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Mechanical Springs
Flexibility is sometimes needed and is often provided by metal bodies with cleverly
controlled geometry
Such flexibility can be linear or nonlinear in relating deflection to load.
These devices allow controlled application of force or torque; the storing and release of
energy can be another purpose
In general, spring may be classified as:
1. Wire springs such as helical springs of round or square wire, made to resist and
deflect under tensile, compressive, and torsional loads.
2. Flat springs which includes cantilever and elliptical types, wound motor-or clocktype power springs, a flat spring washers, usually called Belleville springs.
3. Special-shaped springs
101
Tr F
+
J
A
8 FD 4 F
+
d 3 d 2
(10-1)
D
d
(10-2)
8 FD
d 3
(10-3)
2C + 1
2C
(10-4)
102
4C 1 0.615
+
4C 4
C
(10-5)
4C + 2
4C 3
(10-6)
Bergstrasser factor:
KB =
The different between the two equations is less than one percent which makes equation
(10-6) is preferred to used
The curvature correction factor can now be obtained by canceling out the effect of the
direct shear form KB, thus
KC =
KB
2C (4C + 2)
=
K S (4C 3)(2C + 1)
(10-7)
8 FD
d 3
103
U=
T 2l
F 2l
+
2GJ 2 AG
(10-8)
F
d 4G
=
y 8D 3 N
(10-9)
y
The spring rate can be calculated by
k=
104
A spring with plain ends has a noninterrupted helicoids; the ends are the same as if a long
spring had been cut into sections.
A spring with plain ends that are squared or closed is obtained by deforming the ends to a
zero-degree helix angle.
Springs should always be both squared and ground for important applications, because a
better transfer of the load is obtained.
A spring with squared and ground ends compressed between rigid plates can be
considered to have fixed ends.
The type of end used affects the number of active coils Na and the solid height of the
spring.
Square ends effectively decrease the number of total coils Nt by approximately two:
Nt = Na+2
Table 10-1 shows how the type of end used affects the number of coils and the spring length.
Types of Springs Ends
Squared or
Closed
2
Squared and
Ground
2
Na
Na+1
Na+2
Na+2
Free length, L0
pNa+d
p(Na+1)
pNa+3d
pNa+2d
Solid length, Ls
d(Nt+1)
dNt
d(Nt+1)
dNt
Pitch, p
(L0-d)/ Na
L0/ (Na+1)
(L0-3d)/ Na
(L0-2d)/ Na
Term
Plain
End coils, Ne
Total coils, Nt
Forys gives an expression for calculating the solid length of squared and ground ends
Ls=(Nt - a)d
Where a varies, with an average of 0.75 which means in this case that the entry dNt in
table 10-1may be overstated.
The way to check these variations is to take a spring and count the wire diameters in the
solid stack
105
10.5 Stability
Compression coil springs may buckle when the deflection becomes too large.
The critical deflection is given by the equation:
C'
y cr = L0 C 1 1 22
eff
'
1
1/ 2
(10-10)
where
ycr is the deflection corresponding to the onest of instability
eff is the effective slenderness ratio and is given by:
eff =
the end condition constant
L0
D
(10-11)
E
2(E G )
2 2 (E G )
2G + E
The end condition constant depends upon how the ends of the spring are support.
106
Constant
0.5
0.707
1
2
Absolute stability occurs when equation the term C 2' / 2eff in equation (10-10) is greater
than unity. Thus, for stability we have:
L0 <
D 2(E G )
2G + E
1/ 2
(10-12)
A
dm
(10-14)
A very rough estimate of the torsional yield strength can be obtained by assuming that the
tensile yield strength is between 60 and 90 percent of the tensile strength.
0.6 S ut < S y < 0.9 S ut
Then, the torsional yield strength can be found by Sys=0.577Sy. Therefore, for steel:
0.577(0.6) S ut < S ys < 0.577(0.9) S ut
0.35S ut < S ys < 0.52 S ut
(10-15)
For wires listed in table 10-5, the maximum allowable shear stress in a spring can be seen
in column 3.
Joerres uses the maximum allowable torsional stress for static applications and it is given
in table 10-6.
Samonov shows that Ssy=all = 0.56Sut for high-tensile spring steels, which is close to the
value given by Joerres for hardened alloy steels.
Example
A helical compression spring is made of hard drawn carbon A227 steel has a wire
diameter of 0.94mm. The outside diameter of the spring is 11.11mm. The ends are
squared and the there are 12.5 total turns.
a) Estimate the torsional yield strength of the wire.
b) Estimate the static load corresponding to the yield strength.
c) Estimate the scale of the spring (the spring constant).
d) Estimate the deflection that would be caused by the load in part (b)
e) Estimate the solid length of the spring
f) What length should the spring be to ensure that when it is compressed solid and
then released, there will be no permanent change in the free length?
g) Given the length found in part (f), is buckling a possibility?
h) What is the pitch of the body coil?
Solution
a) The torsional yield strength of the wire:
d = 0.94mm
From table 10-4, A=1783MPa.mmm and m=0.19
From equation 10-14: Sut = A/dm = 1783/(0.94)0.19 =1804MPa
From table 10-6: Ssy = 0.50Sut = 902MPa
b) The static load corresponding to the yield strength:
The main spring coil diameter is D=Dout-d=11.11-0.94=10.17mm
Thus, the spring index is: C = D/d = 10.17/0.94 =10.82
Therefore, from equation 10-3 replacing Ks and with KB and Ssy, Thus:
108
= S sy = K B
F=
8 FD
d 3
d 3 S sy
8K B D
; KB =
4C + 2 4(10.82) + 2
=
= 1.124
4C 3 4(10.82) 3
F = 25.734 N
c) the scale of the spring:
d 4G
k=
8D 3 N a
From table 10-5, d = 0.94mm = 0.037in G=80GPa
Na for both ends squared: Nt = Na +2 Na = 12.5-2=10.5 turns
d 4G
k=
= 707 N / m
8D 3 N a
d) The deflection that would be caused by the load in part (b):
F 25.734
y= =
= 0.0364m = 36.4mm
k
707
e) The solid length of the spring, from table 10-1:
Ls = d ( N t + 1) = 0.94(12.5 + 1) = 12.69mm
f) The free length of the spring suppose to have to be sure when it is compressed and
then released, there will be no permanent change in it is free length:
L0 = Ls + y = 12.69 + 36.4 = 49.09mm
g) To Check if buckling is possible:
For steel and squared ground: L0 < 5.26D L0 < 53.94mm, since L0 = 49.9mm,
therefore there will be no buckling.
h) The pitch of the body coil is:
(L 3d ) (49.09 3(0.94)
p= 0
=
= 4.41
Na
10.5
109
Designers use these factors to select a material and specify suitable values for wire size,
the number of turns, the diameter and free length, the type of ends, and the spring rate
needed to satisfy the working force-deflection requirements.
Some important limits:
The range index is 4 C 12, Lower indexes being more difficult to form (because
of the danger of surface cracking). Higher indexes tending to tangle (knot) often
enough to require individual packing.
The characteristic of the force-deflection for the helical coil spring is nearly linear.
The spring force is not reproducible for very small deflections and near closure,
nonlinear behavior begins as the number of active turns diminishes as coils begin to
touch.
The designer confines (limits) the springs operating point to the central 75% of the
curve between no load F=0 and closure (end) F=FS
7
FS
8
(10-17)
1
7
110
(10-18)
3 N a 15
(10-19)
1
7
n s 1.2
(10-20)
(10-21)
Figure of merit:
1. The cost of wire from which the spring is wound (coiled)
2. Help in making the decision for the optimal spring design.
2 d 2 N t D
3. Formula:
fom = (RMC )
4
(10-22)
By incrementing wire sizes available, a table of parameters will be generated. Then, the
design recommendation conditions are applied to choose the good design.
After wire sizes are eliminated, choose the spring design with the highest figure of merit.
This will give the optimal design despite the presence of a discrete design variable d and
aggregation of equality and inequality constraints.
The column vector of information can be generated by using the flowchart displayed in
figure 10-3.
111
112
As wound and set-removed springs, operating over a rod, or in a hole free of rod or hole.
In as-wound springs the controlling equation must be solved for the spring index as
follows:
From equation 10-3, with: =Ssy/ns, C = D/d, KB
S sy
= KB
ns
With
KB =
8 FS D
d 3
4C + 2
and FS = (1 + )Fmax
4C 3
Therefore:
S sy 4C + 2 8(1 + )Fmax C
=
4C 3
ns
d 2
Let
=
S sy
ns
& =
8(1 + )Fmax
d 2
Substituting and into the torsion equation and simplifying yields a quadratic
equations in C. The larger of the two solutions will yield the spring index
2 2
C=
+
4
4
3
4
1/ 2
(10-23)
Example
An A228 wire helical compression spring is needed to support a 20-Ibf load after being
compressed 2 in. Because of assembly considerations the solid height cannot exceed 1 in
and the free length cannot be more than 4 in. Design the spring.
Solution:
For A228 wire helical spring: From table, A = 201 kpsi-inm and m = 0.145
From table 10-5, E = 28.5Mpsi, G =11.75Mpsi (choosing d > 0.064 in)
Ends squared and ground
Function: Fmax=20 Ibf, ymax=2 in
Safety: use design factor at solid height of (ns)d = 1.2
Select robust linearity: = 0.15
Use as wound spring, Ssy=0.45Sut from table 10-6
Decision variable: d = 0.08 in.
From fig. 10-3 and table 10-6
113
S sy = 0.45
=
=
S sy
ns
A
= 130.46kpsi
dm
= 108.713kpsi
8(1 + )Fmax
= 9.15kpsi
d 2
2
2 2
3
+
C=
4
4
4
D = Cd = 0.8424
K B = (4C + 2) /( 4C 3) = 1.128
1/ 2
= 10.53
(Lo )cr
= 2.63D / = 4.43in
114
The result is that there are only two springs in the feasible domain.
The figure of merit decides that the wire diameter is 0.08in.
(10-24)
where
k = spring rate
g = acceleration due to gravity
l = length of spring
W= weight of spring
x = coordinate along length of spring
u = motion of any particle at distance x
Equation (10-24) has a harmonic solution and it depends on:
1. Given physical properties
2. End conditions of the spring
The natural frequencies for a spring placed between two flat and parallel plates:
kg
W
m = 1,2,3,...
1 kg
2m W
m = 1,2,3,...
= m
Since =2f, thus
f =
1 kg
2 W
(10-25)
115
For spring has one end against a flat plate and other end free, the frequency is
f =
1 kg
4 W
(10-26)
d 2
(DN a ) = 1 2 d 2 DN a
4
4
To avoid resonance with the harmonic it is required that the fundamental critical
frequency is 15~20 the frequency of the force or motion of the spring.
If it is not enough, the spring should be redesign to increase k or decrease W
Fa =
Therefore, the amplitude and midrange shear stresses respectively can be written as:
8 Fa D
d 3
8F D
m = K B m3
d
a = KB
(10-32,33)
Endurance limits for infinite life were found to be for unpeened and peened springs:
Unpeened:
Peened:
Ssm=55.0kpsi (379MPa)
Ssm=77.5kpsi (534MPa)
116
Fm = (35 + 5) / 2 = 20lb
8Fa D
= 29.7 kpsi
d 3
8F D
m = K B m 3 = 33.8kpsi
d
a = KB
S ut =
S su
S sm = 55kpsi
S sa
= 49.22kpsi
1 (S sm / S su )
117
1 kg 1 48.1(386)
=
= 281Hz
0.586
2 W
2
118
20 5
20 + 5
Fm =
= 7.5lbf
= 12.5lbf
2
2
F
20
k = max =
= 10lbf / in
y max
2
Fa =
201
= 276.1kpsi
0.112 0.145
= 0.67 S ut = 185.0kpsi
S ut =
S su
S sy = 0.45S ut = 124.2kpsi
For Unpeened spring form equation (10-28): Ssa=35.0 kpsi Ssm=55.0kpsi
In Sines failure criterion, the terms Ssm ignores, thus
S sa
35
S se =
=
= 35kpsi
1 (S sm / S su ) 1 0
To find C, we replace Ssy by Sse, ns by nf, and (1+)Fmax by Fa, thus:
S
= se = 23.333kpsi
nf
=
8Fa
= 1.523kpsi
d 2
2 2
C=
+
4
4
D = Cd = 1.569in
Fs = (1 + )Fmax = 23lbf
3
4
1/ 2
= 14.005
N a = Gd 4 /(8D 3 k ) = 5.98turns
N t = 5.98 + 2 = 7.98turns
Ls = dN t = 0.894in
Lo = Ls + y s = Ls + (Fs / k ) = 3.194in
ID = D d = 1.457in
OD = D + d = 1.681in
y s = Lo Ls = 2.3in
(Lo )cr
= 2.63D / = 8.253in
2 d 2 DN a
= 0.0825lbf
4
386k
f n = 0.5
= 108Hz
W
W=
119
K B = (4C + 2) /( 4C 3) = 1.094
8 Fa D
= 23.334kpsi
d 3
8F D
m = K B m 3 = 38.89kpsi
d
8F D
s = K B s 3 = 71.56kpsi
d
n f = S sa / a = 1.5
a = KB
n s = S sy / s = 1.74
fom = 2.6 2 d 2 N t D / 4 = 1.01
Repeat the above analysis for other wire diameters and form a table to select the best
spring design:
d
0.069
0.071
0.080
0.085
0.090
0.095
0.105
0.112
0.297
0.332
0.512
0.632
0.767
0.919
1.274
1.569
D
0.228
0.261
0.432
0.547
0.677
0.824
1.169
1.457
ID
0.366
0.403
0.592
0.717
0.857
1.014
1.379
1.681
OD
14.00
4.33
4.67
6.40
7.44
8.53
9.67
12.14
C
127.2
102.4
44.8
30.5
21.3
15.4
8.63
6.0
Na
8.916
7.414
3.74
2.75
2.10
1.655
1.116
0.895
Ls
11.216
9.714
6.040
5.05
4.40
3.955
3.416
3.195
Lo
1.562
1.744
2.964
3.325
4.036
4.833
6.703
8.25
(Lo)cr
1.50
1.50
1.50
1.50
1.50
1.50
1.50
1.50
nf
1.86
1.85
1.82
1.81
1.79
1.78
1.75
1.74
ns
87.5
89.7
96.9
99.7
101.9
103.8
106.6
108
fn
-1.17
-1.12
-0.983
-0.948
-0.930
-0.927
-0.958
-1.01
fom
Examine the table and perform the adequacy assessment.
General Constraints:
o The constraint 3 Na 15 cancel wire diameters less than 0.105 in
o The constraint 4 C 12 cancel diameters larger than 0.105 in.
Problem Constraints:
o The constraint Ls 1.2 in cancel diameters less than 0.1050 in
o The constraint Lo 4 in cancel diameters less than 0.095 in
o fn 20fop fn 100Hz cancel diameters less than 0.090 in
o The buckling criterion cancel free length longer than (Lo)cr, which cancel
diameters less than0.075in.
120
Stresses in the body of the extension spring are handled the same as compression springs.
In designing a spring with a hook end, bending and torsion in the hook must be included
in the analysis.
Figure 10-7 shows two common used method of designing the end. c and d shows an
improved design due to a reduced coil diameter, not to elimination of stress
concentration. The reduced coil diameter results in a lower stress because of the shorter
moment arm.
No stress-concentration factor is needed for the axial component of the load
121
The maximum tensile stress at A, due to bending and axial loading, is given by:
16 D
4
A = F ( K ) A
+ 2
3
d
d
(10-34)
Where (K)A is a bending stress correction factor for curvature, given by:
(K ) A =
4C12 C1 1
4C1 (C1 1)
C1 =
2r1
d
(10-35)
8 FD
d 3
(10-36)
where (K)B is the stress correction factor for curvature and it is given by:
(K )B
4C 2 1
4C 2 4
C2 =
2r2
d
(10-37)
122
The free length Lo of a spring measured inside the end loops or hooks as shown in figure
10-8b can be expressed as
Lo= 2(D-d) + (Nb+1)d = (2C-1+Nb)d
D mean coil diameter
Nb number of body coils
C the spring index
The equivalent number of active helical turns Na for use in equation 10-9 is
Na = Nb + G/E
where G and E are the shear the tensile modulus of elasticity
123
The amount of initial tension that a springmaker can routinely incorporate is as shown in
figure 10-8c
The preferred range can be expressed in terms of the uncorrected torsional stress i as
i =
33500
C 3
1000 4
psi
exp(0.105C )
6.5
(10-41)
The maximum allowable corrected stresses (KW or KB) for static applications of extension
springs are given in table 10-7
Percent of Tensile Strength
Materials
Patented, cold-drawn or hardened and tempered
carbon and low-alloy steels
Austenitic stainless steel and nonferrous alloys
In Torsion
body
end
45-50
40
35
30
In Bending
end
75
55
124
Example
A hard drawn steel wire extension spring has a wire diameter of 0.035 in, an outside coil
diameter of 0.248 in, hook radii of r1= 0.106 in and r2 = 0.089in, and an initial tension of
1.19 lbf. The number of body turns is 12.17. From the given information:
1. Determine the physical parameters of the spring(D, C, KB, Na, k, Lo, ymax)
2. Check the initial preload stress conditions
3. Find the factors of safety under a static 5.25 lbf load.
Solution
d = 0.035 in, OD = 0.248 in, r1 = 0.106 in, r2 = 0.089 in, Nb = 12.17
Fi = 1.19 lbf, Fmax=5.25
HD steel
Form table 10-5, with 0.033 < d < 0.063 E = 28.7Mpsi, G = 11.6Mpsi
From table 10-4, A = 140kpsi-inm, m = 0.19
1. The physical parameters
D = OD d = 0.248 0.035 = 0.213
C = D / d = 6.086
4C + 2
KB =
= 1.234
4C 3
N a = N B + G / E = 12.17 + 11.6 / 28.7 = 12.57turns
k=
d 4G
= 17.76lbf / in
8D 3 N a
Lo = (2C 1 + N b )d = 0.817in
The deflection under the service load is:
(F Fi ) = 5.25 1.19 = 0.229in
y max = max
k
17.76
Therefore the maximum spring length is:
L = Lo + ymax =0.817+0.229 = 1.046 in
2. Initial preload stress condition:
The uncorrected initial stress is given by equation (10-3) without the correction factor:
( i )uncorr = 8Fi D3 = 15.1kpsi
d
The preferred range is given by equation (10-41):
( i ) pref = 33500 1000 4 C 3 = 17681 3525 = 14.2kpsi or
exp(0.105C )
6.5
21.2kpsi
125
+ 2 ;
A = Fmax (K ) A
3
d
d
(K ) A = 1.14 A = 156.9kpsi
nA =
C1 1
4C1 (C1 1)
2
(K ) A = 4C1
C1 = 2r1 / d = 6.057
198.5
= 1.27
156.9
B = (K ) B
(K )B
nA =
C 2 = 2r2 / d = 5.086
105.88
= 1.35
78.4
Note that Ssy=0.4Sut from table 10-7 under torsion for the end part.
From all three calculations, the yield will first occur due to the bending of the end hook.
126
Example: Fatigue
The helical extension spring of the pervious example is subjected to a dynamic loading
from 1.5 lbf to 5 lbf. Estimate the factors of safety using Goodman failure criterion for
1. The coil fatigue
2. The coil yield
3. The end hook bending fatigue at point A
4. The end hook torsion fatigue at point B
Solution
d = 0.035 in, D = 0.213 in, r1= 0.106 in, r2 = 0.089 in, Nb = 12.17
Fi = 1.19 lbf, Fmin=1.5, Fmax=5,
From the pervious example we have:
C=6.086, Lo=0.817, k=17.76 lbf/in
KB=1.234, (K)A=1.14, (K)B=1.18, (i)uncorr=15.1 kpsi
Sut = 264.7kpsi, Ssu = 0.67Sut= 177.3 kpsi, Sy =198.5 kpsi, Ssy =119.1 kpsi (shear in body)
1. The fatigue in the body coil:
Fa = (5 1.5) / 2 = 1.75lbf
Fm = (5 + 1.5) / 2 = 3.25lbf
8Fa D
= 27.3kpsi
d 3
8F D
m = K B m 3 = 50.7kpsi
d
a = KB
S sa
= 50.74kpsi
1 (S sm / S su )
Ssy
S sa S sm
+
=1
S sy S sy
r
Ssa
Ssm
Ssy
127
a = Fa (K ) A
+ 2 = 52.3kpsi ;
3
d
d
F
m = m a = 97.1kpsi
Fa
S se
= 67.1kpsi
0.577
(n f )A = 0.87
Se =
( a )B = (K )B
128