized also but no actions have
been taken in the city against them. Uncontrolled development in the city leads to increased
risks of disasters such as fire, flood, etc.
f. Built Heritage
The Plan has not identified any monuments and their precincts; neither has it talked about the
socio-cultural values in Greater Mumbai. In the Plan, the heritage zones have not been
identified but in the Development Control Regulations, there is a mention about the heritage
buildings and the regulations for conserving it and its precincts. As the Development Plan
does not include any such aspect, there are no strategies for conservation of heritage in the
city. Heritage today is a major asset in cities as Mumbai is a center for tourist attraction and
supports tourist activity not only in the city but the entire regions. Thus, it is important for the
Development Plan to include this aspect, as the City Development Plan does.
The Development Plan of Greater Mumbai has talked about many aspects that make a city
but has not discussed anything on the environmental issues, especially in a metropolitan city
of this scale.
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Natural resources: The Development Plan has not given any importance to the natural
features in Greater Mumbai, such as the water bodies and water channels, ground water
aquifer recharge zones, the natural drainage system, wetlands, marshes and salt pans, hills
and ridges and the mineral resources. But it has discussed about the green areas and forests
but not the biodiversity in the city. Thus, the optimum utilization of these resources which
makes a city sustainable has not been given importance in the Development Plan and these
resources are being over-exploited without any planning.
Climate Change: The Plan was under preparation when the concepts of green house gas
emissions, heat sinks/ carbon sinks/ urban greenery, etc. had started making their place in
development plans around the world and were much talked about. But they have not been
made a part of the Development Plan of Greater Mumbai, which today aims at becoming a
world class city and has not give any importance to climate change in it Development Plan.
There is provision of sustainable transport options like public transport/ non motorized
transport in the city and also proposals have been made in the Plan promoting use of public
transport and non-motorized transport. This is an important aspect for the metropolitan city
of Mumbai where people have to travel a lot. Thus, from the point of view of saving fuel and
the environment in the city, as it reduces pollution levels. The Plan has not taken up any
energy efficiency measures like Compact City Structure, Green Building Codes, Renewable
energy sources, etc. Carbon Neutral City concept which should have been a part of the basic
concept for planning todays city but even this is absent in the Plan. There is no provision of
Climate change Mitigation and Climate Adaptation measures made in the Plan. Mumbai is an
island city and has a seacoast, it is important for the Plan to take into consideration the aspect
of climate change and sea level rise in all the various subjects related to city.
Urban Environmental Quality: The Plan has not considered any of the pollutions in the
city, i.e., water pollution, air pollution, noise pollution and even degradation of land. Thus,
the Plan has not worked out any measure to control and minimize degradation of the natural
environment. But the Plan has worked out decentralized waste management and disposal
systems under the conservancy system in the city.
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Disaster Management: The Development Plan of Greater Mumbai has not made any
attempt to identify the vulnerable communities. But the large number of slums which account
for almost 505 of the city can be considered highly vulnerable due to high densities; poor
built structures and infrastructure. Other than that, there are some higher classes of people or
minorities in the society which due to circumstances become vulnerable to disasters. Thus, it
is important to identify them so that the city can be planned for them to and the idea of
inclusivity in the society can actually be achieved. The Plan has also not talked about the
adaptive capacities of the public, various institutes, etc., the local methods that the people use
in case of emergency situations in and around their locality. For example, the actions that the
slum dwellers take during floods, fire, etc. Also, the information systems and resources used
in the city have to be upgraded for emergency situations. There has been a Disaster
Management Plan prepared for the city in 2007 which has highlighted the vulnerable areas in
the city but this is not adequate. It is required to integrate the Disaster Management Plan with
the Development Plan to have a sustainable and disaster-free development. Also, the city has
ward level monitoring system which is not a part of the Development Plan.
Social Aspects
Social issues and aspects have not been dealt with directly in the Plan but at various stages,
there is some mention about social equity and inclusivity.
Inclusivity: The Plan has talked about distribution of population, i.e., there has been
prepared an age-sex pyramid for the city, giving a distribution of the population of the city.
Also, the Plan talks about inclusion of all the classes of people in planning, decision making
and implementation. For this, the Plan is put up in public domain for suggestions and
complaints but we cannot say that they have exactly involved themselves or have participated
as it may not be possible for all of them to actually comprehend the Plan- its issues, solutions
and provisions.
Equity: The Plan has tried to achieve equity in some way; it includes provision of services
housing to the poor and the slum dwellers at subsidized rates, so as to provide them with the
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same physical and mental living conditions as the higher classes. This has lead to
upgradation of standards of living, better work output from the poor and also helps in their
uplifting. These issues have been tackled at city and local level. The Plan also ensures access
to infrastructure facilities by all class of people for safe and healthy living.
Capacity Building & Community Empowerment: There is no focus in the Plan on

Capacity building and community empowerment, although it is very much required in a
metropolis which is frequently facing disasters and is always under its threat. In Greater
Mumbai, the Resident Welfare Associations (RWAs) work in a big way for uplifting the
local communities/ neighborhoods and work for providing various services in the city such as
solid waste management within the community itself. Also, the Plan does not suggest any
spatial mix of various classes of communities for social integration. The Plan does support
public participation in decision making as well as implementation of Plan.
Social Well Being: There are provisions made in the Plan on health, leisure, recreation, etc.
but the issues of security and learning have not been focused upon in the Plan which are
required especially for the lower class of people. It can be said that the Plan does not directly
attend to social wellbeing as personal development and crime and terrorism have not been
considered in the Plan at any level.
Economic Aspects
In a chapter of the Development Plan that discusses of economic growth in the city, industry
has been discussed in detail, i.e., the various provisions that have been made in the city and
the state for growth of industries in the city. Tertiary sector has also been talked about in the
Plan.
GDP: The Plan focuses mainly on industrial development in the city and its share in terms of
the % of industries but not their contribution to the GDP of the state or the country.
Mumbais contribution to countrys GDP is important as it is the economic capital of India.
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But this aspect has not been included in the Development Plan, although it talks about
economic base growth potential in the city.
Local Economic Development: As the Plan mainly focuses on industrial development in

Greater Mumbai and also Mumbai metropolitan region, it has discussed the continuous
growth in employment in this sector. Also, while discussing about the cloth markets, the Plan
has talked about the importance of lower class of people who are involved in various
activities related to wholesale and retail business. But the Plan has not discussed about local
economic development or any sustainable measures to provide employment to the people,
although there has been a case of shutdown of textile mills in the city which lead to large
unemployment in the city. The Plan should actually have a different approach and instead of
cost-benefit, which is mostly adopted when it comes to economic growth but it should be
cost-beneficiary and the people should be important. Also, there is no importance given to
city cluster development in the Plan.
6.2.8

There is no specific body which implements the Development Plan in MMR and the
Development Plan also does not give any Phasing of the Plan to facilitate implementation.
Twenty year is never broken down into 5 year targets. The implementation of the
development plan can be classified into two broad categories:
Control of development to be carried out by the land owners, private builders and
other concerned agencies within the city.
Secondly the development to be carried out by the Municipal Corporation of Greater

Mumbai by acquiring the lands earmarked for public purposes in the development plan
For MMRDA to undertake infrastructure projects in Mumbai, it requires a special ordinance

to be passed by the State Government, which then allows MMRDA to undertake such
activities in consultation with MCGM. The MMRDA and MCGM are in conflict with
jurisdictional responsibilities as so far as matters to be taken up in MCGM area.
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The State Urban Development Department is in charge of the Town Planning Department,
Urban Development Authority, urban water supply, sewerage and sanitation. The Housing
and Special Assistance Department is responsible for Housing Policy, land ceilings, rent
control, and reconstruction of old and dilapidated buildings, slum upgrading and supervision
of foreign aided projects. Apart from MCGM, other key stakeholder agencies also have a role
in the provision of infrastructure development in Mumbai. The key agencies other than
MCGM are Maharashtra Housing and Area Development Authority (MHADA), the Slum
Rehabilitation Authority (SRA), the Mumbai Metropolitan Region Development Authority
(MMRDA) and the Maharashtra State Road Development Corporation (MSRDC).
Maharashtra Housing and Area Development Authority (MHADA) is an entirely nominated
body, which comes under the Housing and Special Assistance Department of the State
Government. It now works through 9 Regional Boards, 3 of which directly relate to Mumbai.
The co-ordination between various departments is very difficult or almost absent.
Independent departments are not so concerned with the Plan document. The weakest part is
monitoring and evaluation which in turn negates to the process of Plan revision, if any.
a. Interface of Development Plan 1991-2013 with City Development Plan 2007-13

Transforming Mumbai into a City of the Millennium is the vision of the CDP of Mumbai
through economic growth and quality of life. The quantitative aspirations of the CDP have
therefore been formulated for the six core areas that Mumbai must focus:
1. Economic growth
2. Transportation
3. Housing
4. Other infrastructure (safety, environment, water, sanitation, education and healthcare)
5. Financing
6. Governance
In order to achieve Vision Mumbai, eight high priority initiatives have been listed in the
CDP. While the first six initiatives lay down high-level solutions to bridge the gap (in both
quantitative and qualitative terms) between Mumbai today and where it needs to be by 2013,
the last two initiatives are critical to making implementation happen on the ground. The
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Vision Mumbai and Task Force recommendations have been discussed at various fora and
based on the consensus that has emerged; the strategy for proposed by the City Development
Plan focuses on the following key areas a. Strategy for Economic Development
b. Strategy for Civic Infrastructure Development
c. Strategy for Housing
d. Strategy for urban transport
e. Strategy for Environmental Management and Sanitation
f. Strategy for City Beautification and Tourism Promotion
g. Strategy for Optimal Land Use and Development Control
Both the CDP and the Development Plan of Mumbai have been worked out in great detail.
However, there seems to be a difference between the vision and objectives of both
documents. This could be because the development plan was prepared in 1984, almost 25
years previously, whereas the CDP is more recent. To give desired direction to city
development, economic development, environment, people and well being, housing,
infrastructure formed the basis for formulation of the development plan unlike the CDP
which focuses totally on infrastructure provision and amenities for the urban poor.
Primary surveys were carried out in the city for the preparation of the development plan
unlike the CDP. As CDP is a short term project, it totally lacks a very important aspect of
review and monitoring of the implementation of plan. Projections were the basis for the
preparation of both the development plan and the CDP. The projections done in the
development plan however, were exceeded even before the implementation of the
development plan began. However, the projections in the CDP being for a more short term
period, such problems may not occur.
In the CDP, the vision formulation has been given a lot of emphasis and a private consultant
(Mc Kinsey) was involved in this process. However, such a vision was not formulated for the
development plan. The Development Plan talks about various aspects related to the
development control regulations like the FSI, Occupancy, Density, Housing shortage etc.
However, The CDP does not take into consideration these aspects.
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Institutional framework has been prepared in both the plans but is more implicit in the CDP
than the Development Plan. The financial aspects of implementation have been worked out
both in the development plan as well as the CDP. The CDP promotes PPP whereas; the
development plan does not involve the private sector in any manner. Implementation in both
the CDP and the development plan has been divided into phases. However, there are no
Projects identified as a part of the Development Plan which is a drawback to its
implementation.
b. Public Participation
The Development Plan says that it is important for the public to participate in all stages of
planning and should be informed through various sources, such as media, posters, etc but
there is no true participation in the process as observed from the inputs during stakeholder
consultations.. Public participation is only at the end stage of the plan making process. In
terms of overall approach to planning there is hardly any public participation. The Draft Plan
is made subjected to public viewpoints through a public hearing as provided in the
Maharashtra TCP Act.
6.3
Criticisms of the Development plan

The Plan: The Development Plan is a rigid document, planned for a 20-25yrs. There is a
long gap between present and the future perception. The transition period is not considered.
Because of this it is often a back-dated and a speculative document. Thus the time frame of
preparation and perspective period of the Plan is questionable. There is no true participation.
Public participation is at the end stage of the plan making process. In terms of overall
approach to planning there is hardly any public participation. Scope of public participation
should be amended in the Act. Moreover, Mumbai has constraints in land supply. Per capita
demand has gone up. Therefore, FAR determination should be done properly, which is not a
thorough components of the Plan currently. 75% of the city is made by the slums, which are
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in dire need of basic infrastructure and facilities. This should clearly be given more
importance in the Plan.
Implementation: Implementation problems and violations have happened mainly due to
inadequate capacity and institutional infrastructure for implementation and monitoring of the
Plan. The transitional no-plan period due to time delays is also a major factor for such a
scenario. There is no specific body which implements the Development Plan. Moreover,
there is no Phasing of the Plan to break it into Projects and finance mobilization. Weakest
part is monitoring and evaluation. The co-ordination between various departments is very
difficult or almost absent. Independent departments are not so concerned with the Plan
document. Impact assessment does not happen.
Suggestions
Institutional structure for Plan implementation, monitoring and review needs to be in place in
addition to the plan making framework. Dove-tailing is required between various plans for
e.g. Regional Plan and Development Plan, also between Development Plan and the more
detailed local plans, which should be brought within the purview of planning process.
Stronger emphasis on implementation and monitoring should be given, with due
consideration to consultations and public participation, which can be devised at the local
level. There is a need of a 2 tier approach to match the long term goals for local level
development. A land mechanism process needs to be evolved along with land acquisition to
increase the land supply in booming metropolitan cities. The Plan needs to cover both the
spatial and financial aspects simultaneously for effective implementation. And above all, the
whole process should to be hastened by use of various mechanisms.
6.4
CONCLUSION
Based upon the critical appraisal of the Development Plan and inputs from
stakeholder consultations various inferences may be observed. Firstly, there are varios
authorities that are involved in plan making and implementation. The non-coordination
between these agencies has resulted in piecemeal development and violations. This has also
been aggravated by the fact that the Development Plan has not turned out to be a
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comprehensive document which can give a broad framework for integrated development.
The Plan also needs to incorporate emerging issues like inclusivity, environmental quality,
lack of infrastructure, disaster management and a sustainable urban form. Also time delays in
the plan making, approval and implementation processes have lead to failure of the plan
document. This added to a lack of a monitoring mechanism results in a revision which is
based upon speculative projections and may take umpteen numbers of years causing
violations on ground during the transition phase. Public Participation has also to be given due
importance at all stages to make the whole process more meaningful, transparent and
realistic. Moreover, there is a need to coordinate the interface between the Development Plan
under the Maharashtra Town Planning and Urban Development Act and the JnNURM CDP.
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CriticalAppraisalofPlanningFrameworkinCaseStudyCity:Surat
Chapter7
Chapter 7 SURAT
7.1.
CITY PROFILE
7.1.1. INTRODUCTION AND LOCATION
The city of Surat is the commercial capital of the state and is of significant
importance to the country. It is India's twelfth and Gujarats second most populous city
(2001). It became a metropolis in 1991. The city is located on the River Tapi and has about 6
km long coastal belt along the Arabian Sea to its west. The city is a pivotal centre on the
Ahmedabad- Mumbai regional corridor as well as on the 225 km long industrial belt, having
direct linkages with the industrial urban centres of Vadodara, Ankleshwar and Vapi. NH-8
passes within 16 km of the S.M.C. boundary and is one of the busiest inter-state trunk routes
in the country (refer Map 7.1). Surat is located midway on the 500 km long AhmedabadMumbai western railway corridor and as many as forty pairs of express, mail and passenger
trains pass through it. The state government has also established an airstrip to facilitate
smaller aircraft landings but no domestic air service has been started yet.
Surat Urban Development Authority (SUDA) has an area of 722 sq.km and population of
28.1 lakhs, as per 2001 census.
Surat city (Municipal Corporation) has an area of 326.5 sq.km which is divided into 101
wards and having a total population of 24.34 lakhs. The S.M.C. boundary has been
constantly expanding due to outgrowths of Surat.Surat city has seen an unprecedented
growth in last four decades recording one of the highest growth rates in the country and a 10fold population rise. The City now ranks the 9th largest city in the country. Coupled with this
the spillover of population into periphery has also been observed. At present S.M.C. area is
about 112 Sq. kms. There are about 6.50 lakh people (2001) reside in the immediate
periphery of the city.
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7.1.2. EVOLUTION OF THE CITY
The city of Surat has glorious history that dates back to 300 BC. The origin of the city
can be traced to the old Hindu town of Suryapur, during 1500 1520 A.D., which was later
colonized by the King from Sauvira on the banks of River Tapi. In 1759, The British rulers
took its control from the Mughals till the beginning of the 20th century. Due to its strategic
location, the city emerged as an important trade centre and enjoyed prosperity through sea
trade in the 16th, 17th and 18th centuries. Surat became the most important trade link
between India and many other countries and was at the height of prosperity till the rise of
Bombay port in the 17th and 18th centuries. Surat was also a flourishing centre for ship
building activities. The whole coast of Tapi was specially meant for ship builders who were
usually Rassis. During the post-independence period, Surat has experienced considerable
growth in industrial activities (especially textiles) along with trading activities. Concentration
of these activities combined with residential developments has resulted in considerable
expansion of the city limits.
The evolution of the power loom and handloom sectors led to gradual growth of textile
industries gradually. Another important addition since the 1950's is the diamond cutting and
polishing industry. In the last two decades, especially during the eighties large-scale
industries have come up in Surat and its peripheries. This increased the importance of Surat
in the regional context, along with Vadodara and Ahmedabad, specifically due to its location
at the core of what is called the "Golden Corridor" of industrial development. Besides
industrial potential, the city has fertile agricultural land irrigated by an intensive canal
network.
The city was originally established on the southern bank of the River Tapi with a castle on
the eastern bank of the river. A customhouse was on the southern side of the castle. The
activities were concentrated within the inner wall, construction of which was started in the
year 1664. The area of the city at this time within the wall was 178 hectares. The entrance to
the walled city, covering an area of 736 hectares, was through 12 gates. Surat witnessed the
development of its suburbs Udhna, Athwa and Fulpada during the beginning of the 20th
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century. The physical expansion of the town was radial and rapid along five major corridors
on the north, south, east, west and south-west till the end of 1980s. Since the 1990s the city
has been growing rapidly on the eastern, southern and south-western sides wherein large
chunks of residential localities were developed under the S.U.D.A. area (refer Map 7.2).
The land use pattern of the city indicates large parcels of agricultural lands in the Ved area of
North zone and in the wards- Jahangirabad and Jahangirpura of West zone (refer Map 7.4).
Industrial location within Surat Municipal Corporation (S.M.C) area along the main railway
line from Mumbai to Ahmedabad has attracted major residential development during the past
two decades and new industrial developments has also been vital in the growth of the city in
the southern direction. Surat today is an outcome of the expansion of the citys limits at
various intervals. Owing to rapid industrialization and commercialization in and around the
city, a large influx of migrants has been observed, which has resulted in the formation of
slums. There are a total of 312 slums in the city of Surat in which 19.24% of the total
population lives. Slums have also come up in open spaces in the south and south - eastern
areas of the city.
In the year 2000, Surat Municipal Corporation (SMC) took up a project of devising City
Development Strategies for the long term and short term planning of the city with an aim
of a more focused and better use of resources through clarity in mission and long-term goals
of SMC.
The main objective of the project was to develop Surat into a Model City through a definite
Strategic Plan, covering all sectors of services with short term (next 5 years) and long term
(up to 2021 A.D.) plans. Theses identified sectors/services are:
Finance
Taxes and duties:- direct tax, education cess, octroi
Accounts:- budgets, developments, fund mobilisation
Identification of new source of income
Infrastructure and Services
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Public health:- hospitals, bio-medical waste and solid waste
management
Water supply, sewerage, storm water drainage
Roads, flyovers, street lights, Traffic regulatory system
Special project, Sports, Tourism, culture, parks and gardens,
Library
Slum upgradation
Environment / pollution control management
Fire services
Information technology/ EDP, Wireless control etc.
Town planning and town development
Education:- primary, secondary, higher
Disaster management system
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To guide the long-term strategic plan SMC makes short-term strategic framework which is
called CITY CORPORATE PLAN. All implementation plans will be based on the Corporate
Plan only. The budgetary provisions, development of financial and physical resources,
augmentation of existing services and development of new projects are planned to be based
on the Corporate Plan.
On the first phase of City development strategies in Mar 2004, formation of Vision 2020 was
started with the objective of positioning Surat as Global City with Global Standards. In
May 2004 the vision was published as public document. The Strategic Focus of the vision is
structured around three elements
Promoting Growth for economic development
Good Governance
To enable Improved Service Delivery
City Development Plan (CDP) is used as a Medium-term implementation plan focusing on

priority projects.
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City of Surat has been a Trade Centre primarily. The fort area, English factory, old
port, C.C. road- Dandi path with footprints and illumination, etc. are some of the heritage
areas that need to be conserved.
7.1.3. DEMOGRAPHY AND SOCIO- ECONOMIC CHARACTERISTICS

The city has been experiencing rapid growth in population during past three decades.
The growth rate of 85.09% in 1991- 2001 has been one of the highest in the country. Rapid
inflow of population has continued. The sex ratio has dropped down to an alarming figure of
774 in 2001 from 839 in 1991. The literacy rate has gone up from 63 percent in 1991 to 83
percent in 2001 and the figures are well above that of the state.
Since the inception of S.U.D.A. (Surat Urban Development Authority) in late 70s, the city is
growing at a rapid pace; though the development in the peripheral areas was not that rapid
until 2001. Decadal population growth rate from 1991 to 2001 did not result in the horizontal
urban sprawl; on the contrary, the densities in core city areas increased, which were part of
the municipal corporation. With the
municipal area in Surat reaching a density of 21,677
persons/Sq kms, it is believed that the future development will take place outside the
municipal limits in the urban development authority areas. The peripheral area of SMC is
experiencing a faster rate of growth. In SUDAs area, the villages around the periphery of
SMC are developing into urban fringes. They are experiencing rapid growth and are having a
varied density pattern. The peri-urban growth is a major cause of concern as about 4 lakh
people reside in areas with only a minimum level of urban services. This demographic fact
makes the role of S.U.D.A. very crucial in the coming decades of development in the city.
The development plan of Surat consists of detailed taluka wise analysis of the demographic
profile. It also analysed and mapped the decadal growth rates of the population, density and
sex ratio from 1971-1991.
Surat city as per the 1991 census has people employed in different occupations as listed
below:
Cultivators
Agricultural labourers
Mining
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Quarrying
Household industries
Construction
Trade and commerce
Transportation, storage and communications
Other services or non workers.
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Surat provides excellent employment opportunities in the state. It has a higher workforce:
urban population ratio as compared to Ahmedabad and Vadodara. 1.87% of the population is
employed in primary sector where 61.38% is occupied in secondary and 36.75% in tertiary
sector in the SMC area. In the SUDA area 49% is employed in the primary, 33.62% in the
secondary and 17.38% in the tertiary sectors.
Surats economic base is consistent of a number of small and medium scale unorganised
industries. Thus the employment base is labour intensive and the level of unemployment is
low. The wages also are low and majority of the workers are deprived of social and other
benefits. Today, Surat is a major industrial city. The entire industrial sector put together
contributed a gross revenue income of Rs. 2975.60 million to S.M.C. in 1997-98.
7.1.4. LEGAL FRAMEWORK

The Government of Gujarat set up the Surat Urban Development Authority under the
provision of the Gujarat Town Planning and Urban Development Act, 1976 (refer Annexure
III). Before this Act, the Bombay Town Planning Act, 1954 was in force according to which
the control on the planning activities was restricted within the jurisdiction of the local
authority. The authority prepared and published the first development plan in 1980 that was
sanctioned by the state government in 1986. The first plan was prepared upto 2001. To cope
with problems of population growth, economic activities etc; SUDA took up the process of
preparing a revised development plan for a period upto 2011. The authority has now prepared
a Revised Draft Development plan for the area under its jurisdiction.
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Compliance with GTP&UD Act

The Gujarat Town Planning and Urban Development Act, 1976 says, as soon as may be after
the constitution of an area development authority for any development area under section 5,
or a local authority, the area development authority shall, not later than three years after the
declaration of such area as a development area or within such time as the State Government
may, from time to time, extend, prepare and submit to the State Government a draft
development plan for the whole or any part of the development area in accordance with the
provisions of this Act.
The power and functions of an area development authority shall be(i)
to undertake the preparation of development plans under the provisions of this Act for
the development area;

(ii)
to undertake the preparation and execution of town planning schemes under the
provisions of this Act, if so directed by the State Government.

(iii)
to carry out surveys in the development area for the preparation of development
plans or town planning schemes;

(iv)
to control the development activities in accordance with the development plan in the
development area;
(v)
to enter into contracts, agreements or arrangements, with any person or organisation
as the area development authority may deem necessary for performing its function;
(vi)
to acquire, hold manage and dispose of property, movable or immovable, as it may
deem necessary;
(vii)
to execute works in connection with supply of water, disposal of sewage and
provision of other services and amenities;

The area development authority after a draft development plan is prepared and submitted to
the State Government under section 9, publish it in the Official Gazette and in such other
manner as may be prescribed along with a notice in the prescribed manner, inviting
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suggestions or objections from any person with respect to the development plan within a
period of two months from the date of its publication.
The following particulars shall be published along with the draft development plan, namely:
a.
a statement indicating broadly the uses to which lands in the area covered by the
plan are proposed to be put and any survey carried out for the preparation of the
draft development plan;
b.
maps, charts and statements explaining the provisions of the draft development plan;
c.
the draft regulations for enforcing the provisions of the draft development plan;
d.
procedure explaining the manner in which permission for developing land may be
obtained from the area development authority or , as the case may be , from the
authorized officer;
e.
a statement of the stage of development by which it is proposed to meet any

obligation imposed on the area development authority by the draft development
plan;
f.
an approximate estimate of the cost involved in acquisition of land reserved for

public purposes.
After a draft development plan is published as aforesaid and the objections or suggestions
thereto, if any, are received, the area development authority or, as the case may be, the
authorized officer shall, within a period of six months from the date of publication of the
draft development plan under section 13, submit to the State Government for its sanction the
draft development plan and the regulations with the modifications, if any, made thereto under
section 14 or section 15.
The development plan follows the provisions of the Gujarat Town Planning and Urban
Development Act, 1976 and the powers and functions allocated by it under this Act. The
contents are also in accordance with the Act. The revised development plan also mentions the
need to be reviewed at 10 year intervals to accommodate and review the programme of
implementation and assess the needs created by the upcoming technology. The revised
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development plan follows the methodology prescribed in the act of carrying out surveys
before coming up with proposals to assess the existing situation. Also, it has been well
illustrated with maps, charts and tables wherever required. However, the plan does not
mention the time taken for its preparation or its date of submission.
7.1.5.
JURISDICTION
The Revised draft Development Plan has been prepared for an area of 722 sq. kms
which comprises of the area within the limits of Surat Municipal Corporation and 130
neighbouring villages (refer Map 7.3). These are areas where economic activities are taking
place on the periphery of S.M.C. area.
The Revised Development Plan has been prepared for a period upto 2011 for an estimated
population of 42 lakhs. The document is divided into 2 parts, the first deals with the analysis
of the existing situation of development area and the second part with the various proposals.
7.1.6. PLANNING PROCESS

The seed of Town Planning Legislation in India was sown in Gujarat in the beginning
of the twentieth century when the erstwhile Bombay Presidency took the lead in enacting the
first town planning legislation in the country viz. the Bombay Town Planning Act, 1915,
which came into, force on 6th March , 1915. Gujarat was then the part of the Bombay State.
This Act mainly provided for the preparation of Town Planning Schemes (TPS) for areas in
course of development within the jurisdiction of local authority.
It was observed that T P. Schemes prepared under the 1915 Act resulted in the piecemeal
planning having no relation with the adjoining areas. Thus, to have a planned development of
every square inch of the land within the municipal limit, the Bombay Town Planning Act,
1954 was enacted replacing the 1915 Act, which came into force from 1st April, 1957. The
concept of Development Plan (DP) was introduced. The Bombay Act of 1954 was repealed
and a more comprehensive planning legislation was enacted titled as The Gujarat Town
Planning and Urban Development Act, 1976 that came into force with effect from 1st
February, 1978 in the State of Gujarat.
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The present legislation for town planning in the State, the Gujarat Town Planning and Urban
Development Act, 1976 was enacted to consolidate and amend the law relating to the making
and execution of development plans and town planning schemes in the State of Gujarat in the
areas (refer Annexure III).
In this Act, provision has been made for the constitution of area development authorities for
the development area declared under its provisions with an enabling power to the State
government to designate local authorities as the planning authorities in certain areas.
To cut short the procedure of town planning scheme preparation, the provision was made in
the new Act of 1976 to sub divide the town planning schemes into the preliminary scheme
(physical planning i.e. reconstitution of plots, reserving land for public purposes, etc. ) and
the final scheme (to deal with the financial matter). As per the Act, once the preliminary
scheme is sanctioned by the State Government, the planning authority gives effect to the
scheme proposal irrespective of the final scheme approval. Thus, under this Act, the delay in
scheme implementation is considerably reduced.
Development Plans
With the establishment of the Surat Urban Development Authority (S.U.D.A.) the
Development Plan for its entire area (including S.M.C.s area) was prepared, as provided
under the Gujarat Town Planning and Urban Development Act, 1976. The planning area
besides the area within the S.M.C. includes 148 villages of Choryasi, Kamrej, Palsana and
Olpad taluka.The urban sprawl has already been started outside of Surat city limits, along the
radial roads and different corridors such as Udhana corridor, Dindoli corridor, Rander
Adajan Olpad corridor, Nana Varachha Kamrej corridor etc. This plan was sanctioned
in 1986. The Revised Development Plan for the S.U.D.A. area was submitted to the
Government in 1998, which was sanctioned on 2nd September 2004.
The provision
suggested in 74th Constitutional Amendment Act, 1992, are already adopted in the Surat
Municipal Corporation, wherein the liability to prepare Development Plan as well as Town
Planning Scheme is shouldered by S.M.C.
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Table 7.1: Chronology of Plans in Surat

Year of
Notification/
Publication
Perspective
Period
Development Plan
1986
1981-2001
SUDA Planning Area
Revised Development
Plan
2004
2001-2011
SUDA Planning Area
2006
2006-2012
SMC Area
PLAN
Preparing
Organisation
Planning Area
Surat Urban
Development
Authority
Surat Urban
Development
Authority
Surat Municipal
Corporation
Source: Bangalore Development Authority
Town Planning Schemes

Within the S.M.C., a full-fledged Town Planning Department carries out the physical
planning of the city. S.U.D.A. has a separate planning cell which looks after the Town
planning schemes in the peripheral areas. S.M.C.-S.U.D.A. is working towards utilizing the
town planning schemes as a mechanism to its full potential. For the implementation of the
Development Plan of the city at micro level, S.M.C. has initiated the preparation of Town
Planning Schemes. A total of 63 T.P. Schemes have been prepared by the Corporation, which
comprise almost 90 percent of the total S.M.C. land area. This includes schemes prior to the
formation of S.U.D.A., out of which the government has already finalised 16 T.P. Schemes.
The entire area within the S.M.C. thus is covered by T.P. Schemes.
S.U.D.A. has also taken initiatives of preparing the town planning schemes in the outgrowth
of the city outside S.M.C. limits. There are a total 68 town planning schemes being
considered in the S.U.D.A. area and are at various stages of completion. These schemes
cover about 6,348 hectares of areas in the S.U.D.A. jurisdiction outside the municipal area.
S.U.D.A. is also gearing up for the implementation of these town-planning schemes and
provides basic amenities to the population living outside the municipal areas.
The Town Planning Department at S.M.C. is also involved in other task related to planning.
According to the needs of the city/corporation in line with the proposals of D.P. and T.P.
Schemes, the department is involved in:
Land acquisition,
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Roads alignment,
Land and estate management,
Allotment of tenements, staff quarters, shops, offices, municipal properties,
Issuing license/ rights for hoarding, kiosks, hawking zone scheme, pay and park
scheme etc.,
Allotment of alternate provision of plot/ shop,
Important Amendments in the Act

The State Government made first amendment in the Act by the Gujarat Act No. 4 of 1986,
which deemed to have come into force on the 12th June, 1985. By this amendment, a town
planning scheme can be made in respect of land which is to be used for commercial or
industrial purpose and not only for residential uses.
It allowed allotment of land to the extent of 10% of the scheme area for the purpose of sale
for residential, commercial or industrial use, to meet partly the cost of the scheme. The
Gujarat Town Planning and Urban Development Act, 1976 was amended for the third time in
the year 1999. This was the major amendment in the Act by which many provisions were
added in the Act, which gave new meaning to the early and effective way of preparation and
implementation of DP and TP Scheme.
A new section was inserted in the Act in the year 1999, for reducing the time in varying the
TP Scheme for the limited purpose of interchanging the use of land allotted for public
purpose. This has considerably reduced the financial burden on the appropriate authority and
the unnecessary wastage of time. Yet another important amendment in 1999 was related to
the constitution of Board of Appeal. After the Town Planning Officer declares the decision of
the final scheme and in case of appeal by the landowners there is a provision in the Act of
constituting Board of Appeal for deciding the matters related to final plot value.
Agenda for Reform

Reducing the prescribed time limits
In the Gujarat Town Planning and Urban Development Act, 1976, there are many provisions
which prescribes the time limit for various actions to be taken with respect to preparation,
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publication and sanctioning of the development plan and town planning scheme. This has
made preparation of DP and TP scheme less time consuming and therefore, the time has
come that the prescribed time limit shall be appropriately reduced.
Implementation of Development plan
The Act casts an obligation on the planning authority to prepare development plan but
it casts no similar obligation to implement it. Therefore, the Act must provide unambiguously
obligatory duty of plan implementation as the plan preparation is.
Raising the fees / charges / penalty
In the Gujarat Town Planning and Urban Development Act, 1976, there are provisions for
collecting development charges, various fees and also penalties for unauthorized
construction.
Continuation of Reservation for transport and communication
The recent judgment where the Supreme Court has observed that if the land is not acquired
within the prescribed time limit of 10 years then the land reserved in the development plan
shall not be reserved again in the revised development plan, has made necessary that, certain
public purposes at least like transport and communication shall be excluded from the section
of acquisition of land where it is mentioned that if the lands are not acquired then the
designation lapse.
Domain of section related to variation of TP Scheme by new Scheme
There is a provision in the Gujarat Town Planning and Urban Development Act, 1976; that a
town planning scheme once finalized may at any time be varied by a subsequent scheme
made, published and submitted in accordance with the provision of the Act. It is a
compulsion that if in the principal scheme there is no error, irregularity, informality and there
is no change of public purpose allotment then even for a small charge / variation in the
principal scheme, the course of this section has to be resorted to and whole procedure of
preparing a new TP scheme has to be undertaken.
74th Constitutional Amendment Act
In the light of the 74th amendment in the constitution, it has become imperative for the State
Government to amend the 1976 Act. The State Governments are required to bestow the law,
necessary powers and authority to the municipalities to enable them to function as
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institutions of self government and undertake functions relating to spatial planning and
development as provided in the newly added Twelfth Schedule. Therefore it becomes
necessary that the existing Gujarat Town Planning and Urban Development Act 1976 is
amended so that smooth interface between DPC / MPC Act and the existing Town Planning
Act can be achieved.
The Gujarat SEZ Act
The Gujarat Government has enacted the Gujarat Special Economic Zone Act, 2004 to
provide for the operation, maintenance, management and administration of a Special
Economic Zone in the state of Gujarat and to constitute an authority and for matters
connected therewith or incidental thereto.
Incorporating latest technology
Planning legislation must also be able to adapt to the advancement in the technology and
modern tools available to the planners. Geographical Information System (GIS) is a fast
emerging area in the field of information technology, which has influenced the planning
process .The maps / plans have a distinct cutting edge over conventional maps. Therefore, the
planners and legal experts are required to work out a mechanism to incorporate appropriate
provisions in the planning legislation considering its tremendous utility in the field of
planning practices.
Compulsory preparation of T.P. Scheme
It is necessary that the suitable provision shall be made in the Act so that it becomes
mandatory for all the development authority to have a TP Scheme in their area and a suitable
mechanism should be proposed so that Development Authority will be eager to take up the
preparation and implementation of the Scheme.
7.2.
7.2.1.
CRITICAL APPRAISAL OF REVISED DEVELOPMENT PLAN - 2011

During the preparation of the development plan, firstly the land use characteristic and
existing situation was analysed and a detailed survey report of the same was made. During
formulation the proposals of the revised development plan, a few broad principles have been
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kept in view. The development plan does not mention a vision in specific. However, some
major principles were kept in view while preparing the report is:
a.
To minimise spread of Urbanisation in agriculturally fertile land and to instead utilise

the khar land for the same purpose.
b.
To examine possibilities of linear structure along the transport corridors.
c.
To locate new development areas to ease pressure on city.
d.
To achieve better living environment by maximising the utilisation of existing

infrastructure.
Based on these principles the main objectives of the plan are:
To create a definitive urban form.
To establish supportive transport network.
To develop residential nodes with self sufficient infrastructure and amenities.
To evolve poly nucleated structure for the area as against the mono nucleated structure
at present.
To identify the activity in the vicinity of the planned area in order to take into
consideration the impact of the activity on the plan.
To develop environmentally balanced planning.
To identify and suggest preservation of monuments and heritage structures.
To regulate and control development in a planned manner.
The objectives of the plan conform to the principles formulated. Every principle has been
detailed out in the objectives.
7.2.2.
The methodology adopted to formulate the development plan has been to utilise the
data of various survey and studies available with the S.M.C. and the data from the district
panchayats upgrading the same. The information required to work out an integrated proposal
was collected and an assessment of the present scenario was made and future proposals were
thus formulated.
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7.2.3.
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PLAN PREPARATION
The planning process for the city of Surat is governed by the Gujarat Town Planning
and Urban Development Act, 1976 under the provisions of which the Surat Urban
Development Authority prepares the development plan for the entire area of SUDA including
the area under the Surat Municipal Corporation.
As per the provision of GTP&UD Act, 1976, the development plan is to be revised every ten
years. In accordance to this the authority has prepared a Revised Development Plan for its
area which comprises of the area within SMC limits and 130 neighbouring villages. The
areas delineated for planning coincide with those specified in the Act and there are no
conflicts as such.
The Revised Development plan has been prepared upto a plan period of 2011 for an
estimated population of 42 lacs. This document is divided into two parts where part I deals
with the analysis of the existing situation and part II consists of various plan proposals.
However, the plan is not divided into phases for the purpose of implementation or
monitoring.
The Town planning Organisation, the Surat Municipal Corporation and the District
panchayats of Surat cooperated with the Urban development Authority in the preparation of
the plan. Various Government and Semi Government organisations, including the Central
Government Departments, various associations and experts in the field were consulted during
the preparation of this plan.
As under section 13 of the GTP&UD Act, 1976, the authority published the Revised
Development Plan for inviting suggestions and objections from the public. The plan
proposals have been explained through various maps, charts and tables prepared.
7.2.4.
CONCEPT OF THE PLAN

One of the major considerations in the preparation of the plan was to utilise the
existing infrastructure facility to the extent possible. The Development plan does talk about a
concept based on which the land use for the city of Surat has been planned. Many areas in the
existing S.M.C. limit are in the process of development. Since corporation has financial as
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well as implementation machinery the plan proposes to utilise S.M.C. area with improved
environmental condition in a most economical way.
After the first development plan, the population of the walled city has shown decline during
1981-1991. The density of the walled area varies between 250 and 400 pph whereas the
extended areas show a density of 10 150 pph.
As per the concept of the Draft Development Plan, the existing SMC area will have a
moderate density of 240 pph by 2011 and will accommodate a population of 15 lacs within
the planned urban areas in SUDA limit. Also, the villages within SUDA limit are expected to
grow with a very low decadal growth rate of 20%. Thus to accommodate a population of 12.5
lacs by 2011, an adequate area is necessary to be put under active urbanisation.
Based on these observations an overall urbanisation concept has been derived:
1.
To develop highly potential node to well planned residential hub with all infrastructure
and public amenities.
2.
To develop vast Kharland available south of SUDA.
3.
To develop necessary fringe area around SMC limit that is under development
pressure.
7.2.5.
DECISION SUPPORT SYSTEMS

Information regarding the spatial structure of Surat along with its evolution and
growth has been accounted for. The physiological features of Surat and the area under the
SUDA jurisdiction have been analysed. The coast line and the natural slope lines, thus the
flood prone area map in the SUDA area have been identified. Spatial analysis of the affected
population due to flooding has also been studied. The embankment scheme and the need for
it to be strengthened have also been accounted for.
Various other physiographical and climatic features have been considered such as the
temperature, wind and rainfall data along with the seasonal variation in rainfall over the
years. The irrigable land of Surat (SUDA extent) has also been mapped with respect to slopes
and soil types.
Existing land use analysis has been carried out mainly dividing Surat into three parts:
Walled city
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Surat Municipal Corporation area (excluding walled city)

Surat Urban Development Authority area (Excluding SMC area)
This analysis covers various sections with respect to area, evolution and growth of each part,
the main activity pattern and the change in activity pattern. The existing situation analysis for
each of these parts has also been carried out with respect to presence of recreational greens,
institutional areas as against the residential and commercial uses. The major growth corridors
have thus been identified and gaps in development have been highlighted.
Spatial analysis of housing conditions have also been carried out for slums based on the
ownership of the land on which these pockets are located, the evolution of slums and status
of the slum households. The basic amenities existing in the slum pockets have also been
studied and an analysis of housing shortage has been carried out.
A spatial analysis of the transportation system has also been carried out. The SUDA area has
been subdivided into two major structural groups from the traffic and transportation point of
view:
SMC Area
SUDA Area
The existing road networks have been studied under two major heads of ring roads and other
roads. Also a study of the mass transport facility has been carried out and the passenger trips
made with respect to the road width etc. Problems have been identified that need to be
addressed in the proposals.
A study of the economic activities and their spatial spread has also been made. This study
consists of an understanding of the various industries and other commercial activities, their
location and development.
Similarly, a study of the utilities and services has also been made. The water supply and
sewerage networks that exist in the city have been identified and the gaps have been
accounted for. Power supply and other civic amenities have also been analysed.
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7.2.6.
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ASSESSMENT OF NEEDS
The population of SUDA area is projected in two phases 2001 and 2011. This has
been worked out by three different methods, namely, simple interest method, compound
interest method and decline growth rate. A mean value of these that comes to be around 42
lacs has then been considered as the population (2011) to be planned for.
On the basis of this estimation, the SUDA area is divided into three parts as described in the
concept and accordingly the demand and need assessment has been carried out.
7.2.7.

The Gujarat Town Planning and Urban Development Act, 1976 states that a draft
development plan shall generally indicate the manner in which the use of land in the area
covered by it shall be regulated and also indicate the manner in which the development
therein shall be carried out. In particular, it shall provide, so far as may be necessary, for all
or any of following matters, namely:a. proposals for designating the use of the land for residential, industrial, commercial,
agricultural and recreational purposes;
b. proposals for the reservation of land for public purposes, such as schools, colleges, and
other educational institutions, medical and public health institutions, markets, social
welfare and cultural institutions, theatres and places for public entertainment, public
assembly, museums, art galleries, religious buildings, play-grounds, stadium, open
spaces, dairies and for such other purpose as may, from time to time, be specified by
the State Government;
c. proposals for designation of areas for zoological gardens, green belts, natural reserves
and sanctuaries;
d. transport and communications, such as roads, highways, parkways, railways,
waterways, canals and airport including their extension and development;
e. proposals for water supply, drainage, sewage disposal, other public utility amenities
and services including supply of electricity and gas;
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f. preservation of land for community facilities and services;

g. proposals for designation of sites for service industries, industrial estates and any other
industrial development on an extensive scale.
h. Preservation, conservation and development of areas of natural scenery and landscape;
i. Preservation of features, structures or places of historical, natural, architectural or
scientific interest and of educational value;
j. Proposals for flood control and prevention of river pollution;
k. Proposals for the reservation of land for the purpose of Union, any State, local
authority or any other authority or body established by or under any law for the time
being in force;
l. The filling up or reclamation of low lying, swampy or unhealthy areas or leveling up of
land;
m. Provision for controlling and regulating the use and development of land within the
development area, including imposition of conditions and restrictions in regard to the
open space to be maintained for buildings, the percentage of building area for a plot,
the locations, number, size, height, number of storeys and character of buildings and
density of built up area allowed in specified area, the use and purposes to which a
building or specified areas of land may or may not be appropriated, the sub-divisions of
plots, the discontinuance of objectionable uses of land in any area in any specified
period, parking spaces, loading and unloading space for any building and the sizes of
projections and advertisement signs and hoardings and other matters as may be
considered necessary for carrying out the objects of this Act;
n. Provisions for preventing or removing pollution of water or air caused by the discharge
of waste or other means as a result of the use of land;
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o. Such other proposals for public or other purposes as may from time to time be
approved by the area development authority or as may be directed by the State
Government in this behalf.
The Revised Development Plan 2011, consists of the following:
a. Proposed Land Use: This has been proposed on the basis of a concept as per the
population projected. The demands and needs have been assessed before coming up
with these proposals.
b. Proposed Transportation System: This consists of short term and long term measures
separately. It also consists of a regional approach. The transportation system has been
designed as per the evolving urban form. The major actions required have been
highlighted in the revised proposed development plan. A proposal for a new ring road
and a canal road has been made. New bridges across river Tapi have also been
proposed. A micro level transport network has also been proposed.
c. Proposals for infrastructure: Water supply and sewerage networks have been proposed
for augmentation.
d. Development of Urban Area SUDA Township at Abhava
Physical Aspects
a.
Settlement Pattern and Land use
The overall urbanisation concept has been derived:

1.
To develop highly potential node to well planned residential hub with all infrastructure
and public amenities.
2.
To develop vast Kharland available south of SUDA.
3.
To develop necessary fringe area around SMC limit that is under development
pressure.
Based on this concept and on the topography of SUDA the barriers of the river passing north
east to south-east and broad gauge railway line passing north south play a vital role in the
creation of present structure of the city.
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The National Highway at Valthan and ending at Dumas is proposed to be developed as a

major link road covering an approximate distance of 28 kms. The industrial linkage will
enhance the development south-west part of SUDA area having vast kharland. Intensive
industrial development at Sachin and Ichapore-Hazira area also linked with Un-Magdalla by
pass will also give a boost to residential development. Tapi passing through the core and
Mindhola through the southern end will provide abundant water resources to the area.
On the basis of past experience and baseline study, the need for economical use of urban land
and the overall density of 240 pph has been envisaged for future development of SMC area.
Thus it is assumed that existing SMC area will absorb 25 lacs population by 2011. To create
healthy environment it is required to put up sufficient amount of open spaces for recreational
and amusement purpose which lacks in the existing Surat city structure (refer Map 7.4).
Keeping this in mind average low density of 80 pph has been considered for future
requirement. The proposed urbanisation area of SUDA is broadly divided into: Residential,
Commercial, Industrial, Educational, Recreational and Agricultural uses.
Table 7.2: Land Use Distribution, Surat
Use
Residential
Commercial
Industrial
Educational/
Public Purpose
Recreation,
Garden and
Open Space
Transport &
Communication
Agriculture
Total
Existing
SUDA area
1978 (Ha)
2695.6
141.3
1006.4
%
39.97
2.09
14.91
Proposed
SUDA area
2001 (Ha)
9806.18
415.72
3023.4
%
57.53
2.44
17.74
Existing
SUDA area
1995 (Ha)
6189
256
2784
540
22.21
790.92
1550
6745
%
46.76
1.93
21.03
Proposed
SUDA area
2011 (Ha)
16321
928
4510
%
55.27
3.14
15.27
579.82
3.4
735
5.55
3350
11.34
0.34
106.61
0.62
58
0.47
1210
4.1
11.72
22.97
100
1561.41
1550
17043
9.18
9.09
100
1661
1550
13234
12.55
11.71
100
3212
10.88
29531
100
Source: Revised Development Plan 2011, City Development Plan
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Surat urban agglomeration is experiencing a varied density pattern. The estimated housing
requirements for 2001 and 2011 will be 1.7 and 2.9 lacs respectively. In order to reduce the
pressure on Surat city, suitable location of residential zone in relation to economic activities
has been earmarked in the revised development plan. The development plan proposes to
create urban environment in the kharland available south of SUDA area for future
urbanisation. In the revised plan 16,321 ha has been proposed for residential use.
The area between the existing ring road and newly proposed canal road has potential for
commercial development. The development plan has earmarked this area for commercial
development. To ease the pressure on city, transport node that has facilities of warehousing,
whole sale stores etc have been proposed away from the city core along the state highway.
The existing development had proposed 4500 ha of land under industrial use which is still
undergoing development, only part of which has been developed. Keeping this in mind the
revised development plan does not propose any further industrial land use.
A large campus that had been kept reserved for Gujarat University is in the process of
development. Local land required for primary and secondary school will be fulfilled in town
planning schemes. Land for various public utilities like water supply, sewerage,
communication has been reserved in the revised development plan. Recreational purpose has
been proposed along the Tapi in order to utlise the water front. Land has been earmarked for
urban recreational open greens at strategic locations in order to create a healthy environment.
b.
Shelter
As per the requirements of housing estimated, by 2011 approximately 5.8 lac houses will be
required to house the projected population. Large number of housing stock will be required
to cater the needs of economically weaker sections of people. A number of agencies have
undertaken projects to meet these ever growing demands. To solve the crucial problem of
slums, site and service schemes have been proposed and approximately 200 Ha land has been
reserved for provision of serviced plots to slum dwellers. 1296 ha of land has been reserved
for agencies like the GHB, SCB etc to create a housing stock. The development plan thus has
proposed to facilitate the life of the economically weaker section.
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c.
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Infrastructure
Water Supply:
SMC has built a water weir cum causeway in a joint venture with the Hazira Area Industrial
Association to create a permanent water source for both the areas. It is proposed in this plan
to set up water works to provide water supply to the envisaged urban area through micro
level planning at the town planning scheme level. Consultant experts were engaged to form
JVs with private developers for this project.
Sewerage:
The SMC has made a plan to cover the entire Surat area with a sewerage system. This plan
has been worked out on short term immediate measures to be implemented by 1998. In the
revised Development Plan, land has been reserved at appropriate places for setting up of
sewage treatment plants etc. Micro level planning of treatment has been taken up at TP
scheme levels.
The draft development plan however does not detail any proposals for other infrastructure
facilities like power supply, telecommunication or drainage or Solid waste management.
Also there is no need or demand assessment on the basis of which the water required or the
STPs are designed. The projected population has not been used to calculate these
requirements or to propose for these facilities accordingly. Social infrastructure like
hospitals, educational centres, and other socio cultural or commercial infrastructure have not
been proposed for or assessed.
d.
Urban Form
The development control regulations that form a part of a development plan for any city,
govern the urban form for a city. The DCR for Surat has been published along with the draft
development plan. The DCR however, does not have any information regarding land use
zoning. The regulations however do go into details of setbacks, height restrictions, FSI,
ground coverage and road widths. It also contains norms with regard to parking and fire
norms. It also dictates norms related to public open space requirements.
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e.
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Built Heritage
Neither the development plan nor the development control regulations have any information
or standards regarding conservation of built heritage.
Natural Resources: The draft development plan of Surat has not deliberated upon the
various indicators of relating to environmental components like, water channels, natural
drainage, green areas, natural drainage, wetlands, hills, ridges and mineral resources. It also
does not elaborate upon optimum utilisation of natural resources or minimising over utilising
the natural resources.
Climate Change: The climate change factor has not been discussed in the draft
development. It does not in any way discuss sustainability issues.
Urban Environment Quality: Pollution in any form, be it water pollution, air pollution,
noise pollution or land degradation has not been elaborated upon in the draft development
plan. No measures have been suggested to minimise the degradation of the urban
environment.
Disaster Management: The development plan has identified the flood prone areas in Surat
and has mapped the same. However, the plan has not marked the vulnerable communities or
identified measures to be taken to manage disaster risks.
Social Aspects
Inclusivity: The development plan is not completely inclusive in nature. It does not cater to
different age groups in particular. The proposals are not specific in terms of children, youth
or elderly. However, in terms of planning for shelters, the slums have been given importance.
To solve crucial problems of slums in the city, the revised development plan has proposed
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site and services schemes. Approximately, 200 Ha of land preferably under government
occupation has been reserved for SMC which can provide serviced plots to slum dwellers.
Other agencies like GHB, Slum Clearance Board, SUDA and GIDC which will also play an
active role for creating a housing stock. Approximately, 1296 Ha of land has been given to
these authorities to create housing stock.
Equity: The demand assessment does not throw any light upon equitable distribution of
housing or infrastructure provision. The proposals also do not highlight this factor.
Capacity Building and Public Participation: This aspect of capacity building has not been
included in the draft development plan.
Social Well-being: This section would include crime and security and personal development
and health. However, this aspect is not included in the development plan.
Economic Aspects
Surat being situated on the golden corridor and link with national network has emerged out
as important economic centre of the Surat Gujarat Region. Surat has come up as a major
textile and diamond business industry along with the intensive concentration of trade
industries and commercial activity in the city.
The development plan has classified the industries as per the nature of the activity. The
GIDC has taken initiative for development of industrial activity. The GIDC have established
five industrial estates, Andesara, Katargam, Sachin, Ichchapur and Hazira in and around
Surat city to relieve the congested city area from further congestion.
However, the revised draft development plan does not elaborate upon the economic
components in terms of GDP or contribution to the state domestic product. It also has not
gone into the details of local economic development or given any strategies to enhance it.
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7.2.8.
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The agency for implementation of each programme has been identified and indicated.
SUDAs revised development plan envisaged that the strategy for implementation and the
detailed planning of individual programmes would be under the sole jurisdiction of these
respective agencies. SUDA would encourage guide and coordinate their working with
implementation of these programmes.
The plan has been divided into two phases; phase 1 upto 2001 and phases 2 upto 2011. The
population projections have been done as per these phases. However, the proposals have not
been divided into phases in the draft development plan.
SUDA has made certain agencies and institutions responsible for implementation of the plan.
However, this has not been elaborated upon. The responsibility or accountability has not
been discussed in the plan. For the implementation of the Development Plan of the city at
micro level, SMC prepares the Town Planning Schemes for the area under its jurisdiction.
There is also no mention of stakeholder consultation or public participation in the plan
implementation part of the plan. Also a detailed investment plan has not been included
in the revised development plan of Surat. The Draft Development Plan does not
elaborate upon Monitoring or Review of the Plan.
a.
Interface between CDP and Draft Development Plan
The vision of Surat CDP is to make Surat A Global City with Global Standards - A city that
is competitive and offers a better quality of life by 2020. The strategic focus for achieving
the same is by Promoting growth
Good Governance
Improved service delivery
The overarching objectives being:
A Safe and Sustainable City: To make Surat an enterprising and inviting city by
creating a safe living and business friendly environment
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Improve Environmental Quality: Pollution-free, clean and green environment by

managing pollution. A cleaner river and sustained efforts towards natural resource
management and energy efficiency in internal systems
Figure 7.1: Concept of CDP, Surat
Source: City Development Plan, Surat
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The City Development Plan (2006-2012) report is divided in three sections.

Section I is an introduction to the city development plan, planning efforts in the city of Surat
and socio-economic profile of Surat City.
Section II is a situation analysis for various sectors such as urban basic services, physical
planning, roads and transportation, education and health, slums and housing, urban
governance and finance.
Section III of the report outlines the framework of Vision 2020 and integrating it with sector
wise issues, goals, strategies and action plans focusing on identification of projects, their
resources allocation and implementation mechanism.
Table 7.3: Comparative Analysis of Development Plan and CDP
REVISED DEVELOPMENT PLAN-2011
CDP (2006-2012)
Contents
Physiography and Land use
City Profile Values and Strength

Urban Planning and Growth Management
Population growth
Economic Activities
Social Development
Housing
Housing and urban poor

Urban Environment
Traffic and Transportation
Road and Transportation
Utilities and Services
Basic Services and Infrastructure
Plan Implementation
Urban Governance and Management

Urban finance and Management
Vision 2020 : Strategies and Project
Identification
Capital Improvement Programme
Source: Revised Development Plan 2011, City Development Plan
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From the above table, an inference can be drawn that the CDP covers all the aspects that the
development plan of Surat covers. Apart from these aspects, the CDP also covers other
specific aspects like Urban Finance and Management, Capital Improvement Programme,
Urban Environment etc.
Another observation that one can make is that the CDP is a micro level or specific sector plan
for the development plan. The CDP elaborates upon various schemes and proposals made in
the development plan. It has also proposed an investment plan for the same. The current
scenario analysis done in the CDP is further elaborate and more recent than the revised draft
development plan of Surat.
Apart from the aspects in the development plan, the CDP also gives special focus on
programmes related to urban poor, managing the governance system of Surat and provision
of basic infrastructure. Where the development plan talks only about water supply and
sewerage; the CDP also covers aspects of solid waste management and drainage.
The emerging issues of the CDP were Outgrowth in the Periphery and Urban land
management. The development plan of Surat also came up with the issue of outgrowth in the
urban fringe and has suggested measures for better land management.
The projects identified by the CDP for improving the urban basic services in Surat with
respect to water supply and sewerage are a continuation of the draft development plan. Apart
from these, the CDP also identified projects for drainage, SWM and transportation also.
Projects for slum rehabilitation have also been identified. Phase wise project costing and
investment plan has also been drawn for the same in the CDP. A strategic plan has also been
suggested for the improvement of health and education facilities in Surat.
Though the CDP is a derivative of the development plan, for certain aspects it surpasses the
development plan and strategizes for areas in depth that have not even been covered in the
development plan.
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Following are the criticisms and suggestions received during the Interviews and
Round Table Discussion with various stakeholders held at Surat in December 2009.
Comments
According to the Bombay Town and Country Planning Act 1954, Municipal Corporation was
empowered to make the plans but now after Gujarat Town Planning and Urban Development
Act 1976 came into force in 1978, Development Authority makes the plan. Implementation is
under the Municipal Corporation. To make the plan, Municipal Corporation and SUDA
formulate Town Planning Schemes for their respective areas of jurisdictions. There is a
provision in the act to revise the development plan after every 10yrs but the scenario is
totally different in reality. The plan was prepared in 1996, which only got sanctioned in 2004.
In terms of public participation, while preparing development plans or town planning
schemes, public objections are invited at the draft proposal stage only.
Criticisms on the Development Plan

Development Plan is a rigid document which often a back-dated and speculative document
due to time lag as mentioned above. There is a gap between Development Plan and TP
schemes which are basically concerned with distribution of areas and the qualitative aspects
in terms of form or cityscape or urban landscape and environment, are totally missing. There
is no investment plan or any kind of cost estimates for the development plan projects.
Suggestions
The Development Plan should act as an umbrella document for the various TP schemes in
both the SMC and SUDA areas. Major demarcations should be done in the Development
Plan. Also larger issues or future developments such as railways, airports etc should be
informed in advance by the Plan. The Plan should also look into the third dimension of
development instead of merely giving a Land Use Plan. Open spaces, urban environmental
quality and urban design components must be given due importance in the Plan apart from
the real estate market scenario. The Plan also needs to tackle emerging issues like Disaster
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Management as 25% of the Surat city lies in the flood plain. A review should be done in
maximum of 5yrs and this should be a regular task. The Development Plan document should
be flexible, phased out and have an estimate of the funding requirement.
7.4.
CONCLUSION
Surat has one of the best implemented Plans of the country but still there are a lot of
issues that can be observed based upon the critical appraisal of the Development Plan and
inputs from stakeholder consultations. Firstly, there are two authorities that are involved in
plan making and implementation: the SMC and the SUDA. The non-coordination between
these agencies has resulted in piecemeal development through TP schemes. This has also
been aggravated by the fact that the Development Plan has not turned out to be a
comprehensive document which can give a broad framework for integrated development of
both the SMC and SUDA areas. Moreover, the Plan also needs to incorporate emerging
issues like environmental quality, lack of infrastructure, disaster management and a
sustainable urban form.
Another major issue is with respect to monitoring and review of the Plan. As mentioned in
the previous section, there are huge delays in the process of plan preparation and approval
itself, leading to a back-dated plan document. This added to a lack of a monitoring
mechanism that has resulted in a revision which is based upon speculative projections and
may take umpteen numbers of years causing violations on ground during the transition phase.
Moreover, there is a need to coordinate the interface between the Development Plan under
the Gujarat Town Planning and Urban Development Act, the JnNURM CDP and the Plans
which are going to be prepared under the 74th CAA. Pressing emerging issues like climate
change, sustainable development and Inclusivity have also not been dealt in the Plan.
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Chapter 8 COMPARATIVE ASSESSMENT OF CASE STUDY CITIES
The chapters 4 to 7 dealt with the critical appraisal of the Plan documents of the case
study cities on the basis of the identified appraisal for framework as discussed in chapter 3.
They also made an attempt to compare the provisions of the respective acts and plans with the
actual situation based on the inputs from the stakeholder consultations. On the basis of this
detailed analysis of the Plan documents in the four case study cities and inputs from the
stakeholder consultations, the following conclusions may be derived.
8.1
LEGAL FRAMEWORK
The state town planning acts which are prevalent, in all four cases, have not actually been
followed to a large extent in preparation of the plan and so the plan is not in coherence with
the State Town Planning Acts. Also, the plans are concerned mainly with the physical aspects
i.e. land use and rest of the aspects like social, environmental, economic, etc are totally
ignored as there is no legal provision for them in the Acts. The Acts were also found to be
lacking any implementation and monitoring mechanism. To make planning better and more
efficient, the 73rd and 74th Amendment Acts should be properly implemented in the state.
8.2
JURISDICTION
The jurisdiction of the Master/ Development Plans in all cases is the Planning Area boundary,
except the Perspective Plan for Kolkata which has been prepared for the KMA. These
boundaries are found to be, generally, in co-incidence with other administrative boundaries
and there are no territorial conflicts as such. However, it was found that there are multiple
organizations which are planning and implementing projects/ plans for various aspects in the
planning area. The non-coordination between these agencies has resulted in piecemeal
development e.g. as found in the case of Surat. Dove-tailing is required between various
plans for e.g. Regional Plan and Master Plan, also between policy and implementation
framework. Decentralization in the Administrative Machinery is needed which will help to
address trans-boundary issues at higher levels.
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8.3
The Plans in all four cases have a vision and objectives. The vision, to a large extent, speaks
of emerging social and environmental concerns also, along with physical dimensions of
development. However, these have not actually been streamlined in the Plan, which limits
itself to land use and other physical aspects only. The exception to this is the Bangalore
Development Plan, which deals these issues to a certain extent.
8.4
Master planning process is not a linear process; all aspects need to be handled parallel to each
other vision / strategy / action plan / policy. Intertwining of various sectors along with
prioritizing the important sectors and phasing for development is needed for better results.
This kind of an approach is generally not observed in all the four cases. The approach seems
to be a linear one, which does not really include any feedback based on monitoring, review at
any stage.
8.5
CONCEPT
The Plans, in all four cities, seems to have followed a general planning/ design concept, as
may be observed from the land use, transportation plans, etc. However, it has not been
exclusively discussed in the Plan documents.
8.6
PLAN PREPARATION
As per the inputs from the stakeholder consultations, the Development Plans/ Master Plans
are found to be a rigid document, planned for a 20-25yrs. There is a long gap between present
and the future perception. The transition period is not considered. Also, long time delays have
been found in the preparation and approval of the Plans. Lack of decision support systems
like information system also contributes to this delay. Because of this, the plans often turn out
to be a back-dated and a speculative document. Thus, the time frame of preparation and
perspective period of the Plans is questionable. Although, there are provisions in the acts to
revise the plan periodically but the scenario is totally different in reality.
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8.7
The state town planning acts have broadly defined the components of the Plan. But the
development plans/ master plans have not turned out to a comprehensive document as per the
changing dynamics of the cities. This can be attributed to the fact that the Acts do not give
any legal provisions for any other components apart from the physical aspects like the land
use, land development controls and regulations, and infrastructure. Moreover, it was also
observed that the emerging concerns like disaster management, climate change, inclusivity,
sustainable urban form, aspect of the informal sector, heritage conservation, etc have also not
been incorporated in the Plans or Acts, with the changing needs of time. In some cases like
the Perspective Plan of KMA 2025, the vision statement has talked about sustainability
through provision of urban services. It has also incorporated the aspect of inclusivity in the
vision. But these have then not been dove tailed in the Plan document. A similar case was
observed for Bangalore development Plan also. The Plan should also look into the 3rd
dimension of development instead of merely giving a Land Use Plan. Open spaces, urban
environmental quality and urban design components must be given due importance in the
Plan apart from the real estate market scenario.
8.8
Based upon the critical appraisal of the Plans and inputs from stakeholder consultations, lack
of proper implementation, monitoring and review was found to be the most important reason
for failure of the Plans. The Acts were also found to be lacking any implementation and
monitoring mechanism. Moreover, it was also found that there is a major disconnect between
the planning body and the implementation body leading to violations. There is no specific
body which implements the Development Plan. Moreover, there is no Phasing of the Plan to
break it into Projects and finance mobilization. Weakest part is monitoring and evaluation.
The co-ordination between various departments is almost absent and state line departments
are not so concerned with the Plan document. Implementation problems and violations have
also happened due to inadequate capacity and institutional infrastructure for implementation
and monitoring of the Plan. The transitional no-plan period due to time delays is also a
major factor for such a scenario. Institutional structure for Plan implementation, monitoring
and review needs to be in place in addition to the plan making framework. Moreover,
implementation review policy needs to be defined as a legal tool. A land mechanism process
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needs to be evolved along with land acquisition to increase the land supply in blooming
metropolitan cities. The Plan needs to cover both the spatial and financial aspects
simultaneously for effective implementation.
8.9
INTERFACE BETWEEN CDP AND MASTER PLAN
On comparison of the Master Plan/ Development Plan and the City Development Plan for
respective cities that there is no interface as such between the two. Bangalore Development
Plan was an exception where the Development Plan was prepared after the City Development
Plan was formulated. Moreover, it was also observed that the two Plans deal at totally
different levels. The CDP focuses more on the infrastructure projects and their
implementation going into details of its finances and management but misses out totally on
the other fronts. The development plan/ master plan on the other hand totally lack on the
implementation and management front. Therefore, there is a need to coordinate the interface
between the Plan under the Town Planning Acts and the CDP under JnNURM.
8.10 PUBLIC PARTICIPATION

As per the current framework, public participation is at the end stage of the plan making
process in form of objections/ suggestions which are invited after the draft plan is prepared
and brought out in the public domain. Therefore, in terms of overall approach to planning
there is hardly any public participation. But it has been identified and established at various
forums that people should be involved prior to this stage also. Public participation should
start at the inception of the project, as this would also help in prioritizing issues. It has to be
given due importance at all stages to make the whole process more meaningful, transparent
and realistic. The 73rd and 74th CAA have been an attempt in this direction, to bring the
participation at grass roots level and to make the plans more people-centric. However, the
framework defined under these amendments has to be properly implemented in the states
because even though the 74th amendment is a bottom-up approach, but in reality, ground level
problems are not addressed. For example in case of Kolkata, the framework under the 74th
CAA has been implemented and KMPC has been constituted but the Perspective Plan was
formulated by the KMDA and it is really not clear, whether at what stages the peoples
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perceptions were taken into account, except for a few meetings of KMPC. In all the other 3
cases public participation is only at the draft plan stage.
8.11 CONCLUSION
Based upon the above discussion the following points may be concluded.
Firstly, there are various authorities that are involved in plan making and implementation.
The non-coordination between these agencies has resulted in piecemeal development and
violations. This has also been aggravated by the fact that the Development Plan has not
turned out to be a comprehensive document which can give a broad framework for integrated
development. The Plan also needs to incorporate emerging issues like inclusivity,
environmental quality, lack of infrastructure, disaster management and a sustainable urban
form. In case of Bangalore and Kolkata, the Plans are comparatively better documents in
terms of contents of the Plan as they seem to have referred some of the emerging issues,
although not in detail. One of the major drawbacks of the Plans are with respect to their focus
on the physical aspects and high end sectors leading to non-inclusion of other important
issues related to environment and inclusion. Another important issue is the lack of phasing
and investment planning for implementation of the Plans. Also time delays in the plan
making, approval and implementation processes have lead to failure of the plan document.
This added to a lack of a monitoring mechanism results in a revision which is based upon
speculative projections and may take umpteen numbers of years causing violations on ground
during the transition phase. Another major issue that may be observed is that of review of the
Plan. A review should be done in maximum 5yrs and this should be a regular task. Also time
delays in the plan making, approval and implementation processes have lead to failure of the
plan document. The Master plan document should be flexible, phased out and have an
estimate of the funding requirement. Public Participation has also to be given due importance
at all stages to make the whole process more meaningful, transparent and realistic.
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AlternativePlanningApproach
Chapter 9
9.1
ALTERNATIVE PLANNING APPROACH
INTRODUCTION
In recent years, there has been a revival of interest in urban planning in developing
countries among some international development agencies, organizations and countries
(Farmer et al., 2006; UN-Habitat, 2009). This revival is centred both on the roles planning
could play in promoting sustainable urbanization, and on new approaches to planning that go
beyond the critiques of old style master planning. The broad outlines of current thinking are
expressed in the Global Planners Network document on Reinventing Planning (Farmer et
al., 2006), which sees planning as promoting integrated, inclusive and participatory
development, in contrast to past technocratic and narrowly physical planning approaches.
New approaches to spatial planning have also been emerging for some time (Healey, Khakee,
Motte, & Needhanm, 1997), and there have been initiatives to develop more appropriate a
approaches for developing countries (Clarke, 1992; Singh & Steinberg, 1996).
In the European context, spatial planning has shifted from focusing purely on land use
towards an emphasis on the spatial integration of sectors and policies. Strategic spatial
planning has become significant over the past decade as a way of shaping urban growth. In
contrast to master planning, there is a strong emphasis on inclusive stakeholder participation
processes, and planning focuses only on key strategic elements. New forms of master
planning focused on urban design have also emerged.
Considering the urbanization rate and the fact that most of the worlds population would
be living in urban areas in future, new challenges for planning emerge i.e. sustainability, fastpaced
development,
climate
change,
globalization
and
competitiveness,
efficient
management, livability, inclusiveness and financial stability of future cities from the planning
and implementation point of view. The present day cities need to organize, manage and
facilitate their growth and make it sustainable apart from positioning them at global level.
According to Freire and Stren (2001), cities must be sustainable in four ways, they must be
livable, well managed, governed and financially sustainable. A new context of development
and need for new development scenarios have thus emerged. Planned urban development has
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thus to search beyond the realms of land use planning into systems, mechanisms, strategies
for guiding the development of the cities of the future.
The challenge of reorienting the urbanisation process, thus, lies in overcoming the
infrastructural deficiencies and taking the best advantage of economic momentum inherent in
urbanisation. A proper urban planning development approach must have a participatory
planning process apart from addressing the spatial context of the investments in the city. The
link between various levels of plans and the chain of policies-plans-projects need to be
emphasized. The balance between collective well being of people and resource management
needs to be the basis for socio-economic growth and environmental monitoring. This calls for
constant updated information for decision support and effectuation. The GIS or geographic
information systems serves as an apt tool, and also a critical bridge between environmental
conditions and urban planning.
The advent of sustainable, inclusive cities calls for comprehensive, forward-looking
strategies in which a more bottom- up than top-down type of planning can have a major
positive role to play. This includes provision of basic infrastructure like water, sanitation,
power and public transport, a lack of which is a significant factor behind urban poverty in the
developing world.
These efforts must be based on well-articulated national urban policies and adequate
capacity- building. Instead of being manipulated by local elites, regulatory systems must
adhere to the principle of equality under the law. In their new role they must also be both
protective and developmental as well as participatory and socially inclusive. Thus planning
efforts for the future cities and towns should
have a focus on sustainability:
integrate between sectors and with budgets:
be participatory, involving a wide range of stakeholders:
be inclusive, recognizing diversity.
understand markets and producing credible plans, backed by public investment where
appropriate:
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recognize the reality of informal settlements and slums:
develop contextually appropriate, affordable, strategic and effective forms of planning
and land use management.
9.2
DEFINING THE ALTERNATIVE PLANNING APPROACH
The alternative approach was formulated based on the background studies, round
table discussions and workshops with representatives from various government
organizations, planning and municipal bodies professionals from the field of planning and
design, experts from international organizations, and academicians, private organizations,
non-governmental organizations and stakeholders from the case study cities.
The proposed planning approach emanates out of the existing socio-economic-political-legal
system. The approach is in consonance with the stipulations as laid down by the 74th
Constitutional Amendment Act. It focuses on the various linkages. The linkages are between
plans at various hierarchical levels, between policies, plans, programmes and projects and
between various development sectors and investments. The city is a part of its region or
hinterland. Thus the Plan should be prepared in the broader framework of regional plans or
within the regional context so as to ensure the link and the context specific development. The
city also constitutes a number of wards. The plan of the city should serve as a framework for
preparation of lower order and local level plans as well as draw upon the local level plans.
The vertical linkage i.e. from international, national, state, district, region to city and local
level thus would get established by linking up the plan for the city to the higher and lower
order levels. The development of urban areas has been influenced by various policies,
sometimes the land policy, industrial policy, the office location policy, slum rehabilitation
policies, and so on. In many cases, conflicts exist between the policies themselves and as a
result confusion prevails, which gets manifested in the development. Secondly, the land use
plan or the spatial strategies do not get synchronized with the policies. It thus becomes
essential to coordinate the policies with the plans. Most often, the projects do not synchronise
with the focus areas of the plan. Whereas the programmes and projects need to be the way
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forward from the strategies and the policies as identified by the plan i.e. the plan should
provides guidance for projects. The approach thus stresses the need for the horizontal linkage
i.e. linking of the policies with master plan, zonal plan, programmes and projects.
The approach takes into cognizance the fact that the city is a multidimensional entity, with
social, economic, environmental and governance dimensions. It aims at sustainable integrated
development of the city. The approach addresses the emerging concerns and challenges of
planning and development. It stresses on conservation and protection of natural and built
heritage, urban development induced climate change, management of risks etc. According to
the Global Report on Human Settlements 2009 of the United Nations, A critical issue in
effective urban planning is to relate strategies, policies and specific proposals to the resources
that could achieve them.
The proposed alternative approach or the proposed plan is termed as Strategic Spatial Plan.
The UN Habitat Report, Global report on Human Settlements 2009, refers to Strategic plan as
a broader-level selective (or prioritizing) spatial plan, usually showing, in a more conceptual
way, the desired future direction of urban development. Particular decision-making processes
accompany the production of a strategic plan. Strategic spatial planning focuses on only those
aspects or areas that are strategic or important to overall plan objectives and address specific
issues and challenges. A strategic plan would incorporate measures necessary for citys
economic growth, broad patterns of growth directions, identifying and promoting key prime
decisions which would help to guide the development in desired directions and patterns. The
key concerns in a strategic plan are different from that of the traditional master planning
approach. The focus on land use patterns change to measures of augmenting provision of
serviced land through infrastructure programmes, improving, access to serviced land for
different groups in society, strengthening of the urban economic base, ensuring commercial
viability with social justice in the provision of services, developing action plans for the social
services, etc. Very often the strategies i.e. city level as well as sector specific strategies do not
have a spatial or territorial dimension, and thus do not achieve the targets. Considering the
phenomenon of globalization and increasing competitiveness that the city faces or has to face
eventually, the economic, infrastructural and social policies need to be coordinated and
integrated in the spatial context. Hence the plan is termed as strategic spatial plan in order to
focus on the spatial dimension of the strategies, policies and investments.
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The process of plan formulation is as important as the product i.e. the plan itself. In addition,
the plan needs to be carried forward in terms of implementation. As per the Global Report on
Human Settlements 2009, Coordination and integration of policy ideas of line-function
departments is essential (because planning is not just about the functional use of land), and
the plan itself cannot achieve this coordination: new institutional relationships must evolve to
do this. The plan must therefore be institutionally embedded and must act to build social
capital in governance structures. At present there is no process of monitoring and evaluation
of the plan implementation. As per Global Report on Human Settlements, 2009, of the United
Nations, Monitoring and evaluation can demonstrate whether urban planning has made a
difference, whether it has improved (or undermined) the quality of life and well-being of the
citys residents, enhanced sustainability, or achieved related goals and objectives. Since the
approach is focused on implementation as well as monitoring and evaluation of the plan, the
institutional mechanisms and governance issues become significant. The plan is proposed to
be a rolling plan i.e. updating and revision of the plan would be a continuous process with
monitoring and evaluation of the plan is proposed to done after every 3 years. The plan
requires regular evaluation and revision to remain an effective guide to future land use
decision-making. The process of evaluation would include a comparison of current data to
goals and projections in the plan, as well as a review of the substance of goals, objectives,
and policies.
Plan preparation needs to be made more scientific by undertaking studies in the physical,
social, economic and institutional aspects of the city so as to include the aspects in the
planning process. Creation of realistic and reliable data base or information system for the
cities forms an integral part of the decision support system that is critical in evolving an end
product which would help in promoting desired urban development. As the Strategic Plan
requires more frequent reviews, it needs to be supported by efficient management
information systems. This would help to make more rational and informed decisions.
The approach is participatory and stakeholder driven i.e. to make the plan inclusive in terms
of incorporation of stakeholders interests at various stages. The purpose of Public
Participation is to involve the stakeholders for better quality of decisions in planning and
development and for ensuring efficient governance and management in settlements.
Involvement of people in the planning of the city can be for
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vision formulation;
identification, assessment of the needs and problems of the city;
assessment of the potentials and prospects of the city;
policy formulation, plan preparation and participation;
implementation of the plan in terms of development activities and environmental

protection;
evaluation of the plan and
identifying investment decisions.
The question is how to achieve an effective participatory process in plan formulation

implementation and evaluation at various levels i.e. city level, local level etc. The task
therefore is to identify the stakeholders e.g. citizens, their representatives, policy makers,
administrators, experts etc. and identify the stages in the planning process at which
stakeholders involvement can be effective. The approach is strategic i.e. more focused and
less comprehensive. It lays emphasis on implementation by linking up with investments,
projects, etc.
Stakeholders perception and involvement in formulating vision is necessitated through
inputs from stakeholders at various stages of the process. Peoples participation in
preparation of policies and plans should be ensured through elected representatives in the
municipal council / corporation and ward committees.
Stakeholders inputs are categorized into 4 sets:
Stakeholder Set 1, comprising Experts, Professionals, Academicians, Policy Makers, elected
politicians e.g. Minister-in-charge and others, i.e. Private sector and NGOs.
Stakeholder Set 2, comprising elected politicians, e.g. MPs AND MLAs.
Stakeholder Set 3, comprising elected politicians, e.g. Ward Councillors.
Stakeholder Set 4, comprising NGOs/CBOs,/SHGs/Associations.
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The plan for the cities has been referred to by various terminologies i.e. Master Plan,
Structure Plan, Perspective Plan, Development Plan, Strategic Plan, etc. as already mentioned
in Chapter 2. (Refer Part 2.1) The approach of the plan, the contents and the level at which
the problems have been addressed also vary. The jurisdictions also vary for various plans in
terms of metropolitan area, planning area, municipal area, tehsil boundary/block boundary
etc. In some cases the area identified as the planning area and the administrative area are not
co-terminus. The jurisdiction of the plan is the Municipal Corporation / Municipality Area
i.e. area under the Urban Local Body.
An oft-repeated argument against the master plan has been the long overdrawn process of
plan formulation vis--vis the growth and development of the cities and the resultant
increased demands of the growing population. The city outgrows the estimations as put forth
in the plan due to the long time horizon of the plan that spans more than one decade, i.e. 2025 years. Apart from that the delays in the plan making and plan approval processes goes
against the purpose of planned development. The perspective period i.e. the time horizon of
the plan is thus proposed to be 10 years.
The main organisations responsible for planning of the city an d the region prior to the 74th
Constitution Amendment Act (CAA) were State Town Planning Departments, Urban
Development Authorities and Urban Improvement Trusts.
The legal provisions at various levels, i.e. at state and local, have provided the framework for
planned development in cities and towns. The State Town and Country Planning Acts in
various states have dictated the Planning Process for planned development of cities and
towns, land being in the State List. The Development Authorities have been involved in
implementation of the Development Plan by acquiring and developing the land within its
jurisdiction i.e. in the Planning Area as identified for planned development. The
Development Authority is constituted under the Development Authority Act or State Town
and Country Planning Legislation. The Urban Local Body responsible for the administration
and governance of the city is constituted under the Municipal Corporation Act/
Municipalities Act. However, the 74th Constitution Amendment Act (CAA), 1992 has
brought in significant changes in the planning of the city and the region in terms of the
functions of the Urban Local Body. As per the Act, town planning is one of the functions
assigned to the Urban Local Body that makes the organization responsible for making the
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plans for the city. The Development Authority, which at present prepares the plan for the
identified planning area, is proposed to be the technical arm of the Metropolitan Planning
Committee. The jurisdiction of the Urban Local Body (Municipal Corporations,
Municipalities and Nagar Panchayats), the Metropolitan Planning Committee and the District
Planning Committee are within the Municipal Corporation area/ Municipality area / Nagar
Panchayat area, Metropolitan area and the District respectively.
At present the acts that govern the abovementioned organizations are not aligned to each
other as well as the 74th Constitutional Amendment Act; in fact they are also conflicting with
each other. Thus confusion prevails with resultant delays in plan preparation, approval of the
plan and implementation of the plan. Effective and timely plan preparation, approval and
implementation processes necessitate that the acts be compatible and in line with each other.
Thus it calls for amendments in the Urban Local Body Act i.e. Municipal Corporation Act /
Municipality Act as well as the Development Authorities Act.
9.3
STAGES OF THE PROPOSED APPROACH (Refer Fig. 9.1: Alternative
Approach)
Stage 1: Formulating the vision, aim and objectives

The city is linked up with its region that is a part of the metropolitan area and/or the district
also impacted by the international, national and regional level plans, policies and strategies.
Considering that there is a necessity of coordination at various levels, the strategic spatial
plan is thus framed in line i.e. the form and contents of the plan is shaped by the multilevel
initiatives.
The vision for the city is thus formulated taking into consideration the
a. Policy guidelines at the international, national and state levels,
b. Development Plan at the District and Metropolitan area level,
c. Stakeholders input
d. Characteristics of the city and its region
International policy guidelines/ initiatives for urban areas include the Millennium
Development Goals, Agenda 21, policies for climate change, policies for displaced people in
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urban areas etc. The initiatives at the international levels have helped to benchmark/establish
international standards and guidelines for nations and cities to develop their own policies.
The initiatives have also directed the focus to significant global problems that need to be
addressed at the national level and urban settlement level. The blueprints for action as
chalked out in the international conferences have formed the basis of the plan.
The national policies and missions also provide directions/ guidelines for the citys
development. The national missions as part of the National Action Plan on Climate Change,
the Urban Sanitation Policy etc. provides the broad framework for the city plan. Public
participation is ensured from the very first stage of formulation of vision, aim and objectives..
Inputs from consultations with Stakeholder set 1 i.e. comprising Experts, Professionals,
Academicians, Policy Makers, and Elected Politicians e.g. Minister-in-charge and others, i.e.
Private sector and NGOs
Stage 2: Information System
Spatial decision support methods especially Geographic Information systems (GIS) are very
useful in the process of urban planning. GIS as a computerized system for storage, retrieval,
visualization, analysis and modeling of spatial information, facilitates different stages of the
urban planning process and is crucial for facilitating informed discussion and decision
making in planning. It can describe physical, economic, social and environmental processes
that are required to solve specific problems and support the formulation of policy packages
and strategies. An information system can make possible the fine-tuning of the plan proposals
at the various stages of implementation of the plan according to the changing urban scenario.
The information system that is generated is based upon the vision, aim and objectives.
Information system includes both spatial as well as non-spatial information that can be
generated from participator approaches.
The information system is proposed to be generated from
a.
Vision, aim and objectives
b.
Policy guidelines at the international, national and state levels,
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c.
Development Plan at the District and Metropolitan area level,
d.
Urban Local Body and plans at the ward level
e.
Technological inputs i.e. GIS based
f.
Benchmarks i.e. various standards
g.
Stakeholders input
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The plans at ward levels include Use premises, three dimensional strategies, Utilities and
services, Development Regulations/ Building Byelaws/ Form Based codes, Disaster issues
and Local economic Development and are based on the inputs from Stakeholder set 3, i.e.
Ward Councillors and Stakeholder set 4 comprising NGOs/CBOs,/SHGs/Associations. Inputs
from consultations with Stakeholder set 1 i.e. comprising Experts, Professionals,
Academicians, Policy Makers, and Elected Politicians e.g. Minister-in-charge and others, i.e.
Private sector and Stakeholder set 4 comprising NGOs/CBOs,/SHGs/Associations.
Stage 3: Data Analysis and Forecasting
The plan making process needs continuous collection, interpretation and updating of data. A
computer-generated data base and information system in GIS environment should be
developed at various levels which would provide support to planners in development
planning. A spatial analytical and decision making frameworks should be appropriate to
investigate the city and to evaluate its potential evolution over time. These can be achieved
by implementing strategic planning and developing strategies, plans, policies and projects.
The Plan should be prepared taking into consideration the resource potentials of its region
and not only of the citys structure and characteristics. The information has to be analysed for
assessment of the
Status of the city in terms of various aspects
Availability of resources and
Hazards, vulnerabilities and risks.
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Land suitability analysis for the purposes of development , conservation and protection is an
integral part of the analysis process as lands that need to be conserved and /or are unsuitable
for development in terms of environmental sensitivity are being taken up for the purposes of
development. As a chain of consequences, over exploitation of the resource base and
inefficient use of the resources, in terms of land utilization, water usage and energy
consumption have taken place. The natural resources include environmentally sensitive areas
and vulnerable areas that are necessary to be preserved and conserved for the sustainability of
the settlement. Forecasting and estimation of the future requirements of resources,
infrastructure is also to be worked out at this stage.
The analysis and the forecasts need to be discussed with the Stakeholders Set 2 and
Stakeholders Set 4 for their input in Policy Guidelines.
Stage 4: Policy Guidelines for Planning / Development of city

Planning process is essentially a matter of continuous implementation of policies that vary
with contexts and time span. Policies are crucial for decision making process that
communicate or guide the activities and outputs or consequences of these activities should
influence the revision of policies. Many a time policies are not coherent and there are
conflicts between various policies; the policies are also not integrated with the plan.
The future requirements of the city along with the availability and the existing status of usage
of the resources would determine the policy guidelines for its future development. The issues
of resource use, conservation, augmentation, recycling as well as the shape of future
development need to be spelt out in the policy guidelines. The Policy guidelines need to
notified under law as it can help in identifying priority areas, subsequent modifications in the
plans and administration, in general.
Stage 5: Draft Strategic Spatial Plan (DSSP)

The Draft Strategic Spatial Plan comprises of five components, i.e.
1. Strategies
2. Plans
3. Phasing of the plans
4. Investments
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5. Projectisation
The Plans are categorized into
Land use- Transportation Urban Form plan
Natural and Built Heritage conservation plan:
Infrastructure plan
Economic Development Plan
Disaster Risk Management
Land use- Transportation Urban Form Plan

The National Urban Transport Policy has stated that . encouraging integrated land use and
transport planning in all cities so that travel distances are minimized and access to
livelihoods, education, and other social needs, especially for the marginal segments of the
urban population is improved. Further, transport planning is intrinsically linked to land use
planning and both need to be developed together in a manner that serves the entire population
and yet minimizes travel needs. In developing such plans, attention should also be paid to
channel the future growth of a city around a pre- planned transport network rather than
develop a transport system after uncontrolled sprawl has taken place. Transport plans should,
therefore, enable a city to take an urban form that best suits the geographical constraints of its
location and also one that best supports the key social and economic activities of its residents
promote the development of such integrated land use and transport plans for all cities.
An integrated approach for land use and transportation planning is added for a balanced
distribution of home and workplaces so as to reduce the travel demand and ensure that new
development areas are well served by transportation. Higher density housing and
commercial developments are planned around and integrated with rail transit. Considering
that the city growth is rapid at present and also is expected to be in future, the urban form as
guided by the movement corridors i.e. Transit oriented Development. This would result in
compact development, thereby reducing sprawl and congestion and discouraging dependence
on personal vehicular movement.
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Urban form is proposed to be guided by form based codes, which are an alternative to
conventional zoning. A form-based code is a means of regulating development to achieve a
specific urban form or shape a high quality built environment. The codes differ from
conventional zoning standard in their emphasis on shaping the form of buildings and public
spaces rather than the segregation of different land uses. They use physical form rather than
separation of uses as the organising principle for the code. The form-based code acts as the
regulatory tool and not guidelines to achieve the desired urban form and design. Form-based
codes commonly include the following elements: Regulating Plan, Public Space Standards
and Building Form Standards.
Natural and Built Heritage Conservation Plan:

Development has in many cases totally ignored the environmental sensitivity and
vulnerability of the city and its region. Lands that need to be conserved and /or are unsuitable
for development in terms of environmental sensitivity are being taken up for the purposes of
development. As a chain of consequences, over exploitation of the resource base and
inefficient use of the resources, in terms of land utilization, water usage and energy
consumption have taken place. Lands also need to be conserved keeping in view the
phenomenon of urban development induced climate change. The natural resources include
environmentally sensitive areas and vulnerable areas that are necessary to be preserved and
conserved for the sustainability of the settlement. The environmentally sensitive / vulnerable
areas of the cities that need to be conserved include wetlands, floodplains, aquifer recharge
areas, wildlife habitats, high productive agricultural lands, mining areas, hill slopes, areas of
risk etc. The open spaces and water bodies with the various typologies and hierarchical levels
i.e. parks, open spaces, promenades, nature reserves, etc. would effectively contribute to a
system of greenways essential for maintaining the microclimate of the city apart from
groundwater recharge, providing the required recreational space for the city residents etc.
Thus a plan with a mandate of designating or allocating various natural heritage areas and
conserving and protecting them is proposed as part of the strategic spatial plan.
Built heritage have been guided by various laws and have been accorded protection at various
levels i.e. national, state and local level depending upon their importance. However, many
important buildings are not listed or have not been accorded protection. The built heritage
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includes monuments, buildings including religious or other spiritual buildings or places,

vernacular architecture, archaeological and other sites, historic towns, cultural landscapes
including parks and gardens, cultural routes etc. The built heritage has to be defined and
categorized for the settlements in question. Built heritage cannot stand-alone but has to be
associated with the communities and the city. The plan is thus proposed to encompass the
identification of the built heritage, assess their importance in the city and conserve and
protect them.
Infrastructure Plan
It is widely understood that infrastructure plays a key role in shaping development patterns of
the city. The city growth more often, outpaces the provision and delivery of infrastructure.
Apart from physical infrastructure that encompasses transportation (i.e. roads, airports, ports,
and rail), utility networks (i.e. water, sewer, storm water, energy etc.) and education, health
facilities and other public services referred to as social infrastructure, communications
infrastructure is increasingly gaining importance as businesses and residents rely on advanced
data, voice and video transmissions. Communications Infrastructure refers to the systems (i.e.
broadband communication, mobile offices and telecommuting etc.) that a city requires to
communicate locally, regionally, and globally. Infrastructure is also specifically required for
activity sectors i.e. businesses and industrial parks, tourism sector (tourist areas) and so on.
Generally, the provision and delivery of services and utilities is limited to only the numerical
details of provision in terms of quantum of supply of water, power etc. and number of
educational and health facilities etc. However, the spatial context and the equity
considerations are not focused and thus lead to social exclusion, disparate provisions and
spatial concentration of facilities. It is essential to focus on the spatial context of the
provision and an infrastructure plan be formulated which has a spatial dimension. Moreover,
the concerns of the urban poor and other interest groups need to be addressed in the plan so
as to enable it to be an inclusive plan. The involvement of a wide range of stakeholders is
essential to the development of a shared and consistent approach, but the infrastructure plan
itself also needs to be based on credible analysis and understanding of trends and forces.
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Economic Development Plan

Studies have established the fact that economic development is related to the quality of life.
Considering that the cities have been referred to as the engines of growth with significant
contribution to GDP, the objective of economic development should aim at achieving a
sustainable urban economy. An economic development plan needs to include the locational
characteristics and patterns of land-use in terms of economic activity clusters with related and
associated infrastructure. Priorities and actions for economic sustainability of towns and
cities should also focus on local economic development, which entails developing the basic
conditions needed for the efficient operation of economic enterprises, large and small, formal
and informal. Local economic development (aforementioned in Chapter 2) is a communityempowering participatory process in which local governments, local communities, civil
society, as well as the private and public sectors work together to stimulate and improve the
local economy of a given area. Local economic development seeks to encourage sustainable
economic growth, ensure that growth is inclusive, enhance economic competitiveness and
create employment for participating local communities thereby reducing poverty.
Traditionally there has been mono - functional zoning i.e. use and activity spaces were
segregated as separate and identifiable zones for residential uses, industrial, commercial uses
etc. In order to address the issue of local economic development, the plan could adopt
flexible land-use management or zoning systems allowing for mixed land use e.g. economic
activities within residential areas that could create the enabling conditions for employment to
thrive.
Disaster Risk Management

UNISDR (United Nations International strategy for Disaster Reduction) has stressed on
mainstreaming disaster risk reduction into urban development processes. The cities are
increasingly becoming vulnerable to both natural and manmade disasters due to location and
rapid growth of major urban centres, modification of the built and natural environment
through human actions, hazardous activities, high density patterns, expansion of settlements
into hazard-prone locations, insensitive use of natural resources and the failure of authorities
to regulate building standards and land-use planning are few of the factors resulting to
increased risks. Given the occurrence of natural as well as manmade disasters in cities, landAlternativeApproachestoMasterPlanSchoolofPlanningandArchitecture
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use planning can serve as a valuable tool for disaster risk management in cities. A disaster
risk management plan for the city need to be formulated that would build upon risk mapping /
risk zoning with the help of tools such as geographic information systems (GIS), community
participation, etc. Information and education programmes so as to result in capacity building
for community resilience and partnerships between municipal governments are necessary for
risk reduction within the land-use planning process. The plan also needs to develop building
codes that ensure safety standards in disaster resilience in components of the built
environment.
The DSSP also includes Phasing of the plans, investment, prioritization of investments,
spatial dimension of investments. Considering that the perspective time period is 10 years as
mentioned above, phasing needs to be done for the plan. There is the need to link spatial
development plan with the investments in various sectors i.e. the spatial dimensions of
investments have to be worked out as part of the Draft Strategic Spatial Plan. Also the
prioritization of investments needs to be spelt out. The phasing and investments have to be
linked up with the Five year Plans and Annual Plans. The plan would also dwell on
projectisation since projectising the plan helps in implementing the plan.
Stage 6: Amended Draft Strategic Spatial Plan

The DSSP needs to be discussed with all the sets of the Stakeholders i.e. Set 1,2,3 and 4 for
their input in the plan and accordingly the plan is amended as the Amended Draft Strategic
Spatial Plan. The Amended draft plan would then undergo the process of approval as stated
below.
9.4
INSTITUTIONAL FRAMEWORK (Refer Fig. 9.2 and 9.3 )

At present the acts that govern the above mentioned organizations are not aligned to
each other as well as the 74th Constitution Amendment Act; in fact they are also conflicting
with each other. Thus, confusion prevails with resultant delays in plan preparation, plan
approval and plan implementation. Effective and timely plan preparation, approval and
implementation processes necessitate that the acts be compatible and in line with each other.
Thus it calls for suitable modifications/ amendments.
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The proposed Strategic Spatial Plan is to be prepared by the Urban Local Body for the area
under their jurisdiction. Amendments need to be made thereof in the respective Urban Local
Body Act i.e. Municipal Corporation Act/ Municipality Act etc. with the objective of
strengthening the Urban Local Body in order to fulfill the assigned function. Similarly
amendments need to be made in the State Town Planning Act/ Development Authorities Act
for their modified function/ responsibility for urban development in the notified areas.
9.5
TIMELINE FOR PLAN PREPARATION AND APPROVAL

The preparation of Strategic Spatial Plan is proposed to be completed within a period
of 12 months and should be approved within 6 months and thus the total period for
preparation and approval should not exceed 18 months. (Refer Chart 9.3 for the timeline of
the various stages of the plan preparation and approval). Stage 1: Vision formulation based
on the inputs is proposed to take one month. This is followed by Stage 2: Generation of
information system that would take two months. Stage 3: Data analysis and forecasting is
proposed to be completed within two months. Two months is allocated for Stage 4:
Preparation of policy document. Stage 5: Preparation of Strategic Spatial Plan (DSSP) should
not take more than four months to complete. Stage 6: Amendment of the Strategic Spatial
Plan (DSSP) is proposed for one month. The time duration for the abovementioned stages are
inclusive of the stakeholders participation wherever applicable.
The Policy Guidelines for planning and development of the city has also to be notified so as
to become a legal document. Thus it has to follow the approval and notification process along
with the Draft Strategic Spatial Plan. The approval authority of the Policy Guidelines and the
Draft Strategic Spatial Plan is proposed to be the Urban Local Body, which is stipulated to
take one month, this is the first stage of approval. At the second stage, the policy document
and the plan would be submitted to the District Planning Committee/ Metropolitan
Committee for consolidation in the Draft Development Plan, which should take not more
than three months. At the third stage, the Draft Development Plan would be submitted for
approval by the State Government, the time frame for approval is one month. Once approved
the Draft Development Plan would then be notified by the District Planning Committee/
Metropolitan Planning Committee as the fourth stage, which is stipulated to take one month.
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The SSP would then be given to the Urban Local Body for implementation which they would
do through ward committees. Monitoring and Evaluation of the Strategic Spatial Plan and the
projects are proposed to be done through extensive consultations with stakeholders. The DPC
and the MPC would also have the responsibility of evaluating the plans. Monitoring and
evaluation has to be a regular, sustained process carried out to improve plan performance, to
achieve the aims and objectives of the plan and to address the expectations of stakeholders in
planning exercises. It has to be also ensured that plan monitoring processes are linked to plan
evaluation.
9.6
CAPACITY BUILDING
The proposed alternative approach would require trained planners in order to achieve the
stated objectives. At present, there is a dearth of town planners in government departments
and development agencies across the country. According to Institute of Town Planners, India
(ITPI), almost 7,000 posts of town planners are lying vacant in the country. There are 3,300
town planners working in all 5,161 towns in the country. Thus, there is not even one town
planner for each town. In a recent assessment, it was found that the country produces a
maximum of 200 town planners every year. The Ministry of Urban Development estimates
that India needs around 40,000 planners across its cities, while the number of registered
planners is closer to 3,000. The planning education/training through the available institutions
and mechanisms also need to be reoriented incorporating the skills of addressing the
emerging concerns of development of future cities.
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Introduction

integration between sectors and with budgets:

participatory planning, bringing in a wide range of stakeholders:

understanding markets and producing credible plans, backed by public investment

recognition of the reality of informal settlements and slums:

development of contextually appropriate, affordable, strategic and effective forms of

pro-poor and inclusive planning , recognizing diversity.

SCOPE OF THE STUDY

The Ministry of Urban Development, Government of India had commissioned a research

To identify indicators of appraisal for Master Plans and other Plans

planning issues and would achieve efficient, sustainable, inclusive development.

Chapter 2 BACKGROUND STUDIES

2.1.1 A HISTORICAL PERSPECTIVE

reversed in favour of integrated projects in a loose framework called Basic Development

Comprehensive Development Plan

2.1.3 CRITIQUE OF MASTER PLAN

Difficulty in projecting population, economic growth, social change, infrastructure

vii) Lack of coordination between various implementing agencies.

Master plans do not provide guidelines on the phasing or techniques of

Community or elected representatives or NGOs are seldom meaningfully involved

Identification of values cherished by the people, politicians and other groups of

Identification of aims incorporating the values;

Formulation of objectives which could be further defined as design objectives and

Discuss and advise on development aims and objectives

Provide input on existing conditions, priorities and major programmes of each

Ensure coordination of inter-departmental interactions and cooperation pertaining to

3rd Stage; Plan formulation

aims and objectives

norms and standards

It is followed by a process of evaluation of the alternatives having regard to achievement of

4th Stage; Plan Approval Process

Source: 74th Constitutional Amendment Act

Formulation of the annual plan and identification of projects for implementation

Identification of various agencies responsible for development promotion and

Actions for implementation which include;

The planning process was required to be decentralised. Conflicts in the role of

The Urban Development Plans Formulation and Implementation Guidelines (UDPFI

It provides a long-term perspective of development, neglecting short-term actions

It lacks symbiosis of socio-economic dynamism and physical determination of a

It lacks integration of physical and fiscal planning efforts.

The public participation in the planning process is not effective.

Monitoring and review mechanisms are neither regular nor effective.

It emphasises control rather than promotion of development.

Development management is generally not efficient.

It hardly caters to the demands of informal sector.

In some cases political interference is observed which results in some irrational

Time Consuming Process:

Preparation of existing land use survey which is a mandatory requirement

Delinked From Economic And Environmental Issues:

Unaffordable Infrastructure Investments:

Lack of Investment Strategies:

Ineffective Public Participation:

Lack of Monitoring Mechanism:

2.1.4 PLAN AND POLICIES

First Five Year Plan (1951-1956):

Second Five Year Plan (1956-1961):

Third Five Year Plan (1961-1966):

Fourth Five Year Plan (1969-1974):

Fifth Five Year Plan (1974-1979):

Minimum Needs Programme: Provision of house-sites and assistance for the

Sixth Five Year Plan (1980-1985):

Seventh Five Year Plan (1985-1990):

Eighth Five Year Plan (1992-1997):