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Physiological demands of downhill mountain biking

a

Jamie F. Burr , C. Taylor Drury , Adam C. Ivey & Darren E.R. Warburton

Kinesiology, Cardiovascular Physiology and Rehabilitation Laboratory, University of British

Columbia , Vancouver , British Columbia , Canada
b

Experimental Medicine, University of British Columbia , Vancouver , British Columbia ,

Canada
Published online: 02 Oct 2012.

To cite this article: Jamie F. Burr , C. Taylor Drury , Adam C. Ivey & Darren E.R. Warburton (2012) Physiological demands of
downhill mountain biking, Journal of Sports Sciences, 30:16, 1777-1785, DOI: 10.1080/02640414.2012.718091
To link to this article: http://dx.doi.org/10.1080/02640414.2012.718091

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Journal of Sports Sciences, December 2012; 30(16): 17771785

Physiological demands of downhill mountain biking

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JAMIE F. BURR1,*, C. TAYLOR DRURY2, ADAM C. IVEY2, & DARREN E.R. WARBURTON1
1

Kinesiology, Cardiovascular Physiology and Rehabilitation Laboratory, University of British Columbia, Vancouver, British
Columbia, Canada, and 2Experimental Medicine, University of British Columbia, Vancouver, British Columbia, Canada

(Accepted 31 July 2012)

Abstract
Mountain biking is a popular recreational pursuit and the physiological demands of cross-country style riding have been well
documented. However, little is known regarding the growing discipline of gravity-assisted downhill cycling. We characterised
the physiological demands of downhill mountain biking under typical riding conditions. Riding oxygen consumption (V_ O2)
and heart rate (HR) were measured on 11 male and eight female experienced downhill cyclists and compared with data during a
standardised incremental to maximum (V_ O2max) exercise test. The mean V_ O2 while riding was 23.1 + 6.9 ml  kg71  min71
or 52 + 14% of V_ O2max with corresponding heart rates of 146 + 11 bpm (80 + 6% HRmax). Over 65% of the ride was in a
zone at or above an intensity level associated with improvements in health-related fitness. However, the participants heart rates
and ratings of perceived exertion were artificially inflated in comparison with the actual metabolic demands of the downhill ride.
Substantial muscular fatigue was evident in grip strength, which decreased 5.4 + 9.4 kg (5.5 + 11.2%, P 0.03) post-ride.
Participation in downhill mountain biking is associated with significant physiological demands, which are in a range associated
with beneficial effects on health-related fitness.

Keywords: cycling, gravity, health, action sport, cardiovascular, benefit

Introduction
Current exercise recommendations stress the importance of habitual physical activity participation
for the prevention of chronic disease and promotion of fitness (Garber et al., 2011; Warburton,
Katzmarzyk, Rhodes, & Shephard, 2007; Warburton, Nicol & Bredin, 2006). Physical activity
guidelines specifically note that cycling for sport,
active transport, or recreation is strongly associated
with many health benefits and improved fitness.
Despite these well recognised global health-related
fitness benefits, within the sport of cycling
there exist a number of sub-disciplines that
remain poorly characterised and incompletely
understood.
Mountain biking is a relatively novel sport, conceived in the late 1970s (Berto, 1999), and adopted as
an Olympic sport in 1996. Since this time, the sport
has witnessed considerable increases in participation,
especially in the traditional cross-country (XC) style
riding. The physiological demand of XC mountain
biking has been convincingly demonstrated to be of a
vigorous intensity, with high aerobic-anaerobic

demands (90% maximal heart rate and 480% of

race above lactate threshold) (Impellizzeri & Marcora, 2007; Impellizzeri, Sassi, Rodriguez-Alonso,
Mognoni, & Marcora, 2002; Stapelfeldt, Schwirtz,
Schuacher, & Hillebrecht, 2004). These demands
have been suggested to be causatively related to the
elite aerobic fitness levels documented amongst
competitive participants (Baron, 2001). More specific research has demonstrated that the demands of
XC mountain biking are affected greatly by the use
of bicycles with suspension, as the suspension
absorbs impacts and maintains tyre to ground
contact. This results in cyclists being capable of
riding at greater velocities while the V_ O2 requirements (Berry, Woodard, Dunn, Edwards, & Pittman, 1993), exercising heart rate (Seifert,
Luetkemeier, Spencer, Miller, & Burke, 1997)
and muscular stress (Seifert et al., 1997) are
decreased. The high aerobic-anaerobic demands of
off-road XC riding have specifically been attributed
to climbing in opposition to gravity and the
isometric contractions of arm and leg musculature
for control and stabilisation of the bicycle (Impellizzeri & Marcora 2007).

*The corresponding author is currently at: Human Performance and Health Laboratory, University of PEI, Charlottetown, Prince Edward Island, Canada.
Correspondence: Jamie F Burr, University of PEI, Applied Human Sciences Kinesiology, Human Performance and Health Laboratory, Charlottetown, PE,
Canada. Email: jburr@upei.ca
ISSN 0264-0414 print/ISSN 1466-447X online 2012 Taylor & Francis
http://dx.doi.org/10.1080/02640414.2012.718091

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1778

J. F. Burr et al.

Downhill (DH) biking is a sub-discipline of

mountain biking characterised by the gravity assisted
descent of an off-road trail containing both natural
and man-made obstacles such as jumps, vertical
drops and banked corners. Typically, DH riding is
performed using a bicycle with a more robust frame,
larger suspension (up to 200 mm travel front and
rear) and while wearing protective body armour
atypical to other types of cycling. As opposed to XC
mountain biking, which requires riders to pedal up
and over a hill before the descent, DH mountain
biking is typically supported with the use of a shuttle
vehicle to passively transport both the rider and
bicycle to the top of the hill. With the conversion of
many winter ski resorts to summer bike parks
offering chairlift access to the top of the mountain,
participation in DH style riding is becoming increasingly popular and accessible.
At present, there is very little scientific evidence
investigating the physiological demands of DH
riding; however, there is a widespread belief that
downhill riding is unlikely to impose pronounced
physical demands on riders owing to (1) the lack of
active ascent of hills during riding; (2) locomotion
can be generated using gravity and stored kinetic
energy; and (3) suspension systems are typically
superior to those found on XC bikes. Perhaps in
support of these suppositions, the limited published
research on DH riding does indeed demonstrate that
even under race conditions DH cyclists pedal
relatively infrequently (550% of a run) and produce
low to moderate power outputs (Hurst & Atkins,
2006). It has also been shown that the use of
suspension systems (100 mm travel, which moves
approximately half as much distance as a typical DH
style bike) significantly reduced muscle activation
while riding over a man-made drop as quantified with
surface electromyographic recordings (Hurst, Sinclair, Edmundson, Brooks, & Mellor, 2011). In
contrast, a comparative investigation of the heart
rate response of DH and XC riders during a
standardised descent concluded DH riders maintained higher HRs during descent (Hurst & Atkins
2002). However, this study was limited by unequal
age distributions between groups and a lack of
information regarding rider fitness. To date, there
exists no published research on DH cycling that has
tracked any cardiovascular indices of work other than
heart rate, and there are no direct measures of the
metabolic demands (V_ O2), levels of perceived exertion (RPE) or muscular fatigue.
The primary purpose of this study was to
characterise the physiological effects of gravityassisted DH bicycle riding under typical riding
conditions. A secondary purpose was to examine
the accuracy of heart rate measures for characterising
cardiovascular demand while downhill riding. Lastly,

we sought to evaluate recreational DH riding with

respect to current physical activity guidelines for
health-related fitness. We hypothesised that DH
riding would be associated with significant metabolic
demands that fall within an exercise intensity range
necessary to stimulate changes in fitness. Based on
previous examinations of off-road motorcycle riding
(Burr, Jamnik, Shaw, & Gledhill, 2010a), we also
hypothesised that heart rate derived measures of
exercise intensity would be artificially inflated considering the metabolic demands.

Materials and methods

Location
Whistler resort in British Columbia, Canada, was
selected for the analysis of the physiological demands
of DH mountain biking as the resort is an international industry leader. Whistler Blackcomb offers a
wide selection of trails (4250 km of sanctioned trail)
ranging in difficulty, length, natural and manmade
features, and vertical descent.
Participants
Downhill mountain bike riders with a high level of
cycling proficiency, who were 418 years of age, and
of both genders were eligible for participation.
Participants self-reported years of riding experience,
and riding proficiency by rating him or herself on a
scale from 14, anchored by the respective descriptors
of: novice,intermediate, advanced and professional. A total of 19 participants (11 male, 8 female)
were recruited through the local mountain bike
community and postings on off-road cycling websites.
All riders had significant prior riding experience
within the bike park of Whistler mountain. Descriptive participant characteristics are included in Table I.
This study was approved by the University of British
Columbias human research ethics review board, and
in accordance with the Declaration of Helsinki;
Table I. Descriptive participant characteristics of proficient
downhill mountain bike riders.
n 20
Gender (M/F)
Age (yr)
Height (cm)
Weight (kg)
Body Fat (%)
Self-Reported Riding Level (0-4)
Downhill Riding Experience (yr)

11/8
31.9 + 5.6
176 + 10
70.1 + 10.8
16.2 + 6.6
2.9 + 0.8
6.3 + 4.8

Data presented as mean + SD; M male, F female; yr year;

kg kilogram; Downhill riding level was classified as 1: Novice
(n 1), 2: Intermediate (n 3), 3: Advanced (n 10) and 4:
Professional (n 5)

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written informed consent was provided by all participants following both written and verbal explanation of
procedures. Prior to participation, all volunteers were
pre-screened for safe exercise participation using the
Physical Activity Readiness Questionnaire Plus (PARQ) (Warburton, Jamnik, Bredin, & Gledhill, 2011).
Experimental design
We used a case-control study design, with each
participant acting as his or her own control under
standardised conditions at rest and during a graded
exercise test. All testing for each participant took
place on a single day and is described in detail to
follow. In brief, baseline fitness and anthropometric
measures were collected at rest, prior to any activity.
Participants then completed a representative DH
ride, wherein physiological variables were measured
continuously (where possible) or immediately following cessation, to characterise the DH ridinginduced physiological responses. After a rest period
of approximately 45 minutes, each participant then
completed a graded exercise test, allowing comparison of ride-induced physiological effects to a
controlled exercise stimulus.

Physical demands analysis

Baseline measures
Baseline testing occurred prior to the initiation of
riding, including warm-up laps. Testing took place in
a dedicated research building, which was located at
mid-mountain (1020 m). All altitude measures
reported are based on known points on the mountain
and are expressed as metres above sea-level. Participant height was measured to the nearest 0.5 cm with a
slide scale stadiometer (SECA, Hanover, MD) while
the participant stood barefoot with their heels
together and touching the rear base of the stand.
Weight was measured with a minimum of clothing,
using a digital scale that was re-calibrated prior to
each use (Tanita TBF-300R WA, Arlington Heights,
IL). Body composition was estimated using bioelectrical impedance on the same device, with preprogrammed corrections for height, gender and
athletic body type. Resting blood pressure was
measured following 510 min of seated rest, using a
standard sphygmomanometer on the upper left arm.
Pre-exercise heart rate was measured simultaneously
using a Polar heart rate monitor (RS800cx, Polar
Electro, Tampere, Finland), which was worn for the
duration of all exercise tests. Grip strength was
measured using a handgrip dynamometer (Almedic,
Montreal Canada), adjusted to the second knuckle of
the hand. Participants were given two trials per hand,
in an alternating fashion, with an average of the two

1779

measures recorded. Left and right hand averages were

summed to arrive at a combined grip strength score.
Assessment of physiological demands during DH riding
During testing, ambient temperatures varied between and throughout the days, as well as at different
elevations on the mountain. Outdoor temperature
ranged from 9188C at the base (650 m) and 798C
at mid-mountain, the highest point from which
participants initiated their ride. Although some trails
remained damp from previous precipitation, all
testing occurred during dry outdoor conditions
with barometric pressure measured inside the testing
facility ranging from 750752 mmHg. Participants
were instructed to choose a lap that best represented
a typical ride similar to that which they would
normally select when free-riding, and appropriate
to their fitness, technical skill, and ability. All rides
were initiated at the mid-mountain point (1020 m),
with the only trail selection restrictions being that the
chosen route had to be continuous from start to
finish with no rest breaks, and it must end at the
bottom of the mountain (650 m) where our research
team was waiting. Riders were given this latitude to
select their own trails and terrain, as our purpose was
to characterise DH riding as it actually occurs. As
trail conditions, pitch, terrain features, and rider skill
likely had direct impacts on the physical demands of
riding, it was our intention to avoid introducing bias
by forcing all riders to complete the same course,
which could have been too easy for some riders and
too hard (or dangerous) for others. At the end of
each ride, participants were asked to report the
names of the trails they selected, and the average trail
difficulty using the common green (easy), blue
(intermediate), black (advanced) and double black
(expert) rating system used to mark resort trails.
These ratings were converted to a scale of 14 for
analysis.
Participants were encouraged to wear all typical
safety gear, which included a full-face helmet,
goggles, gloves, elbow pads, knee/shin pads and
bike shoes. Some participants also chose to wear bike
specific shorts or pants and torso protection. Only
one participant used clip-in style pedals, all other
participants used flat platform style pedals.
The acute cardiorespiratory demands of riding
were assessed using a combination of heart rate and
metabolic monitoring. Prior to the initiation of a
ride, participants were outfitted with the same polar
heart rate monitor used for pre-exercise heart rate
measures. Oxygen consumption was measured using
a small metabolic computer (Cosmed, K4b2, Rome,
Italy) that was affixed to the participants back using
the commercially available harness. Gas and flow
sampling lines passed from the computer, over the

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J. F. Burr et al.
while participants were on course. This measure was
taken with no rest following the ride to approximate
the ride-related effect as closely as possible. Measures
of grip strength were also repeated for comparison
with pre-ride values to determine if a fatiguing effect
of riding was evident. Following these measures,
participants reported their average RPE during the
ride, using the original Borg 6-20 scale (Borg, 1982).
All post-ride measures were taken in this order, to
avoid the confounding effect of strong isometric
gripping on blood pressure and to ensure both blood
pressure and grip strength were taken within approximately 120 seconds post ride.
Maximal aerobic fitness assessment

Figure 1. Portable metabolic computer (V_ O2) arrangement used

for field assessment of V_ O2 during downhill riding. Within the full
face helmet (inset top right) the rider is wearing the sealed
facemask, support cap and flow sensor (inset top left). Gas
sampling lines pass from the computer on the participants back,
over their shoulder and sample adjacent to the flow sensor at the
front of the mask.

participants shoulder and to the front of the

facemask, which was worn inside the chin guard of
the helmet (see Figure 1). The facemask was secured
in place using a head cap worn under the helmet that
maintained a good seal of the mask against the face
while covering the nose and mouth. Measures of V_ O2
while riding were collected for comparison against
V_ O2max as well as published fitness and health
guidelines. V_ O2R was calculated by removing the
influence of resting V_ O2 on both ride-measured V_ O2
and exercise test measured V_ O2max (Swain 1999).
Immediate post-DH ride measures
Immediately upon arrival of the subject at the base of
the mountain following completion of the DH ride,
measures of post-ride blood pressure were taken. This
post-ride measure was used to understand the blood
pressure response as a result of DH riding, which
could not physically be monitored during the ride

Maximal aerobic power (V_ O2max) testing was

performed at the mid-mountain station (1020 m)
in a dedicated research building that was temperature and humidity controlled. Maximal aerobic
power was analysed using a graded exercise test on
a mechanically braked cycle ergometer (Monark
Model 818E; Monark Exercise, Varberg, Sweden).
Participants were allowed to warm up for 510
minutes prior to the initiation of the test, which
followed the Canadian Society for Exercise Physiology high performance testing protocol (MacDougal,
Wenger, & Green, 1991). In brief, the initial
resistance started at 75 W for females and 100 W
for males and resistance was increased by 25 W every
two minutes, until participants failed to increase
V_ O2 4150 ml min71 with an increase in workload.
Blood pressure was monitored within the last 30 s of
each 2 minute stage. Expired air was collected for gas
analysis using the same facemask and portable
metabolic computer worn during the assessment of
riding, with a telemetric signal relayed to a laptop
computer for real-time participant monitoring. All
participants, with the exception of one who stopped
at peak exercise due to volitional fatigue, achieved a
true V_ O2max confirmed with a plateau in oxygen
uptake. Individual linear regressions with V_ O2 were
created for each rider using each of heart rate, blood
pressure and RPE from the V_ O2max exercise test,
allowing comparison between laboratory and DH
riding values (Burr et al., 2010a). By normalising
each variable to a submaximal V_ O2 (the average
while riding) potential heart rate, blood pressure
(immediate post-ride) and RPE inflation during the
DH ride above the corresponding value from the
incrementally controlled workload during the graded
exercise test could be determined (Figure 2).
Statistical analysis
Paired samples t-tests were used to compare measures of grip strength and blood pressure pre- and

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Physiology of downhill cycling

post-ride, as well as between measured and predicted
responses of heart rate, blood pressure and RPE.
Delta grip scores (i.e. change from pre- to post-ride)
as an indicator of hand/arm fatigue were calculated to
determine if a relationship existed between a participants rating of perceived exertion and hand fatigue
using Pearson correlation. Pearson correlation was
also used to determine if relationships existed
between the level of trail difficulty or years of riding
experience, with measures of RPE and metabolic
demand while riding. Significance for all tests was

Figure 2. This schematic graphically demonstrates the method of

determining ride-related elevations in heart rate, blood pressure
and rating of perceived exertion. Using the linear regression
developed from the V_ O2max test for each participant heart rate,
blood pressure and RPE were predicted at the V_ O2 measured
during the ride. Inflation above the riding V_ O2 was calculated as
the difference between the measured values while riding and
during the incremental V_ O2max exercise test.

1781

set a priori at P 5 0.05. Data are presented as

mean + SD.
Results
The individual routes participants selected as a
typical ride required an average riding duration of
8.8 + 2.4 min, with a vertical descent of approximately 370 m. The routes selected had an average
ride difficulty of 2.5 (+ 0.5) out of 4. Baseline data
from the pre-ride testing and graded exercise test
(V_ O2max) are presented in Table II, with comparison
to values while riding (or immediately after). Table II
also offers comparison of ride-related (during and
immediate post-ride) measures with the predicted
values of blood pressure, HR and RPE observed
during the standardised V_ O2max test at an equivalent
exercise intensity (see Figure 2). While the mean
V_ O2 while riding was 23.1 + 6.9 ml kg71  min71,
the highest recorded peak (averaged over 15 s) was
greater than twice this value at 57.4 ml kg71 
min71. Using average V_ O2 data from individual
participants for the DH ride, the typical mean riding
intensity was equivalent to 52 + 14% V_ O2max, with
a range from 1975%. Corresponding heart rate
responses revealed the average riding heart rate to be
80 + 6% of HRmax, with a range of 122174 bpm.
A breakdown of the riding V_ O2, expressed as the
cumulative proportion of time spent above a given %
V_ O2R, is presented in Figure 3. Throughout one
lap, 4 65% of the ride time was spent in a V_ O2 range
at or above a level associated with improvements in
health-related fitness (i.e. 40%V_ O2R) (Garber et al.,
2011). A strong relationship (r 0.61, P 0.006)
existed between the riding V_ O2 and years of riding
experience, with a moderate strength association

Table II. Participant baseline physiological data, with ride-related measures that were collected continuously during the ride, or immediately
following (BP and grip strength). Predicted values for RPE, heart rate, and blood pressure, which were projected from individual
physiological responses during a standardised graded exercise test (GXT) are included for comparison with actual values measured in
conjunction with a DH ride.

RPE (620)
Heart Rate (bpm)
SBP (mmHg)
DBP (mmHg)
MAP (mmHg)
Grip Strength (kg)

V_ O2 (ml  kg71  min71)

V_ O2 (l  min71)
Metabolic Eq. (METs)
Heart rate (bpm)

Baseline

Ride-related

GXT predicted

6
65 + 13
122 + 9
79 + 5
93 + 5
97.6 + 25.3

13 + 1
146 + 11
144 + 12
77 + 8
99 + 6
92.2 + 24

10 + 3
127 + 18
136 + 26
79 + 8

Maximum from GXT

45.8 + 6.5
3.2 + 0.7
13.1 + 2
185 + 11

23.1 + 6.9
1.6 + 0.6
6.7 + 2
146 + 11

% maximum
52 + 14 %

80 + 6%

Baseline versus ride-related: *P  0.05, **P  0.001; ride-related versus GXT standardised , P  0.001, GXT Graded exercise Test,
SBP Systolic blood pressure, DBP diastolic blood pressure, RPE rating of perceived exertion (NB: True RPE at rest was not collected,
but is interpreted as 6 which is no exertion at all), Grip strength both hands combined. Data are presented as mean + SD.

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J. F. Burr et al.

Figure 3. The cumulative proportion of a downhill mountain bike ride spent in each 10% intensity range above the minimal level associated
with changes in health-related fitness. This breakdown of proportional intensity has important prescriptive implications considering that
higher intensity exercise requires shorter durations/frequencies to achieve similar effects.

between riding V_ O2 and the level of trail difficulty

(r 0.44, P 0.05).
Comparison of baseline grip strength with post
ride grip strength revealed a significant decrease
(5.4 + 9.4 kg or 5.5 + 11.2%, P 0.03),
indicative of a riding imposed fatigue. Riding heart
rate and RPE both demonstrated significant inflations compared with oxygen consumption-matched
levels recorded during the incremental exercise test
(heart rate 22 bpm, P 0.001, RPE 3, P
40.001). Post-riding systolic blood pressure was
elevated from baseline (24 + 11 mmHg), but compared with the predicted increase in blood pressure
(from the incremental exercise test), post-ride blood
pressure was not significantly inflated. As can be seen
in Figure 4(a), Participants RPE while riding was
strongly associated with years of riding experience (r
0.74, P 4 0.001), whereas a moderate strength
relationship (r 0.48, P 0.04) existed between
RPE and accumulated hand fatigue (Figure 4(b)).
No relationship was found relating participants RPE
to the difficulty level of the trail selected; however,
self-reported skill was related to the difficulty of the
trail selected (r 0.54, P 0.02).
Discussion
This is the first examination of the physiological
demands of DH mountain biking using measures of
heart rate, blood pressure, RPE, strength and oxygen
consumption. We demonstrate clear evidence of
appreciable physical demand. In general, the acute

physiological demand associated with DH riding

would place this activity into an intensity category
associated with improvements in health-related fitness according to current ACSM (Garber et al.,
2011) and Canadian physical activity guidelines
(Tremblay et al., 2011).
In the present investigation, we considered only
the acute physical demands of one DH lap while
riding, which was approximately 9 min in length.
Although one lap by itself would almost qualify as a
meaningful bout of physical activity when considering recommended exercise duration parameters, it is
important to note DH cyclists typically do not stop
riding after one lap. In reality, many laps are
combined in a consecutive manner, sometimes
linking laps with a short break in between (i.e. from
mountain peak to mid-station, then mid-station to
base). In this way, DH cyclists will often ride for
many consecutive hours comparable to the activity
patterns of alpine skiers and snowboarders.
Similar to more traditional exercise modalities in
which it has been demonstrated that participants selfselect a work intensity of *60% V_ O2max or 1114
RPE (Dishman, Farquhar, & Cureton, 1994),
participants in the present investigation rode at an
intensity of 52% of V_ O2max and 13 RPE. It is
important to note, however, that individual riders
selected differing levels of exercise intensity (especially at the high and low end of the range) and that
this intensity selection could be affected by overall
fitness, skill, efficiency, terrain condition, comfort
level, or a variety of other factors. On average, DH

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Physiology of downhill cycling

Figure 4. (a) The relationship between participants subjective

exertion and years of DH riding experience, showing that those
who have been riding longer rated their run as more difficult. (b)
The relationship between subjective exertion and change in
combined handgrip strength, showing that those who had greater
decrements in strength, rated their ride as being more physically
demanding.

cycling elevated oxygen consumption 6.8 + 2 times

compared with rest, with a range from 3.110.4
METs. Thus, according to current ACSM classifications (Haskell et al., 2007) this exercise is considered
to be of moderate intensity (43 METs) even during
the least demanding ride that was captured, and the
majority of exercise would be considered vigorous
(46 METs). Using the ACSM threshold intensity of
40% V_ O2R, it can be seen from Figure 3 that the
majority of a ride is of an intensity sufficient to
stimulate meaningful physiological effects. Importantly, it can also be observed that a significant
proportion of the ride is maintained at even higher
exercise intensities, which are known to have
differential, and sometimes greater, health-related
fitness benefits. Referencing the compendium of
physical activity (Ainsworth et al. 2011) it appears
that the aerobic physical demands of DH mountain
biking are similar to sports such as: hockey, basketball, racquetball and non- competitive XC skiing.
This is perhaps somewhat surprising, given that DH
bicycle locomotion has been shown to be non-

1783

essentially dependent on pedalling (Hurst & Atkins,

2006), thus reconfirming that the work of controlling
the bicycle and navigating terrain features by itself
imposes considerable physical demand. In contrast
to other forms of cycling, sitting on the bicycles seat
during DH riding is rare, thus the seat is positioned
quite low so that riders can stand on the pedals and
move their centre of mass over the bicycle unimpeded. These movements function to absorb shock
and control the bicycle, which requires the use of
both the upper and lower body musculature as is
evident from observation of the standing riding
technique, whereby the arms and legs flex and
extend vigorously to act as shock absorbers. The
fact that this appears to be a full-body type of
exercise, as opposed to simple lower body cycle
cranking, could have important benefits for promoting health; particularly metabolic health given the
aerobic-anaerobic engagement of an apparently large
muscle mass, which has been suggested to be of
primary importance for insulin-mediated glucose
uptake and control of diabetic risk factors (Burr,
Rowan, Jamnik, & Riddell, 2010b).
Certain parallels between gravity-propelled downhill cycling and engine-propelled off-road motorcycle
riding are evident. In both activities, participants
stand on the foot pegs/pedals and navigate cycles
with large front and rear suspension through narrow
off-road trails consisting of undulating and uneven
terrain. Interestingly, the physical demands of the
two sports appear quite similar, as off-road motorcycle riding has been shown to require an oxygen
demand of 21.3 + 7 ml kg71  min71 or 51% of
maximum (Burr et al., 2010a). A longitudinal
training study of non-habituated participants performing regular off-road motorcycle riding (Burr,
Jamnik & Gledhill 2011) has demonstrated experimental evidence of beneficial physiological adaptations (blood pressure, adiposity, fasting glucose,
muscular endurance, fitness), thus it is probable
that similar adaptations in health-related fitness
could be attained through habitual DH biking.
Although we did not collect direct EMG measures
of muscular activity while riding, comparison of hand
grip strength before and immediately after riding
demonstrated a clear fatiguing effect, as participants
were unable to produce the same force after a ride.
The large variation in response of this measure is
attributable to the fact that some riders revealed large
decrements in strength, while others showed only
small changes or no change at all. In fact, a few riders
even showed minor improvements in strength. The
mean decrease in handgrip strength is particularly
interesting as this suggests that riders are performing
considerable isometric contractions during a ride,
and isometric handgrip exercise is known to be
associated with changes in heart rate, blood pressure,

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J. F. Burr et al.

and cardiac output (Helfant, De Villa, & Meister,

1971). In the present study, we demonstrated that
heart rate responses were significantly elevated
compared with the heart rate at a matched V_ O2
during stationary cycling. It is likely, that the work of
handgrip exercise contributed to this increase in
heart rate, and based on subjective reports of riders
we speculate this effect may have been further
augmented as a result of a particularly forceful grip
of the handlebars to maintain control. It is also
possible that heart rate was inflated as a result of
other isometric contractions necessary for DH
riding, including core stabilisation (potential Valsalva
manoeuvres) and standing on the pedals. Similarly,
we observed an increase in the participants RPE
compared with matched stationary cycling intensities, suggesting that participation was perceived as
being harder than the metabolic demands indicate.
Importantly, this comparison of perceived exertion is
drawn between a participants rating while riding and
his/her rating while performing standardised ergometer exercise; thus the subjective assessment of
what constitutes hard work for that individual
should be similar. We believe the observed inflation
in RPE relates to the isometric gripping and physical
exertion of relatively small upper body musculature.
This supposition is supported by our finding of a
relationship between RPE and accumulated hand
grip fatigue.
There was no observed increase in post-riding
blood pressure in the same manner as heart rate and
RPE. However, as a result of methodological
constraints it must be recognised that the reported
blood pressure responses represent weaker evidence
of DH riding physiological effects compared with the
heart rate and RPE data, which were collected using
highly reliable measurement techniques during the
DH ride. Regardless, the cardiovascular response
during DH riding is an area of research deserving of
further attention, as the interactions of blood
pressure and heart rate (or the rate pressure product)
are important indicators of myocardial oxygen
demand (Gobel, Norstrom, Nelson, Jorgensen, &
Wang, 1978). If blood pressure proves to be
significantly elevated above the metabolic demands
of riding in a similar manner to heart rate, this could
have important health implications for persons at an
elevated risk for ischemic cardiovascular events.
Participant experience was strongly associated
with both the subjective (RPE) and objective (V_ O2)
physical demand while riding, such that participants
with more years of experience worked harder while
riding. It seems likely that more experienced participants were willing to push themselves harder and/or
ride more aggressive terrain without fear of losing
control. In support of this theory, we found evidence
of associations between both self-described skill level

and riding V_ O2 with the difficulty level of the chosen

route, suggesting that better riders sought more
difficult terrain. Given these findings, it appears that
the demands of DH riding vary according to the skill
level of the rider, and their willingness/ability to accept
risk. Further investigation of the influence of technical
skill and experience on riding demands would be
beneficial to understand fully the anticipated training
effects across the spectrum of participants.
As noted above, participation in downhill mountain bike riding is not without risks. Although the
focus of the current study is to characterise the
physiological demands of participation in reference
to health and fitness, it is important to note that the
modifiable risks of DH mountain bike riding must be
considered when weighing the riskreward of participation. Among these risks are factors such as
possible cellular damage from eccentric muscle
loading, fine particulate inhalation resulting from
following other riders closely, and traumatic collisions
with natural objects or riders. Given the presented
evidence of decrements in handgrip strength, it
appears possible that a riders ability to maintain
control of their bicycle may be compromised after
sustained riding, although the influence of this change
is likely modified greatly by fitness, technical skill, and
experience. Investigation of the safety of DH riding
offers an area for future research to determine if
accidents occur as a result of accumulated fatigue, or
if riders appropriately adjust their route selection and
riding style to accommodate these changes. Thus,
despite the general observation that DH riding
represents a physical activity stimulus capable of
stimulating beneficial changes in overall health-related
fitness for most participants, caution in participation is
warranted, particularly for certain segments of the
population that may be at increased risk.
Conclusions
Recreational DH mountain biking is of moderate to
vigorous aerobic exercise intensity, with evidence of a
stimulatory effect on heart rate and perceived
exertion above the documented riding V_ O2 of the
exercise. As such, heart rate or RPE alone are not
sufficient measures to characterise the physical
demands of participation in this sport, as has
traditionally been employed in the past. The
evidence clearly demonstrates that gravity-assisted
mountain biking is associated with legitimate physiological demands, which are in a range expected to
be associated with beneficial effects on health-related
fitness. In addition, there is preliminary evidence of
fatigue inducing muscular strength challenges, specifically related to hand grip strength. Further
investigation of the effects of DH cycling on
cardiovascular function and the strength demands/

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Physiology of downhill cycling

force contributions of other muscle groups while
riding are warranted. The results of this study are
useful for understanding the physical demands of
this popular non-traditional form of cycling from
both health-related fitness and performance-related
perspectives. This information can be used for
training-related purposes and incorporating nontraditional exercise into prescriptive recommendations for persons who may not be motivated by more
traditional forms of physical activity including XC or
road cycling. The present results should also be used
to update the cycling specific energy expenditure
estimations in the oft-cited compendium of physical
activity (Ainsworth et al., 2011).
Acknowledgements
This study was supported by funding from the
Canadian Institutes of Health Research, the Natural
Sciences and Engineering Council of Canada, and the
Canada Foundation for Innovation. The authors wish
to acknowledge Whistler Blackcomb Mountain for
their support in arranging on-mountain laboratory
space, safety personnel and DH cycling resources.
Thank you to Brad Doran-Veevers for his help with
subject recruitment and Danielle Beaudoin, Alyssa
Record, and Mark Tonello for assistance with data
collection. The authors have no professional relationships with companies or manufacturers who will
benefit from the results of the present study.
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