POWER QUALITY MEASUREMENT AND ANALYSIS WITH CLUSTERS OF

PHOTOVOLTAIC INVERTERS

By

ITUMELENG ISAAC SELEKE

A mini-dissertation submitted for the partial fulfilment of the requirements for the degree

BACCALAUREUS INGENERIAE

In

ELECTRICAL AND ELECTRONIC ENGINEERING SCIENCE

At the

UNIVERSITY OF JOHANNESBURG

STUDY LEADER: PROF TWALA

Contents
2

REQUIREMENTS ANALYSIS................................................................................3

2.1

INTRODUCTION.......................................................................................... 3

2.1

IDENTIFIED ISSUES AND CONSTRAINTS.......................................................3

2.1.1

TECHNICAL.......................................................................................... 4

2.1.2

FINANCIAL AND ECONOMIC..................................................................4

2.1.3

LEGAL................................................................................................. 4

2.2
3

REQUIREMENTS SPECIFICATIONS................................................................4

LITERATURE REVIEW........................................................................................ 6
3.1

INTRODUCTION.......................................................................................... 6

3.2
DESCRIPTION OF GRID-CONNECTED PHOTOVOLTAIC SYSTEM AND
ELECTRICITY DISTRIBUTION SYSTEM...................................................................7
3.2.1

CENTRAL STATION PRODUCTION..........................................................9

3.2.2

DISTRIBUTED PRODUCTION................................................................10

3.3
POWER QUALITY ISSUES RELATED TO GRID-CONNECTED PHOTOVOLTAIC
SYSTEMS........................................................................................................... 11
3.3.1

HARMONICS....................................................................................... 11

3.3.2

VOLTAGE RISE/OVERVOLTAGES..........................................................14

3.3.3

GRID IMPEDANCE VARIATION.............................................................15

3.4
STANDARDS AND LEGAL CONSTRAINTS OF GRID-CONNECTED
PHOTOVOLTAIC SYSTEMS................................................................................... 16
3.5

TOOLS...................................................................................................... 16

3.6

CONCLUSION........................................................................................... 17

3.7

REFERENCES............................................................................................ 18

Chapter 2 : REQUIREMENTS ANALYSIS

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2 Requirements Analysis
As with any project that needs to carried out there are certain requirements that should be
taken into account by the person undertaking the project in order for the projects objectives to
be accomplished accounting for the ultimate success of the project. These requirements are
compiled in the foundation stages of the project, this section of the project documentation
provides a list and does analysis of these requirements. It will include tasks that go into
formulating the needs or conditions to fulfil the project goal.

2.1 Introduction
In Chapter1, the Problem Statement was introduced where with countries all over the world
grappling with power crisis due to increase in the cost of electricity production, the
environmental considerations that need to understood in the production of electricity by
conventional means and high sanctions that are placed on power utilities should they falter on
these restrictions. A partial solution to these problems has been the integration of Renewable
Energy electric power production looking specifically at a Photovoltaic system, into national
grids. The objective of the project will be then to Power Quality analysis on the power
generated from such a system, this basically just a measure of the how the power produced
from a Photovoltaic system deviates from ideal. In Section1.3 we listed the scope of the
project which included locating a LV network which had a PV system coupled onto it and
measuring of the power exported into grid by the system at PCC.
Analyse the measured data, compare the data to regulatory standards, and make suggestions
on how PQ can be improved. Section15 also covered the methodology of the project, setting
a path of how the work in accomplishing project objective will be carried out.
In Chapter2, the analysis will be on the constraints and other issues which are linked to
technicality, economy, impact on society and environment, ethics, usability, exclusions and
assumptions are presented.

2.1 Identified issues and Constraints

In this section a thorough examination is done in identifying the issues and constraints that
surround carrying out power quality measurements and analysis of grid-connected PV with
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clustered inverters to determine their impact on the grid. These issues are considered
important and are likely to be faced during the different stages to the completion of project.
These issues will be addressed in order to meet project objective.
2.1.1

Technical
The power quality issue that is a direct cause of inverters is Harmonics thus the
student we only be limited to doing measurements and analysis on the harmonic
content present in the grid due to inverters. Power quality parameters such as reactive

power, power factor and flicker will not be taken into consideration.
Initial projections of the project show that because its power systems measurements

and analysis will be simulation based. Here the data to be gathered using simulations
The simulations will be done using DIgSILENT PowerFactory as this software
package is readily accessible to student as opposed to other packages and it is
understood to be the popular power system software in industry.

2.1.2

Financial and Economic

The cost related to the fulfilling project objective should not exceed R1500, 00 as this amount
is the maximum allowed amount for funding final year engineering projects by Faculty of
Engineering and Built Environment at the University of Johannesburg. Every cent used in the
project and receipt should be accounted for.
2.1.3

Legal

The project carries some legal attributes that should be adhered to. If any source in the form
of literature, images, video, data etc. is used by student in completion of project, such a
source should be referenced using IEEE referencing style. Failure to do so it will assumed
that the student is claiming work that is not theirs and that will result in punishment as
plagiarism is seen as information theft and is not tolerated by University of Johannesburg.
The punishment for such an offence is failure of the course.

2.2 Requirements Specifications

Here a description of specific tasks or objectives that should be accomplished with this
project.

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Identify the local and/or systemwide impacts of grid-connected PV systems on the

power distribution grid

o Quantify steady-state impacts
o Quantify dynamic impacts
Provide utility customers with guidelines regarding the expected impacts as a function

of the penetration level of grid-connected PV systems

Assess potential mitigation measures for any problem discovered during the study.
Develop best-practice interconnection guidelines for grid-connected PV systems
readiness studies [1].

Chapter 3 : LITERATURE REVIEW

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3 Literature Review
3.1 Introduction
The use of renewable energy to produce bulk electric power to supplement the already
existing conventional methods has grown quite bit over the years. Current trends show how
renewable energy production, wind and solar energy (PV) has grown over the past two
decades, with PV system capacity enjoying a per annum increase of 55% from 2004 to 2010
[see Figure 1]. At 40GW installed capacity worldwide by the end of 2010. With the
technological advances made in semiconductors used in solar cells and more efficient power
electronic devices make PV systems a more attractive option for future exploration. Future
projections by European Photovoltaic Industry Association (EPIA) show that the global
installed PV technology could be 800GW absorbing a large share of the global electricity
demand [2].

Figure 1: Comparison of installed capacity of wind and PV systems [2]

The project is aimed at determining the power quality of electric power produced by
Photovoltaic system with is connected to the grid [see Figure 2]. The objective will be to
conduct an impact study on the integration of PV power generation in our grid. In the
previous chapters, chapter 1 and 2 the problem statement of the project was introduced and
following that the project objective was defined by compiling the requirements specifications,
a list of constraints and issues related to such project were documented.

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Figure 2: Grid connected PV power system [3]

The following will provide literature related to PV systems, giving a description of such a
system and its electricity distribution system. This chapter will also provide literature on PQ
issues related to PV systems. A look at the standards that govern PV systems that are grid
connected will also be looked at. From this chapter the student will equipped with the
knowledge to determine how PQ measurement and analysis of a PV system with clustered
inverters can be carried out.

3.2 Description of Grid-connected Photovoltaic system and electricity

distribution system
A human beings definition of Renewable energy is that an inexhaustible energy source, which
is continuously flowing. Solar energy can be thought of as such a source for the Earth,
providing an infinite source of energy. Energy delivered from the sun to the earth is thought
14

to be 1,2 10 kW

which is said to be 10 000 times more than what is currently consumed

by the electricity users [4]. The goal over time has always been to harness this energy and use
it supplement the current need of electric power. One method used to harness this energy is
called Photovoltaic effect, which is the direct conversion of the energy of light from the sun
into electric energy. When light rays from the sun strikes the solar cells which is a semi
conductive device, the energy of these light rays passes on this energy which is enough to
energize negatively charged particles. This action frees these electrons, allowing the potential
barrier in the cell to act on them (electrons),separating electrons and holes, each going to
opposite sides of the cell to produce a potential difference or voltage which can be used to
drive current (direct current) through a circuit [see Figure 3] [5].

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Figure 3: A potential barrier in a solar cell separates light-generated charge carriers, creating
voltage [5]

Because one single solar cell can only provide a limited amount power, depending on the
application they must be electrically connected together (in series or parallel) so that it able to
provide enough power for whatever chosen application thus the physical size of the
connected solar cells depends entirely on its application. The equivalent circuit of PV cell is
shown in Figure 4.

Figure 4: PV cell equivalent circuit

I pv =I pI DI sh

I pv

=I I [ e
p

q (V pv + RS I pv )
NkT

V pv + R s I pv
R sh

Where Ip = Photocurrent [A]

Vpv = Terminal voltage of cell [V]
ID = Diode current [A]
Io = Saturation current [A]
Ish = Shunt current [A]
N = Ideality factor (value is between 1 and 2)
q = Electron charge [C]
k = Boltzmanns constant
T = Junction Temperature [K]
Rs = Series resistance []

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(1)

Rsh = Shunt resistance []

There are currently number of applications that photovoltaic systems are used for namely:
Table 1: Applications of PV systems [4]

PV Application

Example

Consumer Products

Watches, Cellphone chargers

Off-grid i.e. Standalone

Residential power systems for individual households

Off-grid Industrial

Water management, Lighting and telecommunication systems

Grid connected

Integrated into the grid, in roofs, outer walls, on huge plots of land
(Solar Parks)

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For the purpose of this research project the focus will be on grid connected PV systems.
Photovoltaic source produces DC voltage which for some applications is appropriate but for
some applications which are powered by AC voltage the voltage needs to be converted from
DC to AC. The action of converting the DC-AC voltage is done by a device called an
inverter. The inverter uses power electronic equipment for the conversion process to supply
power to ordinary electric equipment. It essentially is a switching device that regularly flips
polarities at the output terminals [6]. Such a conversion process is used particularly for gridconnected PV systems where AC power flows. Here clustered PV systems are connected and
interfaced to medium to low voltage networks. Below is a typical diagram of a grid connected
PV system. It consist of a PV array which is made out of a number of PV cells which are
electrically connected, cells are usually connected in series to form a solar module which are
then connected in series to form a string. Theses strings are then connected in parallel to form
an array. There are number of configurations that these PV arrays can be arranged namely;
-

Centralized Configuration: Here one inverter is connected to the to the PV array

String Configuration: With this configuration each string in the PV array is connected

to a one inverter. This configuration increases the reliability of the system.

Multi-string Configuration: Here each string is connected to DC-DC converter for
voltage amplification and an implementation of maximum power point tracking

(MPPT).
AC Module Configuration: This is the most recent configuration where an inverter is
embedded into each module.

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an inverter for DC-AC conversion which was discussed, a filter which is used to get rid of
any harmonic content which is different to the fundamental electrical frequency. The system
also consist of a transformer which is used to step-up the voltage from the inverter to a
nominal voltage which is at the same voltage and frequency value as that of the grid [see
Figure 5]. There are other components which form part of the PV system one of which is the
diode which is used to block any reverse current flow to the PV array causing potential
damage

to

it.

Figure 5: Schematic diagram of grid-connected PV system [6]

Grid connected PV systems can be broken down into two categories, distributed production
and central station production.
3.2.1

Central Station Production

A central station grid-connected PV system is Megawatt (MW) size plant at utility scale. Here
utilities use the electricity generated for either base load or peaking load. The system is
coupled into grid by distribution substations through feeders. Grid-connected PV systems of
MW-size used for central station applications make use of large number of power electronic
inverters modules which are connected in parallel [1]. A system like this makes use of a
number of interconnection transformers [see Figure 6]. An electricity generation schemes like
this are often touted as a future competitor against turbine-generated electric power
generation (using fossil and nuclear fuels).

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Figure 6: Utility sized PV-system connected to distribution substation

3.2.2

Distributed Production

Distributed grid-connected PV systems are seen as possibly being the solution to peak
loading issues, they are small to medium scale systems. The distributed system has capacities
that range from 10 kW to 1000 kW, here installations are on residential establishments,
economic complexes, industrial sites and other buildings. Here clustered PV systems are
connected close to the loads. The scale of the PV system is comparable to the load, they can
either be three phase or single phase. The PV arrays are located on rooftops or places of high
solar irradiance near the load. There can be a number of PV-systems connected to a single
feeder [see Figure 7].

Figure 7: Distributed grid-connected PV system

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The advantages of implementing such PV systems being that it is clean energy source with
no emissions, no use of fuels and water. It requires little maintenance as it has no moving
parts. The integration of such systems into the grid is also able to create new forms of
employment and decrease cost of electricity to consumers. More importantly the efficient
management of grid-connected PV systems is also able to provide electric supply security.
There are still studies that being carrying on the impact of the integration of PV systems in
distribution systems, at present there a positive and negative issues related to PV systems
integration in power systems related to the operating characteristics of the network itself and
the characteristics of PV system.

3.3 Power Quality issues related to Grid-connected Photovoltaic systems

Though the implementation of PV systems is seen as a solution to help with over loading on
utility transmission and distribution lines, provide peak load shaving, give overall grid
support and curb environmental issues related to power generation yet there are impacts that
need to be studied on the high penetration of clustered PV systems into networks. There are
however potential adverse effects this system posers to the network due to the use of certain
devices. This speaks to the Power Quality (PQ) electrical power generated from such a
renewable source. A high density of grid-connected PV systems means there will be a number
of inverters connected to the grid. Here are some of the issues seen as potential challenges in
the integration such as Harmonics, Voltage rise, grid impedance variation and voltage
imbalance, all these issues are serious enough to warrant studies [7].
3.3.1

Harmonics

Although the topic of power quality covers harmonics, unbalance, flicker, sag, swell and
other concepts power electronic devices are seen as the major cause of harmonics. This has
become the main concept that power quality engineers working on mitigating. The function
of the inverter is to supply current that is synchronized with the grid, this device can also
change the characteristics of the grid. The inverter is seen as nonlinear device, this means the
electrical device which does not have linear relationship with between current and voltage
because of high frequency switching of semiconductor devices with pulse width modulation
harmonic distortion can be generated.

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Harmonics refers to the sinusoidal current or voltage generated from the inverter having
frequencies that are integer of the frequency at which the distribution network system is
designed to operate, this includes the electrical equipment that connected to the network [8].
For example the supply frequency component in South Africa is 50 Hz which is the
fundamental, because of the inverters higher frequency components will always be multiples
of the fundamental frequency which are then called harmonics. Harmonic order is then used
to describe the ratio of the harmonic frequency to the supply which are 3, 5, 7, and 11, and so
on [see Figure 8]. These higher order frequencies will distort the sinewave causing it deviate
from ideal, every cycle of the waveform is then distorted equally.

Figure 8: Illustration of resultant current affected by Harmonics

An indicator that used to determine the extent of the distortion of the waveform is called
Total Harmonic Distortion (THD). The THD is the ratio of the r.m.s value of all the harmonic
components of the sinusoidal waveform to the fundamental (I1 or V1), it is expressed as
percentage (%) [9]:

( ( ) )
h=H

For current (I), THDI

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THD I =

h=2

Ih 2
1 100
I1

If the total r.m.s value of the current (I RMS) is known then the following relation to obtain
THDI is:

I RMS 2
THD I = (
) 1 100
I1
The distorted power generated flows through the distribution network having some effect on
the apparatus that make the grid. One of the effects of harmonic is overcurrents flowing
through the grid which causes heating of conductors and iron circuits of rotating machines,
transformers that are connected. Here because of the harmonic current there is an increase in
heating effect of current over the that of the fundamental current, for example if:
I RMS=

I 12 I 22 I 32
I 2
+ + + + n
2
2 2
2

So if the harmonic current has 100% I 1 which is the fundamental, I3 which is 40% of I1, I5
which is 25% of I1 and I7 is 15% of I1. This will give a total r.m.s current (Irms) or thermal
current of 111% I1 which will have heating effect of 111 2/1002 100% = 123% meaning
the current generated from harmonic inducing source will create a heating effect of 123%
over that of the rated or fundamental current. This would deteriorate the conductors of
electrical equipment and deteriorate the insulation leading to failure of the apparatus costing
power utilities and industrial companies lots of money to replace [see Figure 9]. This would
also result in the incorrect operation of overcurrent protection equipment [10].

Figure 9: Equipment burnt due to Harmonic currents [11] [12]

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Another impact of harmonic currents on the grid is the rise of harmonic voltages. Harmonic
currents generate significant overvoltages when they are flowing against impedances. The
result of this being the failure apparatus. This issue could be further exaggerated by the
presence of resonance in the grid which could cause the harmonic current to generate
excessively large harmonic voltage in the grid.
3.3.2

Voltage Rise/Overvoltages

When the demand due to the increase in the load in the network is very high (Nominal Load)
then the operating voltage in the distribution system tends to drop below tolerable range. This
disturbance will result in a long duration disturbance called an Under-voltage, with the
voltage dropping the further the load is from the source [see Figure 10] [12]. This
phenomenon causes the equipment that are connected to grid not to operate as the voltage is
below the rated voltage.

Figure 10: Voltage profile of Feeder without (left) and with (right) grid-connected PV systems at
Nominal Load

The integration of grid-connected PV technology to distribution feeders is seen as a solution

to the voltage drop dilemma. Particularly with distributed PV systems, they will improve the
voltage profile of the network by reducing the voltage drop as the power flow through the
feeder is reduced. But this solution also has its limitations because if theres a minimum load
or light load condition and the power generated by PV system is greater than demand of the
load then the excess power flows back into the network this is called a reverse power flow
[see Figure 11] [13]. This phenomenon will cause the voltage to rise in the feeder resulting in
misoperation over voltage protection equipment and damage equipment as transformers and
lines in the network exceed their thermal limitations.

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Figure 11: Voltage profile of Feeder without (left) and with (right) grid-connected PV systems
during Light Load (minimum load)

3.3.3

Grid impedance variation

In order to combat harmonic frequencies going to the grid and causing problems to all the
equipment connected, grid-connected PV power generation systems which make use of
inverters are fitted with filters. These output filters are used to attenuate high frequencies so
that the PV system can be coupled to the grid, but these filters can introduce stability
problems. These filters are made L-C circuits which add some impedance to the grid, varying
the inherit impedance in the grid, from transformers and the cables that are connected. This
could cause the grid to become resonant [3]. The capacitor is largely responsible for setting
up a resonance circuit together with the transformer reactance and cable reactance in the grid.
If theres series resonance then the grid impedance is at its lowest which will cause a small
harmonic voltage to result in the high harmonic current could harm apparatus connected. If
parallel resonance occurs then the grid impedance is at its highest and a small harmonic
currents could cause high voltage distortion to occur [14].

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3.4 Standards and Legal Constraints of Grid-connected Photovoltaic

systems
There are number standards that serve as guidelines for the integration PV systems into the
grid. The work of writing up these standards is undertaken by reputable independent
organisations, whose work is internationally recognized. Here is look at the most common
standards and what they say about level of harmonic distortion permitted in the network.

EN 50160: This the European standard which species the recommended levels of
different power quality parameters. This code is adopted by most European Grid
Codes. It states that the limit for the total harmonic distortion should not exceed 8%
up to and including the 40th harmonic in its Voltage characteristics of electricity

supplied by public distribution system

IEC 61727: Photovoltaic (PV) systems: Characteristics of utility interface this
standard wishes to addresses the interface requirements between PV systems and the

utility. It imposes a limit for the total current harmonic distortion equal to 5% [15].
IEEE 519-1992: Recommended Practices and Requirements for Harmonic Control
in Electrical Power Systems standard by the Institute of Electrical and Electronic
Engineers specifies that party responsible for generating electricity be limited a total
harmonic distortion (THD) for current and voltage of 5% that it can supply to the
customer. It also specifies that the limit for maximum individual harmonic
components must be 3% for voltages lower than 69kV [16].

These standards or limits apply at point of common coupling (PCC) of utility and consumer.

3.5 Tools
With this project being a power systems project the limitation is the availability and cost of
equipment mentioned and safety measures required to perform analysis on a scale that
resembles the real life situation. To counter this constraint the student will use a software
program to simulate and do analysis of a power system that has PV technology integrated
into its grid, the chosen program is DIgSILENT PowerFactory. DIgSILENT is a program that
provides tools for modelling of power systems i.e. generation, transmission, distribution and
the loads connected for analysis of how they interact [17]. It is used to identify errors and
issues that could lead to system instability.

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3.6 Similar Work

3.7 Conclusion
The Literature Review was used to provide an outline of the project topic, giving it a bit of
context as area of renewable energy being investigated. In section 3.1 a brief indication of the
current and projected future trend of PV technology was given. In section 3.2 a description of
grid-connected PV-systems is given and the different apparatus used in this integration of PVtechnology and grid. In section 3.3 power quality issues related to grid-connected PV systems
are given such as Harmonics, Overvoltages and Grid impedance variation. Section 3.5 and
3.5 will serve as guidelines for the measurements and analysis that are to be done in the
chapters that follow. Using all thats covered in Chapter3 methods that can used for
measurement of Power Quality will be determined.

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3.8 References
[1] F. Katiraei and J. R. Aguero, Solar PV Integration Challenges, IEEE Power &
Energy magazine, p. 62, 21 April 2011.
[2] R. Shah, N. .Mithulananthan, Bansal, R.C. and V. Ramachandaramurthy, A
review of key power system stability challenges for large-scale PV
integration, Renewable and Sustainable Energy Reviews, no. 41, pp. 14231436, 2015.
[3] M. Eltawil and Z. Zhao, Grid-connected photovoltaic power systems:
Technical and potential problemsA review, Renewable and Sustainable
Energy Reviews, no. 14, pp. 112-129, 2010.
[4] M. Zeman, INTRODUCTION TO PHOTOVOLTAIC SOLAR ENERGY, in SOLAR
CELLS.
[5] Solar Energy Research Institute, Basic Photovoltaic Principles and Methods,
Colorado: Technical Information Centre, 1982.
[6] A. Fazliana, A. Kadir, T. Khatib and W. Elmenreich, Integrating Photovoltaic
Systems in Power System: Power Quality Impacts and Optimal Planning
Challenges, International Journal of Photoenergy, 2014.
[7] O. Ozgonenela, T. Yalcina, I. Guneyb and U. Kurt, A new classification for
power quality events in distribution systems, Electric Power Systems
Research, pp. 192-199, 2013.
[8] V. Gosbell, Harmonic Distortion in the electric supply system, Technical
Note No.3, March 2000.
[9] W. A. Maslowski, Harmonics in Power Systems, Mequon: ALLEN-BRADLEY CO.,
INC..
[10 Solar Edge, Problems and Disadvantages in Current Residential &
]
Commercial On-grid PV Systems, 2012.
[11 D. E. Stewart, J. MacPherson and S. Vasilic, Analysis of High-Penetration
]
Levels of Photovoltaics into the Distribution Grid on Oahu, Hawaii, National
Renewable Energy Laboratory , Oahu, 2013.
[12 E. Demirok, D. Sera, R. Teodorescu and P. Rodriguez, Clustered PV Inverters
]
in LV Networks: An Overview of Impacts and Comparison of Voltage Control
Strategies, 2008.
[13 A. Stavrou and e. al, Towards the establishment of maximum PV generation
]
limits due to power quality constraints, Electrical Power and Energy
Systems, no. 42, pp. 285-298, 2012.
[14 M. Liserre, R. Teodoresen and F. Blaabberg, Stability of Grid-Connected PV
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Inverters with large Grid Impedance Variation, in 2004 34th Annual IEEE
Electronics Specialist Conference , Aachen, Germany , 2004.

[15 K. Kontogiannis, G. Vokas, S. Nanou and S. Papathanassiou, Power Quality

]
Field Measurements on PV Inverters, International Journal of Advanced
Research in Electrical,Electronics and Instrumentation Engineering, vol. 2,
no. 11, 2013.
[16 J. Muoz, G. Nofuentes, J. Aguilera, M. Fuentes and P. Vidal, Procedure to
]
carry out quality checks in photovoltaic grid-connected systems: Six cases of
study, Applied Energy, no. 88, pp. 2863-2870, 2011.
[17 J. Lei and N. C. Nirmal-Kumar, Power quality analysis for building integrated
]
PV and micro wind turbine in New Zealand, Energy and Buildings, no. 58,
pp. 302-309, 2013.

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