VI.

Intestines- commence at the pyloric sphincter and ends in the cephalic end of the cloaca or anus
presence of microvilli increases the surface area for absorption
with intestinal glands ( crypts of Lieberkuhn) that secretes digestive enzymes
Functions:
1. Small intestine is the chief site for digestion and absorption of nutrients
2. Intestinal juices *splits polypeptides to amino acids; disaccharides into monosaccharides) and
pancreatic enzymes help in the final digestion that results in absorbable nutrients
3. Selectively absorb the final products of digestion, i.e. amino acids, CHO and fatthy acids
1. Small intestine- long but smaller in diameter
- with villi (small surface projections that increase the surface area of the mucosa for better
absorption).
Parts:
a. Duodenum- receives chyme from the stomach and exocrine secretions from the liver and
pancreas
- recieves one or mor ducts that drain the pancreas, liver and gallbladder delivering pancreatic
juices ( amylase acts on CHO; lipase- digests lipids yielding absorbable fatty acids and
glycerol; proteolytic enzymes digest proteins and bile salts.
b. jejunum
c. ileyum- presence of large masses of lymph nodules (Peyer's patches)
* ileocolic valve- sphincter that reculates the movement of food to the large intestine.
Three structures in the wall of the small intestine:
1. Microvilli- tiny projections of the plasma membrane of the mucosal cells.
2. Villi- fingerlike projections of the mucosa that give it a velvety appearance and fell
3. Circula folds (plicae) circulares- deep folds of both mucosal and submucosal layers
Variations
a. Cartilaginaous and basal bony fishes- straight structure.
Spiral intestine- with typhlosole or spiral valve suspended in the lumen ( increases the epithelial area
for absorption).
Postvavlvular intestine- leads to the cloaca
intestinal ceca- increase the absorptive area
b. Tetrapods- with villi
2. Large intestine- diameter is bigger and the mucosa lacks villie; rarely coiled but ceca are
common.
-smooth muscle sphincter within the muscularis of the anal canal controls of the release of
waste products
mammals, reptiles and birds:
1. cecum- rare in fishes and mphibians but comon in amniotes (ileocolic ceca); in koalas, where
fermentation of food by enzymes takes place.
2. Vermiform appendix- terminates the cecum in artropoids, rodents, rabbits and other mammals;
in humans, much reduced cecum at the junction of small intestine and the large intestine;
cellulose fermentation
3. colon- starts at the ileocolic sphincter; where absorption of water takes place
Vii. Liver and Gall bladder
A. Liver- largest gland in the body; arises from the midventral aspect of the midgut as a hollow
cecumlike divericulum (liver bud).
-with hepatic ducts- drain the lobes of the liver.
Mesenteries:
1. hepatoduodenal ligament- connects the duodenum and the liver.

2.
3.
4.

Gastrohepatic ligament- connects the pyloric stomach to the liver

falciform ligament
coronary ligament
lesser omentum- conducts the common bile duct to the duodenum and the hepatic artery and
hepatic portal vein to the liver
Functions:
1. it produces bile- alkaline fluid containing bile salts that emulsify lipids in the small intestine.
2. Some liver cells phagocytose aging rbc's splitting the hemoglobin molecules and freeing the
iron.
3. Stores lipids in the form of oils including cholesterol
4. Removes glucose from the circulation (glycogen- stored glucose).
5. Removes dietary amino acids from the hepatic portal system and deaminates them
( ammonia, urea, uric acid- excreted through the urine).
Manufactures fibrinogen and prothrombin that are essential for blood clotting.
7. Detoxifieds tnd removes toxic substances
B. Gall bladder- small green sac embedded in the inferior surface of the liver
Develops in most vertgebrates including hagfishes
Stores bile secreted by the liver
Cystic duct: drains the gallbladder.
Common bile duct- where the hepatic and cystic duct converge and empties to the duodenum
VIII. Exocrine Pancreas:
Kinds:
diffuse- in teleosts and many higher vertebrates
compact- may consist of several discrete lobes
-with pancreatic ducts- empty into the duodenum
Pancreatic secretiosn
1. Pancreatic juice- proteolytic enzyme trypsin; also secretes amylases and lipases.
2. Insulin and glucagon- pancreatic islets ( islets of Langerhans); reguolates the level iof glucose
in the blood
IX. Cloaca- chamber into which the digestive, urinary and genital ducts usually empty; in placental
mammals it becomes partitioned into 2 or 3 separate passageways.
RESPIRATORY SYSTEM
Respiration- is the process of obtaining oxygen from the external environment and eliminating carbon
dioxide.
External respiration- oxygen and carbon dioxide exchanged between the external environment
and a respiratory membrane
Internal respiration exchange of oxygen and carbon dioxide between capillary blood and
tissue fluids; cells use oxygen for ATP production.
Characteristics of a respiratory membrane:
highly vascular
epithelium must be thin; high surface area
surface should be moist to facilitate diffusion of gases through semipermeable membranes.
Must be in contact with the environment
Chief organs of external respiration
Primary organs in adult vertebrates:
1. external and internal gills
2. swim bladders or lungs/ air sacs

3. skin ( cutaneous)
4. the oropharyngeal mucosa
Less common respiratory devices include:
-filamentous outgrowths of the pectoral fins
Ventilation or breathing- active process of moving the respiratory medium across the exchange surface.
Types of ventilation:
1. unidirectional- in most fish gills
- continous ventilation
- water enters the buccal cavity throug the mouth, passes across the gill curtian and exits
flowing in one direction
2. Bidirectional or tidal- in lung ventialtion
Respiratory organs:
1. Skin/ Cutaneous respiration
* respiration through skin can take place in air, water or both
* most important among amphibians
2. Internal Gills
Agnathans
* 5 or 6 pairs of gill pouches
* Structure: pharynx--> afferent branchial ducts gill pouch--> efferent branchial ducts
external gill aperture exterior ( Myxine: efferent ducts with common external slit on each
side )
*hagfishes: naris nasopharyngeal duct velar chamber pharynx
* lampreys: buccal cavity is pressed tightly against the flesh of the host.
* nasohypophyseal
Cartilaginous fishes:

5 naked gill slits- pentanchid ( internal and external gill slits) + spiracle pseudobranch that
regulates blood pressure in the eye ball; entry for water.

Anterior and posterior walls of the first 4 gill chambers have a gill surface (demibranch).
Posterior wall of last (5th) chamber has no demibranch

interbranchial septum lies between 2 demibranchs of a gill arch

Bony fishes:

operculum project backward over gill chambers

interbranchial septa are very short or absent ( water with freer access to the capillaries of the
demibranchs)

branciostegal membrane supported by numerous branchiostegal rays uniged midventrally

beneath the gills to encase an opercular chamber
Larval gills:

External gills outgrowths from the external surface of 1 or more gill arches; found in dipnoans
and all amphibians; Polypterus and sturgeons.

Filamentous extensions of internal gills- project through gill slits; occur in early stages of
development of elasmobranchs; absorb nutrients from the uterine fluid (hisottrophic nutrition among
viviparous species)\

Internal gills- hidden behind

* excretory roles of gills:

1. Marine fishes- excrete salts via salt secreting glands

2. Lamprey and marine fishes ( migratory species) excrete or absorb chloride

3. Fishes- excrete nitrogenous wastes

4. Fishes that acquire oxygen through air release carbon dioxide in the air.