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UASB Reactor
Published on SSWM (http://www.sswm.info/)

UASB Reactor
Compiledby:

Eawag(SwissFederalInstituteof
AquaticScienceandTechnology),
DorotheeSpuhler(seecon
internationalgmbh)

The upflow anaerobic sludge blanket reactor (UASB) is a single tank

process[noecompendium] in an anaerobic centralised or decentralised
industrial wastewater or blackwater treatment system achieving high
removal of organic pollutants[/noecompendium]. Wastewater enters
the reactor from the bottom, and flows upward. A suspended sludge
blanket filters and treats the wastewater as the wastewater flows
through it. [noecompendium]Bacteria living in the sludge break down organic matter by anaerobic digestion,
transforming it into biogas. Solids are also retained by a filtration effect of the blanket. The upflow regime
and the motion of the gas bubbles allow mixing without mechanical assistance. Baffles at the top of the
reactor allow gases to escape and prevent an outflow of the sludge blanket. As all aerobic treatments, UASB
require a posttreatment to remove pathogens, but due to a low removal of nutrients, the effluent water as
well as the stabilised sludge can be used in agriculture.[/noecompendium]
In

Out

Blackwater, Faecal Sludge, Brownwater, Faeces, Excreta Digested Faecal Sludge, Fertigation Water
[noecompendium]

Introduction
In countries with a warm climate throughout the whole year, high wastewater allow and favour an anaerobic
treatment of the entire sewage flow, not only the sludge portion (TBW 2001b). Anaerobic treatment systems
such as UASB (see also anaerobic digestion general) do not require an energy consuming aeration system and
can be constructed much simpler than aerobic treatments. They convert the organic matter into biogas, which
can be recovered. The nutrientrich effluent can be used for agricultural irrigation (ROSE 1997). Sludge, even
is partily stabilised (mineralised) and can be used as an organic soil fertiliser after composting or drying (see
also planted and unplanted drying bed).
UASB reactors can treat all type of hyighstrenght wastewater. It can be used at largescale (e.g. agro
industrail wastes) or as decentralised treatment systems for domestic wastewaters; yet domestic treatment is
still relatively new and not always successful as domestic wastewater generally lower strength.
Treatment Process
UASB Reactors are constructed out of concrete or another watertight material and can be designed in a
circular or rectangular way. Wastewater is pumped from the bottom into the reactor where influent suspended
solids and bacterial activity and growth lead to the formation of sludge. [/noecompendium]The sludge
blanket is comprised of microbial granules (1 to 3 mm in diameter), i.e., small agglomerations of
microorganisms that, because of their weight, resist being washed out in the upflow. The microorganisms in
the sludge layer degrade organic compounds. As a result, gases (methane and carbon dioxide[no
ecompendium] i.e. biogas[/noecompendium]) are released. The rising bubbles mix the sludge without the
assistance of any mechanical parts.[noecompendium] Upstream velocity and settling speed of the sludge is in
equilibrium and forms a locally rather stable, but suspended sludge blanket (SASSE 1998).[/noecompendium]
Sloped walls deflect material that reaches the top of the tank downwards. The clarified effluent is extracted
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from the top of the tank in an area above the sloped walls.[noecompendium] A gasliquidsolids separator
(GLSS) separates the gas from the treated wastewater and the sludge (ROSE 1997, SANIMAS 2005).[/no
ecompendium]
After several weeks of use, larger granules of sludge form which, in turn, act as filters for smaller particles as
the effluent rises through the cushion of sludge. Because of the upflow regime, granuleforming organisms are
preferentially accumulated as the others are washed out.[noecompendium] Fortunately, these bacteria are
also more efficient for biogas production than flocculated biomass (WENDLAND 2008).[/noecompendium]

DesignConsiderations
[noecompendium]

Crosssection of an Upflow Anaerobic Sludge Blanket (UASB) reactor. Source: TILLEY et al. (2008)

[/noecompendium]
[noecompendium]UASB Reactors are constructed out of concrete or another watertight material and can be
designed in a circular or rectangular way. [/noecompendium]Critical elements for the design of UASB
reactors are the influent distribution system, the gassolids separator, and the effluent withdrawal design. The
gas that rises to the top is collected in a gas collection dome and can be used as energy (see also use of biogas)
[noecompendium] for cooking, heating or other, but scrubbing before use is required (UNEP 2004). If the
biogas is converted to electricity, the heat produced as a byproduct can be reused to heat the reactor,
favouring anaerobic digestion[/noecompendium].[noecompendium]

UASB reactors are separated in three phases: granules, liquid and gas (left). They can be constructed circular or rectangular (right).
Source: TBW (2001b)

To maintain the reactor wellmixed and allowing the formation of granules and a good contact of the active
sludge blanket and the influent sewage, it is critical that the influent is equally distributed in the bottom
before moving upwards (see Figure 1). Besides these design requirements, the main influencing parameters are
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pH, temperature, chemical oxygen demand (COD), volumetric COD loads, HRT and flow, upflow velocity,
concentration of ammonia and startup phase (TBW 2001b).
pH Value
The pHvalue needs to be between 6.3 and 7.85 (TBW 2001b) to allow bacteria responsible for anaerobic
digestion to grow. The pHvalue is also important because at high pHvalues, ammoniac (NH4+) dissociates to
NH3 which inhibits the growth of the methane producing bacteria.
Temperature
For an optimal growth of these bacteria and thus a optimal anaerobic digestion, the temperature should lie
between 35 to 38C. Below this range, the digestion rate decreases by about 11% for each 1C temperature
decrease and below 15C the process is no longer efficient (ALAERTS et al. 1990 in TBW 2001b), although
bacterial activity can still be noticed at temperatures less than 10C (TBW 2001b).
COD Loads
Influents should have concentrations of above 250 mg COD/Lm, as for lower rates, anaerobic digestion is not
beneficial. Optimum influent concentrations are above 400 mg COD/L and an upper limit is not known (TBW
2001b).
Hydraulic Retention Time (HRT)
The hydraulic retention time (HRT) should not be less than 2 hours. Anaerobic microorganisms, especially
methane producing bacteria, have a slow growth rate. At lower HRTs, the possibility of washout of biomass is
more prominent (BAL & DHAGAT 2001). The optimal HRT generally lies within 2 to 20 hours (TBW 2001b).
Upflow Velocity

Largescale UASB reactor followed by a posttreatment in trickling filters. Source: ENTEC BIOGAS GMBH (2014)

The upflow velocity in UASB is an important design parameter as the process plays with the balance of
sedimentation and upflow (SASSE 1998). On one hand, sludge should not be washed out the reactor, and on the
other hand, a minimum speed needs to be maintained to keep the blanket in suspension, and also for mixing
(TBW 2001b).[/noecompendium] An upflow velocity of 0.7 to 1 m/h must be maintained to keep the sludge
blanket in suspension. Primary settling is usually not required before the UASB.
[ecompappropriateness]

HealthAspects/Acceptance
The operators should take proper health and safety measures while working in the plant, such as adequate
protective clothing. Effluent and sludge still pose a health risk and should not be directly handled.[no
ecompendium]
However as nitrogen and phosphorous are not effectively reduced in anaerobic technologies, this primary
treatment approach is particularly apt when used in parallel with agriculture or aquaculture (ROSE 1997). As in
all anaerobic treatment processes, sludge is stabilised and if not used in agriculture, has good dewatering
characteristics and can be treated in thickening ponds and drying beds or by composting before safe reuse or
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disposal (ROSE 1997; WSP 2008). The effluent can be used in fertigation but as it pathogen removal is only low
the WHO 2006 guidelines must be considered for agricultural application. To meet higher effluent standards,
the effluent may be posttreated in pond systems (e.g. wastewater stabilisation ponds), constructed wetlands
or anaerobic treatment units (e.g. trickling filter). The most common posttreatment alternatives for effluents
are maturation ponds (see also waste stabilisation ponds where nutrients are further reduced, their primary
function however being pathogen removal (TBW 2001b).

CostConsideration
The significantly lower level of technology required by the UASB process in comparison with conventional
advanced aerobic processes means that they are also cheaper in construction and maintenance. Capital costs
for construction can be estimated as low to medium and comparable to baffled reactors (SANIMAS 2005).
Operation costs are low, as usually no costs arise other than desludging costs and the operation of feeding
pump (SANIMAS 2005).[/noecompendium]

Operation&Maintenance
The UASB is a Centralized Treatment technology that must be [noecompendium]constructed, [/no
ecompendium]operated and maintained by professionals. A skilled operator is required to monitor the reactor
and repair parts, e.g., pumps, in case of problems.
[noecompendium]UASB reactors require several months to start up. The sludge not only needs to form but also
needs to adapt to the characteristics of the specific wastewater (TBW 2001b). As domestic or municipal
wastewater already contains the composition of nutrients and micronutrients required for bacterial activity
and growth, they are generally less problematic than industrial wastewaters. High organic loading in
connection with lower hydraulic loading rates quicken the granulation process in the starting phase (SASSE
1998).
To keep the blanket in proper position, the hydraulic load must correspond to the upstream velocity and must
correspond to the organic load. The latter is responsible for development of new sludge (SASSE 1998). This
means that the flow rate must be controlled and properly geared in accordance with fluctuation of the organic
load.
Sludge production is relatively low (WSP 2008).[/noecompendium] Desludging is infrequent and only excess
sludge is removed every 2 to 3 years [noecompendium](TILLEY et al. 2014)[/noecompendium].
[noecompendium]

AtaGlance

Working Principle

Industrial wastewater or blackwater flows into the bottom of an anaerobic upflow

tank. Accumulated sludge forms granules. Microorganisms living in the granules
degrade organic pollutants by anaerobic digestion. The sludge blanket is kept in
suspension by the flow regime and formed gas bubbles. A separator at the top of the
reactor allows to recover biogas for energy production, nutrient effluent for
agriculture and to retain the sludge in the reactor. Sludge accumulation is low
(emptying is only required every few years) and the sludge is stabilised and can be
used as soil fertiliser.

Capacity/Adequacy

Centralised or decentralised at community level, for industrial wastewater or

blackwater. The system requires a continuous and stable water flow and energy.

Performance

60 to 90 % BOD; 60 to 80 % COD and 60 to 85 % TSS; low pathogen reduction minimal

removal of nutrient (N and P)
HRT: minimal 2 hours, generally 4 to 20 hours

Costs

Investment is comparable to baffled reactors. For operation usually no costs arise

beneath desludging costs and operation of feeding pump.

Selfhelp

Can be constructed with locally available material but requires skilled staff for

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Compatibility

construction, maintenance and operation.

O&M

Desludging is not frequent but feeder pump and control of organic loads requires
skilled staff for operation and maintenance.

Reliability

Not resistant to shock loading and sensitive to organic load fluctuations.

Main strength

High removal of organics and solids (BOD and TSS) with low production of sludge and
the possibility to recover biogas; only little land required.

Main weakness

Requires skilled staff, electricity and is sensitive to variable flows.

[/noecompendium]

Applicability
A UASB is not appropriate for small or rural communities without a constant water supply or electricity[no
ecompendium] and skilled labour. It is particularly adapted for densely populated urban areas as it has low
land requirements[/noecompendium]. The technology is relatively simple to design and build, but developing
the granulated sludge may take several months. The UASB reactor has the potential to produce higher quality
effluent than [879Septic Tanks], and can do so in a smaller reactor volume. Although it is a wellestablished
process for largescale industrial wastewater treatment and high organic loading rates up to 10 kg BOD/m3/d,
its application to domestic sewage is still relatively new. It is often used for brewery, distillery, food
processing and pulp and paper waste [noecompendium](TARE & NEMA n.y.) [/noecompendium]since the
process typically removes 80 to 90% of COD. Where the influent is lowstrength or where it contains too many
solids, proteins or fats, the reactor may not work properly. Temperature is also a key factor affecting the
performance. [noecompendium]UASB reach high treatment levels regarding organics and the produced biogas
can be used for energy conversion. Pathogens, however, as well as nutrients are not removed. Due to the low
nutrient removal, the effluent is adapted for reuse in agriculture after further treatment or considering some
special health protection measures.
UASB are not adapted for colder climates.[/noecompendium]

Advantages
High reduction of BOD
Can withstand high organic and hydraulic loading rates
Low sludge production (and, thus, infrequent desludging required)
Biogas can be used for energy (but usually first requires scrubbing)
No aeration system required (thus little energy consumption)
Effluent is rich in nutrients and can be used for agricultural irrigation
Low land demand, can be constructed underground and with locally available material
Reduction of CH4 and CO2 emissions

Disadvantages
Treatment may be unstable with variable hydraulic and organic loads
Requires operation and maintenance by skilled personnel; difficult to maintain proper hydraulic
conditions (upflow and settling rates must be balanced)
Long startup time to work at full capacity
A constant source of electricity is required
Not all parts and materials may be locally available
Requires expert design and construction
Effluent and sludge require further treatment and/or appropriate discharge
Not adapted for cold regions
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References
ALAERTS, G. J.; VEENSTRA, S.; BENTVELSEN, M.; DUIJL, L. A. van (1990): Feasibility of Anaerobic Sewage Treatment in Sanitation
Strategies in Developing Countries. (= IHE Report Series 20). Delft: The Netherlands.
BAL, A.S.; DHAGAT, N.N. (2001): Upflow anaerobic sludge blanket reactor a review. Indian Journal of Environmental Health . URL
[Accessed: 16.02.2011]. PDF
ENTEC BIOGAS GMBH (Editor) (2014): SYSTEM UASB. Fussach: entec biogas gmbh. URL [Accessed: 09.07.2014].
GUTTERER, B.; SASSE, L.; PANZERBIETER, T.; RECKERZGEL, T.; ULRICH, A. (Editor); REUTER, S. (Editor); GUTTERER, B. (Editor) (2009):
Decentralised Wastewater Treatment Systems (DEWATS) and Sanitation in Developing Countries. Loughborough University (UK): Water
Engineering and Deveopment Centre (WEDC). URL [Accessed: 20.03.2014]. PDF
LETTINGA, G.; ROERSMA, R.; GRIN, P. (1983): Anaerobic Treatment of Raw Domestic Sewage at Ambient Temperatures Using a Granular
Bed UASB Reactor. In: Biotechnology and Bioengineering 25, 17011723.John Wiley & Sons.
NATURGERECHTE TECHNOLOGIEN, BAU UND WIRTSCHAFTSBERATUNG (TBW) GmbH (Editor) (2001): Anaerobic Treatment of Municipal
Wastewater in UASBreactors. (= Technical Information W6e). GTZ and GATE . URL [Accessed: 11.03.2010]. PDF
ROSE, D.G. (1999): CommunityBased Technologies for Domestic Wastewater Treatment and Reuse options for urban agriculture. (=
Cities Feeding People (CFP) Report Series., 27). Ottawa: International Development Research Center Canada (IDRC). PDF
SANIMAS (Editor) (2005): Informed Choice Catalogue. pdf presentation. BORDA and USAID. PDF
SASSE, L. ; BORDA (Editor) (1998): DEWATS. Decentralised Wastewater Treatment in Developing Countries. Bremen: Bremen Overseas
Research and Development Association (BORDA). PDF
SCHELLINGKOUT, A.; COLLAZOS, C. J. (1999): Fullscale Application of the UASB Technology for Sewage Treatment. Water Science and
Technology. URL [Accessed: 18.01.2011].
SPERLING, M. von; LEMOS CHERNICHARO, C.A. de (2005): Biological Wastewater Treatment in Warm Climate Regions Volume 1. London:
International Water Association (IWA) Publishing. URL [Accessed: 01.11.2013]. PDF
TARE, V.; NEMA, A. (n.y.): UASB Technologyexpectations and reality. United Nations Asian and Pacific Centre for Agricultural
Engineering and Machinery. URL [Accessed: 29.04.2010]. PDF
TCHOBANOGLOUS, G.; BURTON, F. L.; STENSEL, H. D.; METCALF & EDDY Inc. (Editor) (2003): Wastewater Engineering, Treatment and
Reuse. (= Fourth Edition). New York: McGrawHill Companies, Inc.. PDF
TILLEY, E.; ULRICH, L.; LUETHI, C.; REYMOND, P.; ZURBRUEGG, C. (2014): Compendium of Sanitation Systems and Technologies. 2nd
Revised Edition. Duebendorf, Switzerland: Swiss Federal Institute of Aquatic Science and Technology (Eawag). URL [Accessed:
28.07.2014]. PDF
TILLEY, E.; LUETHI, C.; MOREL, A.; ZURBRUEGG, C.; SCHERTENLEIB, R. (2008): Compendium of Sanitation Systems and Technologies.
Duebendorf, Switzerland: Swiss Federal Institute of Aquatic Science and Technology (EAWAG) and Water Supply and Sanitation
Collaborative Council (WSSCC). URL [Accessed: 15.02.2010]. PDF
See document in FRENCH
UNEP (Editor) (2004): Chapter 4. Wastewater Technologies. In: UNEP (Editor) (2004): A Directory of Environmentally Sound
Technologies for the Integrated Management of Solid, Liquid and Hazardous Waste for SIDS in the Caribbean Region. Nairobi, 63125.
PDF
VIGNESWARAN, S.; BALASURIYA, B. L. N.; VIRARAGHAVAN, T. (1986): Environmental Sanitation Reviews. Anaerobic Wastewater
Treatment Attached Growth and Sludge Blanket Process. Bangkok: Environmental Sanitation Information Center (ENSIC).
WENDLAND, C. (2008): Anaerobic Digestion of Blackwater and Kitchen Refuse. (PhD Thesis). (= Hamburger Berichte zur
Siedlungswasserwirtschaft). Hamburg: Institut fuer Abwasserwirtschaft und Gewaesserschutz (AWW), Technische Universitaet Hamburg
Hamburg (TUHH). URL [Accessed: 11.03.2010]. PDF
WHO (Editor) (2006): Guidelines for the safe use of wastewater excreta and greywater. Volume IV. Excreta and Greywater Use in
Agriculture. Geneva: World Health Organisation. URL [Accessed: 26.02.2010]. PDF
WSP (Editor) (2008): Technology Options for Urban Sanitation in India. A Guide to DecisionMaking. pdf presentation. New Delhi: Water
and Sanitation Program (WSP). URL [Accessed: 26.03.2010]. PDF

For further readings, case studies, awareness raising material, training material, important weblinks or
the related powerpoint presentation, see www.sswm.info/category/implementationtools/wastewater
treatment/hardware/semicentralisedwastewatertreatments/u

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