1

OUTLINE - A SHORT MASONRY GUIDE

(Revised, 2013)
A. MASONRY MORTAR MATERIALS
1. Masonry Sand
2. Admixtures
3. Masonry Cements
4. Mortar Cement
5. Portland and Blended Cements
6. Hydrated Lime
7. Water
B. MASONRY MORTARS
1. ASTM C 270, Types O, N, S, M
2. ASTM C 270, Proportion Specification and, Property Specification
3. Proportions
4. Retempering
5. Temperature Effects and Effects of Weather Conditions
C. MIXER
1. Type
2. Mechanical Condition
3. Mixer Cleanliness
D. MORTAR MIXING
1. Batching Materials
2. Mixing Time
3. Consistency
E. MASONRY UNITS
1. Absorption
2. Initial Rate of Absorption (IRA) - ASTM C 67
3. Initial Rate of Absorption (IRA) At the Time of Use
4. Variable Rates of Absorption (IRA) At the Time of Use
5. Impurities
F. WORKMANSHIP
1. Spreading of Mortar
2. Mortar Bed
3. Laying of Units
4. Head Joints
5. Tooling of Mortar Joints
6. Cleaning of New Masonry Work
G. MASONRY PROBLEMS
1. Wall Cracking
2. Efflorescence
3. Color Variations in Joints, and/or, Within a Joint
4. Color Variations in Walls, or, Sections of a Wall
H. FIELD TESTING of MASONRY MORTAR
1. ASTM C 780

A. MASONRY MATERIALS
1. Masonry Sand
Since masonry sand will occupy the greatest volume of any of the materials in a given batch of mortar,
its characteristics will reflect on the characteristics of the mortar. The gradation of the sand has an effect
on the air content, water retention, board life, workability, stickiness, spreadability, plasticity, and, board
life of the fresh mortar. The effects on the hardened mortar include compressive strength, bond
strength, extent of bond, and, color. Even if a sand has a gradation that falls within the limits of ASTM C
144 [see page 20], the variation allowed by C 144 allows a great variation in the gradation of a sand.
The F. M. of the sand can range from 1.75 to 2.93, and still be within the gradation limits of C 144. If the
sand varies from one extreme of allowable gradation to the other during a job, the mortar properties will
vary also. To further confuse the issue, ASTM C 144 will still allow a sand not meeting the gradation
requirements to be used, if when tested in mortar as per ASTM C 270, the mortar meets the property
requirements of C 270, which are; water retention, 28-day compressive strength, and, in some cases,
air content.
The moisture content of the sand at time of use can have an effect on the actual amount of sand in a
batch of mortar. Loose sand with varying amounts of free surface moisture will occupy differing
volumes. This is called "bulking" [see page 21] and usually occurs when the sand has been "moved".
Bulking usually peaks with about 5% free moisture on the sand and can range from a volume increase
of about 17% with coarse sand to over 35% with fine sand. Due to this bulking, measuring sand by a
shovel can result in over sanded or under sanded mixes. A good mixer operator can usually tell from
experience when the mix is proper by the volume occupied by the batch in the mixer. Typically a mason
will complain when the mix is over sanded, or under sanded, due to the effect on workability properties.
Dirt, silt, and sand particles passing the 200-mesh sieve can make an exceptionally good working mix
due to the excess of these very fine particles. This very fine material can also cause an excessive water
demand leading to a reduction in the compressive strength of the mortar, and a reduction in the mortar
air content. These fine materials could also bring about shrinkage of the hardened mortar. These fines
can also have a serious effect on the color of the hardened mortar, and, when these fines vary from
batch to batch, color variations can also occur.
Being the majority constituent in a volume of mortar, the temperature of the sand has a direct bearing
on the temperature of the mortar. Sprinkling of the sand pile in hot weather may be impractical in many
cases due to the resulting mud from the water run-off, but it can lower the sand temperature. A white or
reflective cover to reflect the suns rays can be a help. A canopy or shaded area will also help hold the
sand temperature down.

The sand should be heated when the ambient temperature approaches 32 F. In below freezing
temperatures, frozen lumps of sand should be thawed before the sand is put into the mixer.
In cold weather, a black or dark cover, placed over the sand pile may help, as they would absorb
some heat from the sun. However the sand is heated or kept warm, the sand pile should be treated so
the sand being used is at a uniform temperature.

2. Admixtures
Mortar admixtures added at the job site may be calcium chloride, ethylene glycol, air entraining agents,
retarders, water-repellency agents, and, coloring agents. There are known cases of "dish washing"
soaps being added to mortar. Most of these are totally unnecessary as most all producers of masonry
cement add the proper materials to the cements at the time of manufacture. Calcium chloride is
sometimes used in mortar with excellent results, other times problems can arise due to the calcium
chloride being instrumental in causing corrosion of steel in contact with the mortar, and corrosion or
staining of aluminum in contact with the mortar, especially if moisture is present. Discolored or darkened
mortar joints may also come from the use of calcium chloride in the mortar.
Ethylene glycol, an antifreeze, was shown in one study to have extremely detrimental effects on the
compressive of mortars when added in amounts exceeding 10% by weight of cement. The use of
ethylene glycol does not appear to have any beneficial effect on the mortar when added in amounts less
than 10% by weight of cement. The use of ethylene glycol was discouraged in this study.
The addition of air-entraining agents at the job site should be discouraged due to the likely possibility of
an excessive air content in the mortar. Excessively high air contents can reduce compressive strength,
flexural bond strengths, and, the durability of the mortar. Masonry cements are manufactured to meet
the air content requirements of ASTM C 91, and to make mortars meeting the requirements of ASTM C
270.
The addition of retarders on the job site is not a common practice. The use of a job site added retarder
would typically be offset by the stiffening of the mortar due to the evaporation of mix water due to
ambient weather conditions.
Water-repellent materials or "waterproofing" agents are sometimes added at the job site. There is some
disagreement as to the actual effectiveness of these added materials. Masonry practices and
workmanship appear to have the greatest effect on the "watertightness" of a wall assembly.
Colored mortar may be obtained by the use of pigments added at the job site, or, preferably, through the
use of a preblended colored masonry cement. The use of preblended colored masonry cement has the
distinct advantage of containing all materials in one package with no weighing or measuring of pigments
required at the job site. Adequate mixing time is necessary to disperse all ingredients throughout the
mortar mix, and is especially critical with job site added pigments. Pigments used for colored mortar
should not contain any dispersant that will affect the hydration of the cement. The pigments used should
meet the requirements of ASTM C 979, Pigments for Integrally Colored Concrete. The final color of
the mortar in the joints is affected by the proportions used; the sand color; amount of water in the mix;
retempering water added; and, mortar stiffness at time of tooling. Retempering of colored mortars (if it
should be allowed at all) should be done with caution and common sense.
3. Masonry Cements
Most masonry cement producers manufacture masonry cements meeting the requirements of ASTM C
91, "Standard Specification for Masonry Cement". [see page 22] These are usually in three types, Type
N, Type S, and, Type M. Some producers do manufacture a "combination" product which they may call
"High Strength", and is formulated to meet the requirements of both a Type S and Type M. ASTM C 91
covers only the masonry cements, not mortar or mortar properties, ASTM C 270 covers mortars. C 91
masonry cements are for making masonry mortars, of their respective types, of C 270 mortars. When
using a masonry cement of the types listed to make C 270 mortars of the same type, no further
additions of portland or blended cements, or, hydrated lime is necessary, or desirable.
Masonry cements typically contain interground air-entraining agents; plasticizers; boardlife extenders;
and, water repellency agents. They are formulated so no further additions of admixtures are needed at
the job site to make good mortar. Masonry cements are required to meet the requirements of C 91, for
their respective type, for fineness; autoclave expansion; setting times; compressive strength; air content;
and, water retention.
Essentially, C 91 is a performance specification in that one can use what raw materials will do the job
and meet the requirements of C 91. The main difference in the three types of masonry cement is in the
compressive strength requirements of C 91. The minimum 28-day compressive strength requirements

are; Type N = 900 psi; Type S = 2100 psi; Type M = 2900 psi. These compressive strength
requirements are for the masonry cements tested with Standard and Graded sands meeting the
requirements of ASTM C 778. These mixes are made in the laboratory, proportioned, mixed, and tested
according to C 91.
4. Mortar Cement
For some time, many masonry cements were called "mortar cements" by the manufacturers and users,
and some companies even had the words "Mortar Cement" printed on their bags quite prominently.
Now there actually is a "Mortar Cement",[see page 22], as defined by the UBC (Uniform Building Code)
and ASTM as C 1329. This Mortar Cement is in the UBC as, " Uniform Building Code Standard No. 2419, Mortar Cement".
The compressive strengths, No. 325 fineness, Autoclave Expansion, Setting Time, and, Water
Retention, are the same as is in ASTM C 91 for masonry cements, as are the three (3) types, (N, S, &,
M)
The Mortar Cement has a lower maximum allowable air content, than C 91 masonry cements, and has
a minimum flexural bond strength required, and has a list of restricted materials as ingredients in the
cement. The flexural bond strength requirement is a "new" one for a cementitious material, and, so far is
only required by the UBC for Mortar Cement, in ASTM as C 1329, Mortar Cement. A table is at the end
of this paper, which gives the requirements of both C 91 for Masonry Cements, c 1329 for Mortar
Cements, and, UBC 24-19 Mortar Cement.
5. Portland and Blended Cements
Neither portland cement nor blended cement is made strictly for the purpose of using in masonry
mortar, as is masonry cement and mortar cement. The ASTM Specifications for portland and blended
cements are aimed at serving the needs of the concrete and concrete products producing industry. Both
portland and blended cements are produced to meet the requirements of the applicable ASTM
Specification. Portland cements, in several types, are to meet the requirements of ASTM C 150,
"Standard Specification for Portland Cement, Blended cements are to meet the requirements of ASTM
C 595, "Standard Specification for Blended Hydraulic Cements. ASTM C 150 covers eight (8) types of
portland cement:
Type I - For use when the special properties specified for any other type are not required.
Type IA - Air-entraining cement for the same uses as Type I, where air-entrainment is desired.
Type II - For general use, more especially when moderate sulphate resistance or moderate heat of
hydration is desired.
Type IIA - Air-entraining cements for the same uses as Type II, where air-entrainment is desired.
Type III - For use when high early strength is desired.
Type IIIA - Air-entraining cement for the same use as Type III, where air-entrainment is desired
Type IV - For use when a low heat of hydration is desired.
Type V - For use when high sulphate resistance is desired.
ASTM Definition of portland cement : A hydraulic cement produced by pulverizing clinker consisting
essentially of hydraulic calcium silicates, usually containing one or more of the forms of calcium sulphate
as an interground addition.
In contrast, the ASTM definition for ASTM C 91 Masonry Cements is: A hydraulic cement, primarily used
in masonry and plastering construction, consisting of a mixture of portland or blended hydraulic cement
and plasticizing materials (such as limestone, hydrated or hydraulic lime) together with other materials
introduced to enhance one or more properties such as setting time, workability, water-retention, and
durability.
Portland or blended cements are never used alone in masonry mortar, but are used in combination with
hydrated lime and, occasionally with masonry cement or mortar cement. ASTM C 595 has five classes
of blended cements listed and various added provisions for different types:

Portland Blast-Furnace Slag Cement, Types IS, MS, A, MH.

Portland-Pozzolan Cement, Types P, MS, A, LH.
Slag Cement, Type S
Pozzolan-Modified Portland Cement, Types I(PM), MS, A, MH.
Slag-Modified Portland Cement, Types I(SM), MS, A, MH.
6. Hydrated Lime
The typical hydrated lime used in masonry mortar today meets the requirements of ASTM C
207,"Standard Specification for Hydrated Lime for Masonry Purposes".
C 207 lists four (4) types of lime:
Type N - Normal hydrated lime for masonry purposes.
Type S - Special hydrated lime for masonry purposes.
Type NA - Normal air-entraining hydrated lime for masonry purposes.
Type SA - Special air-entraining hydrated lime for masonry purposes.
Type S is the most commonly used of these four types. The basic difference between Type N and Type
S is the allowable percentage of unhydrated oxides. Type N has no maximum limit while Type S has a
maximum limit of 8%.
An air-entrained hydrated lime should not be used in conjunction with an air-entrained portland or
blended cement in masonry mortar due to the possibility of generating an excessively high mortar air
content.
7. Water
Usually, water that is suitable for drinking purposes is suitable for use in masonry mortar. Any mix water
used should be free of any harmful amounts of acids, alkalies, or organic materials. Some potable
waters may contain appreciable amounts of soluble salts such as sodium and potassium sulphate.
These salts can contribute to efflorescence. Water containing sugar can retard the set of mortar. Water
containing high amounts of chlorides can lead to corrosion problems.

B. MASONRY MORTARS
1. Types O, N, S, M
ASTM C 91 recognizes only three (3) types of masonry cements, and ASTM C 1329 recognizes three
types of Mortar Cement, but ASTM C 270 recognizes four (4) types of mortars. In the mortars, the
difference is mainly in the minimum compressive strength requirement.
2. ASTM C 270, Standard Specification for Mortar for Unit Masonry
C 270, [see page 23], recognizes four (4) types of mortars, Types O, N, S, & M in three (3) "kinds" of
mortars, and two (2) methods of specifying mortars. The three "kinds" of mortar are; portland
cement/hydrated lime, (PCL), masonry cement, (MC), and mortar cement mortars (MtrC). The two (2)
methods of specifying mortars are the "Proportion Specification" and the "Property Specification"
method.
The basics of the C 270 Proportion Specification for MC Mortars are:
1. The masonry cement content is given.
2. The sand content can vary within the range given.
3. No compressive strength, air content, etc., values are given, only the proportions must be followed.
The basics of the C 270 Proportion Specification for MtrC Mortars are:
1. The masonry cement content is given.
2. The sand content can vary within the range given.
3. No compressive strength, air content, etc., values are given, only the proportions must be followed.

The basics of the C 270 Proportion Specification for PCL Mortars are:
1. The portland or blended cement content is fixed.
2. The hydrated lime proportions can vary within the range given.
3. The sand ratio can vary within the range given.
4. No compressive strength, air content, etc., values are given, only the proportions must be followed.
The basics of the C 270 Property Specification for MC Mortars are:
1. The masonry cement content is not given.
2. The sand content can range within the range given.
3. The mortar must meet the requirements for compressive strength, water retention, and, in some
cases, air content.
The basics of the C 270 Property Specification for MtrC are:
1. The mortar cement content is not given.
2. The sand content can range within the range given.
3. The mortar must meet the requirements for compressive strength, water retention, and, in some
cases, air content.
The basics of the C 270 Property Specification for PCL Mortars are:
1. The portland or blended cement content is not given.
2. The sand content can range within the range given.
3. The mortar must meet the requirements for compressive strength, water retention, and, in some
cases, air content.

All C 270 testing MUST be done in the laboratory, using the materials, and proportions to be used on
the job. MORTAR SAMPLES TAKEN IN THE FIELD FROM JOB SITE MIXED MORTAR DO NOT
HAVE TO, and ARE NOT EXPECTED TO MEET THE REQUIREMENTS OF THE PROPERTY
SPECIFICATION OF C 270!
Often overlooked in C 270, is the Referenced Documents Section, which refers to other ASTM
Standards, Test Methods, and/or Specifications which must be met in order for the mortar to meet C
270. These include mortar ingredients, test equipment, test methods, and, recommended practices.
Simply stated, the Proportion Specification only requires the Mason Contractor to supply mortar for a job
that fits within the proportion range given, using materials that meet the applicable requirements.
The Property Specification requires the mortar materials be laboratory tested to insure the mortar meets
the minimum or maximum requirements of C 270, and the cementitious materials to sand ratio be within
the range given.
Another ASTM Standard, C 144," Standard Specification for Aggregate for Masonry Mortar", refers to C
270 in the following manner in Section 4.4. It states, "When an aggregate fails the gradation limits
specified in 4.1 and 4.2, it may be used provided the mortar can be prepared to comply with the
aggregate ratio, water retention, and compressive strength requirements of the Property Specification of
Specification C 270.
An often-overlooked portion of C 270 is Section 6. Construction Practices. This section covers such
items as: Storage of materials on the job site; Measurement of materials for the field mixed mortar;
Mixing of the field mixed mortars; Tempering of field mixed mortars; and, Climatic conditions during the
job.
Section 7 of C 270 is a very important, and, overlooked section, portions of it state the following:
7. Specification Limitations
7.1 Specification C 270 is not a specification to determine mortar strengths through field-testing.

7.2 Test Method C 780, is acceptable for preconstruction and construction evaluation of mortars for
plain and reinforced unit masonry.
7.3 Tests of Hardened Mortars - There is no ASTM method for determining the conformance or
nonconformance to Specification C 270 by tests on hardened mortar removed from a structure, but
such standards are available to determine some hardened mortar properties.
Note 7 - Where necessary, testing of a wall or a masonry prism from the wall is generally more
desirable than attempting to test individual components.
3. Proportions
The proportions of the mortar mix, the cement to aggregate ratio, and the water/cement ratio have a
great effect on the workability and performance of the mortar. Low sand contents can lead to a very rich,
sticky, not very workable mix, be difficult to spread properly, have a high shrinkage potential, and a short
"board life". High sand contents can lead to a large reduction in compressive strength, poor bond, poor
workability, harsh mix, and, low durability.
The water content should be as high as possible without the mix being soupy or sloppy. The wetter the
mix, within reasonable workability limits, will increase the bond of the mortar to the masonry units.
Adequate water content is necessary to allow water for hydration of the cement after some water is lost
due to absorption of the units and evaporation. A mix using the minimum amount of water resulting in a
very stiff mix, may result in poor bond with the masonry units, short "board life", inadequate plasticity,
and dryout of the mortar in the wall.
4.Re-tempering (Tempering)
Retempering of mortar is an accepted practice, however it should be with reason. During hot, dry, and
windy weather, retempering of mortar on the board is usually done to replace water lost by evaporation.
In many cases, the mortar on the board is used before it requires retempering. Under normal conditions,
one or two retemperings cause no harm, but reason and common sense must be used.
When a large batch of mortar is mixed for an extremely slow mortar consumption job, many
retemperings may take place to maintain the consistency of the mix on the boards, this can lead to low
strengths, and the possibility the excessively retempered mortar may show up in the wall as very light
colored joints.
Colored mortar should never be re-tempered. Extreme caution as severe changes in the water/cement
ratio can have very definite effect on the color and brightness of the mortar joints.
The safest way to avoid problems that result from retempering, especially excessive retempering, is to
mix only as much mortar as will be used before retempering is necessary. This is especially true with
colored mortars.
5. Temperature Effects and Effect of Weather Conditions
It is a well established fact that the hydration rate of portland cement and portland cement based
products is greatly affected by temperature changes. For both PCL and MC masonry mortars, the
higher the ambient and mortar temperatures, the higher the ambient and mortar temperatures, the
faster the hydration reaction takes place with resulting quicker set times. For both PCL and MC masonry
mortars, the lower the mortar and ambient temperatures, hydration takes place much slower with the set
time being longer.
There are several factors involved in hot weather, which affect the mortar on the board, and in the wall.
1. More water is usually required to maintain workability.
2. Initial and Final set will occur earlier, and evaporation rates of water from the mortar is usually at
higher rates.
3. Masonry units, typically being warm or hot, usually will have a faster rate of absorption.
4. Rapid drying of the mortar joint, especially at the exposed face, is harmful.

There are several steps that can be taken to minimize the effects of high ambient temperatures and
help keep the mortar temperature as low as possible, or at least to minimize the heat gain of the mortar
materials.
1. Store all materials in a shaded area, open to cooling breezes.
2. Where the mix water is kept in a barrel or drum, paint the drum white or aluminum color to help reflect
the heat. Do not use a black or dark colored container.
3. Keep the water hose used to fill the mix water container out of the direct rays of the sun.
4. When running water through the hose to fill the mix water container, run the hot water out on the
ground before filling the container. The hose, if laying in the sun, acts just like a solar water heater.
5. If practical, sprinkle the sand pile to allow evaporation of water to help cool the sand. PCA reported
that when evaporating, one (1) gallon of water would cool one (1) cubic yard of sand 20 of at the surface
of the sand pile.
6. Cover the walls immediately after construction to prevent the loss of moisture.
7. The use of windscreens or fog sprays can reduce the amount of evaporation of moisture from the
wall.
8. Before each use, flush the mixer, wheelbarrows, mortar buggies, mortar tubs, and mortarboards with
cool water.
Cold weather brings about an entirely different set of circumstances than hot weather. Cold weather
masonry construction may continue even at temperatures below freezing, but steps have to be taken to
prevent unwanted problems. The first step is the comfort of the masons on the job. Productivity suffers
when a worker is uncomfortable due to cold temperatures. Before starting a job in cold weather, or a job
that will continue into cold weather, proper planning must be done to insure a successful job. Extra costs
can be involved with winter construction work, but some of the costs may be negated by an earlier
completion date, The following table of recommendations as to when to heat the materials, what
materials to heat, when to protect, how to protect, and, the desired material temperature range, these
recommendations should be followed for cold weather masonry construction projects.
Admixtures sold for cold weather masonry mortar should be used with caution, and only after tests have
proven they have no detrimental effects on the mortar. Some so-called "anti-freeze" admixtures must be
used in such high quantities to lower the freezing point of mortar that they have a very detrimental effect
on the mortar. So-called anti-freeze compounds are not recommended for masonry mortar as they
seriously reduce the compressive strength of the mortar. One of these "anti-freeze" materials, ethylene
glycol, is sold as an anti-freeze for RV waste water systems, and has been frequently used as a mortar
"anti-freeze", it seriously reduces the compressive strength of mortar. The most commonly used mortar
accelerator is calcium chloride, but it should be used with caution, if used at all.
Calcium chloride in mortar can lead to increased mortar shrinkage, efflorescence, and, corrosion of
metal embedded in mortar, especially when subjected to moist conditions. There are non-chloride
accelerators available from the major admixture suppliers and, if used, they should be tried under job
conditions prior to use.
All materials on the job site should be well protected from rain and snow, shelters may be desirable for
the protection of the mixer, cement, and sand pile.
Any method used to heat mortar materials should provide a source of consistent temperature to the
mortar materials throughout the day. Water is the easiest material to heat, its temperature should
remain consistent throughout the day. Sand that heated over an embedded pipe should be turned
frequently to attempt to maintain a reasonably consistent temperature.
Cement and masonry units can be stored inside a heated shelter to maintain temperatures above
freezing, Temporary shelters may be built to protect the portion of the building where the masons are
working; the masonry work just completed; or, the entire structure.
Some additional points for cold weather masonry work are:
1. Have mortar at proper temperature. Never below 40 oF, and, never over 120 oF.
2. Have units at proper temperature. If the units are too cold, they can cause a drastic reduction in the
mortar temperature due to the thinness of the mortar joints, which can loose heat quite rapidly.
Conversely, units which are too hot can cause a flash set of the mortar at the mortar/unit interface.

3. Never lay mortar on a frozen surface, ice covered surface, or snow covered surface.
4. To avoid excessive cooling of heated mortar before use, mix smaller quantities so the mortar does
not cool off too fast or too much.
5. Cover the top of the wall at the end of the day to prevent water, snow, or ice entry into the wall and
cavity.
RECOMMENDATIONS for COLD WEATHER MASONRY CONSTRUCTION
CONSTRUCTION
AIR TEMP. oF
REQUIREMENTS
PROTECTION
Heating Materials
Above 40
Normal Masonry Procedures
Cover walls with plastic or canvas at the end of
the workday to prevent water from entering the
masonry
Below 40
Heat mixing water. Maintain Cover walls and materials to prevent wetting.
mortar temp between 40 and 120 Covers should be plastic or canvas.
until placed
Below 32
In addition to above, heat the With wind velocities over 15 mph, provide
sand. Frozen sand must be windbreaks during the day and cover walls and
thawed.
materials at the end of the workday to prevent
wetting and freezing. Maintain heat above 32
o
F by using auxiliary heat or insulating blankets
for 16 hours after laying units.
Below 20
In addition to above, dry masonry Provide enclosures and supply sufficient heat
o
o
units must be heated to 20 F.
to maintain enclosure above 32 F for 24 hours
after laying units.
Adapted from guide specifications of the International Masonry Industry All-Weather Council
(One old time rule of thumb says: "when you are comfortable, the mortar is comfortable".)
6. Consistency
Each batch of mortar should be proportioned, placed in the mixer, and, mixed the same time to give a
consistent mortar to the masons. A recommended batching and mixing procedure is as follows:
1. Add about 3/4 of the water.
2. Add about 1/2 the sand.
3. Add all of the cement, or, cementitious materials.
4. Mix briefly.
5. Add the remaining sand.
6. Add final water to give desired consistency.
Mixing action is usually the most effective when the mixer is charged to full design rated capacity.
Overloading a mixer can lead to an under mixed or poorly mixed mortar. Undermixing can lead to a very
non-uniform mortar.
Improper batching and mixing procedures can turn perfectly good mortar materials onto a poorly
performing mortar. Too short of a mixing time is usually the most common mixing problem encountered.
C. MASONRY UNITS
Any and all masonry units used in masonry construction should meet the applicable ASTM and job
specification requirements.
ASTM has two (2) standards pertaining to clay or shale masonry units, and three (3) for load bearing
concrete masonry units. Each one of these standards has two or more designations or classes of units.
Each class has a maximum allowable absorption specified. The more severe the exposure the unit is
exposed to, (in place), the lower the allowable absorption. The absorption of concrete units is based on

10

soaking the units for 24 hours in water at 60 to 80 oF. The clay or shale units have a combination of
o
submersion in boiling water for five (5) hours, followed by soaking in water at 60 to 86 F for the
specified time.
1a. Absorption - Clay or Shale Building Brick ***
There is apparently a relationship between the durability of brick in climates undergoing freeze/thaw
cycles and the total absorption of the units. This relationship has been difficult to define with precision,
as the brick in place have to be wet before being affected by freezing temperatures. There are reported
cases of brick that do meet the ASTM requirements that have failed in service, and, cases of brick not
meeting the ASTM requirements that have performed satisfactorily in freeze/thaw exposures. This is
another case of where laboratory test results do not necessarily hold true for field results.
The durability of the units in place is apparently related to the total absorption of the unit, the percent of
total absorption at the time of freezing, the rate of temperature drop, and, the size of the pore structure
of the unit. Perhaps the best guide is the service record of a given unit in the climatic area in which it will
be placed into service.

1b. Absorption - Concrete Masonry units

Water absorption and density are related in concrete masonry units and affect the construction,
insulating, acoustical, appearance, porosity, and, painting characteristics of the units. As the density of
the unit increases, the absorption lowers. Units with high absorption will pull water from the mortar joints
rapidly. Mortar dry-out in the joints of concrete masonry work is not uncommon in hot, dry weather.
Rapid stiffening of the mortar in the joints, brought about by the highly absorptive units, also creates
problems for the mason when trying to place, level, and align the units. There is no ASTM specification
relating to the IRA of concrete masonry units. Typically, a concrete unit with low absorption will also
have a lower percentage of drying shrinkage.
Due to the fact that concrete masonry units expand when wet, and, shrink upon drying, they should not
be wetted before placing in the wall.
2. Initial Rate of Absorption - Clay & Shale Masonry Units
This only applies to clay and shale masonry units. There is no ASTM Specification or Standard with
either minimum or maximum limits on IRA, ASTM C 67, contains a method of testing the units for the
IRA values.
The Initial Rate of Absorption (IRA) relates the weight of water, per square inches of area, that a unit will
absorb in a given time. This is expressed the amount of water, in grams, the unit will absorb per 30 in2 of
unit. This is a laboratory test ran on oven dry units, and may not relate to the IRA of the units at time of
use.
It is recommended that brick having IRA's over 30 grams per 30 in2. be wetted before being placed into
use. Some masons may dip a brick into water as he is ready to place it into the wall, but it is
recommended that a cube of high IRA brick be thoroughly saturated from 3 to 24 hours prior to use. If
dry, high IRA brick are placed into the wall, poor extent of bond, poor bond strength, and possibly, dryout of the mortar may occur. This may also result in a leaky wall that has little resistance to wind driven
rain.
3. Initial Rate of Absorption at Time of Use
Depending on weather conditions, brick packaging, and storage of units, the laboratory IRA values may
or may not relate to the actual IRA of the brick at the job site. There is a simple and quick "Rule of
Thumb" IRA test that can quickly provide information as to whether or not to prewet the units.
The procedure is as follows:
1. Pull as many units as desired from the brick on hand.
2. Using a 25-cent piece, draw a circle around the coin.

11

3. Trace around the circle with a wax crayon.

4. Using an eyedropper, quickly place 20 drops of water in this circle.
5. Time the seconds it takes the unit to absorb the water.
6. If the unit takes under 90 seconds to absorb the water, it should be wetted before use. If it
takes over 90 seconds, the unit is okay to use as is.
While the laboratory test from C 67 gives valuable information, this quick field test is of great value
because it gives you the information quickly and on the units at the place of use.

4. Variable Rates of Absorption

When units have widely differing IRA's, such as some blends of brick, are used in a wall, two problems
may be readily apparent.
1. When the mortar bed is spread over the units with widely different IRA's, some of the mortar may
stiffen rapidly, and not give good bonding. This can allow a weak spot in the wall and allow water to
enter the wall.
2. When units of widely differing IRA's are used together in a wall, the proper tooling time for one portion
of mortar in that joint may not coincide with the proper tooling time in another portion of the joint. This
creates quite a problem for the mason who is trying to tool the joints so they all have the same finished
appearance.
This situation can lead to quite a color variation in areas of the finished wall. A close visual examination
will reveal areas of the joints with a "slick" finish, and other areas may exhibit a "tearing" of the mortar
caused by the tooling of a very stiff mortar.
5. Impurities and/or Contamination
Masonry units stored in contact with the ground can absorb materials from the ground, when wet, can
lead to efflorescence problems with the structure, and, in some cases, efflorescence may occur before
the units are used.
Efflorescence causing compounds can be contained in the soil, and in the ground water which has
percolated these compounds to the surface where they may be absorbed by the units.
Polluted rainwater can fall on uncovered units during storage. Mud and dirt from construction activities
may cover the units stored at the job site. If mud and dirt coat the units, they should be cleaned prior to
use as the coating may cause of bond.
Masonry units stored at a job site should always be stored off the ground, not in standing water, and
covered to protect them from rain, snow, ice,dirt, dust, mud, paint, or any material that may affect their
appearance or performance in the wall.

D. WORKMANSHIP
The mortar and masonry units used on a job may be of the highest quality, but if poor
workmanship is used in assembling these materials, a poor quality job will be the result.
Craftsmanship, common sense, and dedication to doing the job right are required of a mason.
1. Spreading of mortar
A good workable mortar with good plasticity and spreadability should be supplied to the masons on the
job. The mason should be able to spread a trowel full of mortar evenly, without gaps that have to be, or,
should be filled in.
2. Mortar Bed
The amount of mortar used should be an adequate amount to allow full and even contact between the
mortar and unit. An excess of mortar should squeeze out from between the units, this is one sign that an
adequate of mortar is in the joint. The mortar should never be placed on frozen, ice covered, snow
covered, or dirty units or base.

12

In hot weather, the length of the mortar bed should only be long enough to remain plastic before units
are placed on it.
Deep furrowing, and possibly any furrowing, should not be allowed. Deep furrowing can prevent full
contact of the unit bedding face and the mortar, and create channels for water entering the wall to travel
through.
An excessive amount of mortar must not be allowed to fall in the air space between the veneer units and
the back-up. This can plug weep holes and prevent water from exiting the wall properly.
It must be kept in mind, a brick veneer wall is called a "drainage wall" as some water is expected to
penetrate the veneer from the front. But, with proper materials, design, and workmanship, this water is
expected to drain harmlessly down the backside of the veneer until it comes to the flashing, and is
directed to the exterior of the building through the weepholes
3. Laying of Units
The units should be placed into position and adjusted as quickly as possible. This is very important if
units with a high IRA are used. Any units that are in place and have to be moved or removed should
have the surrounding mortar removed and replaced also. Any unit that is too low or out of line should be
replaced as well as its surrounding mortar. Any mortar bed that has stiffened prior to the units being
placed on it should be removed and replaced. If a cavity wall is being built, excess mortar should not be
allowed to fall into the cavity. Units should not be moved once they are placed into their final position.
Excess mortar which squeezes out should be cut off cleanly with a trowel, without tearing the face of
the joint or smearing mortar on the units.
4. Head Joints
Full head joints are required for continuity of bond, structural integrity, and, water resistance of a wall.
Partially filled head joints do not allow for full contact between the mortar and adjacent units. This joint
must be full with an excess of mortar squeezing out for it to be effective. This is a very important joint,
but a full head joint is often ignored on brick work.
The UBC, (Uniform Building Code), states, in Section 2404, Construction, Solid masonry units shall
have full head and bed joints. This is also stated in the Indiana Building Code.
ACI 530.1-92/ASCE 6-92/TMS 602,"Specifications for Masonry Structures", states the following in
Section 2. 3. 3. 3 Placing mortar and units, (e) Solid Units - Unless otherwise required, solidly fill bed
and head joints with mortar and:
1. Do not fill head joints by slushing with mortar.
2. Construct head joints by shoving mortar tight against the adjoining unit.
3. Do not deeply furrow bed joints.
In essence, the long standing recommendation for fully filled head joints is the "law" in most areas.
5. Tooling of Mortar Joints
This is essentially the final step in quality workmanship as far as the mason is concerned. The time of
tooling, and the kind of tool used to "dress out" these joints plays a very important part in the walls
resistance to water penetration of the wall, and the appearance of the wall. Only Concave, Grapevine,
and, Deep "V' joints should be used on masonry exposed to rain, snow, ice, and areas subjected to
freeze/thaw cycles. Raked joints, which are becoming more heavily used, should not be used in areas
subjected to heavy rainfall, ice, or, snow. The raked joint creates a ledge on the masonry units that will
catch and hold rain and snow, and do not work well where water permeance is a concern.

13

Concave and "V" joints, when tooled properly, exhibit a compacted dense mortar at the exposed surface
that is better able to shed rain and snow, and compacts the mortar against the adjacent units, which
helps with the bond at the exposed surface, which helps the water resistance of the wall.
The consistency, or wetness, of the mortar at the time of tooling has a great effect on the final color of
the mortar joint. The wetter the mortar is when it is tooled, the lighter the color of the joint. The stiffer the
mortar is when tooled, the darker the color of the joint. This can have a serious effect on the finished
color of the joints on a job using colored mortar.
Since the setting and/or the stiffening rate of the mortar in the joints is influenced by many factors, such
as; water retention of the mortar; IRA of the units; mortar temperature; unit temperature; ambient
temperature; wind velocity; relative humidity; and, wetness or consistency of the mortar, the proper
tooling time can vary from day to day, and within one day. Experience and common sense should be the
judge when it comes to selecting the proper tooling time. The " Rule of Thumb" is that when the mortar
in the joint is thumbprint hard, the joints are ready to be tooled. Regardless of when the tooling is done,
all joints on a particular job should be tooled on mortar of the same consistency or stiffness.
Joints struck early have an excess of paste at the surface, and may not have good bond with the units
due to the wetness of the mortar. Joints tooled too late may sometimes exhibit a tearing of the surface
of the mortar due to the stiffness of the mortar and its resistance to the tool moving over the surface.
6. Cleaning of New Masonry Work
The materials and methods used in cleaning new masonry work can have a definite effect on the final
appearance and durability of the finished wall. Preliminary cleaning will include the scraping off of
chunks of mortar and mortar splatters that are stuck to the masonry units, doors, windows, trim, etc.
The tool used to scrape mortar off should always be made of a material that is softer that the material
the mortar than the material the mortar is adhered to, this will prevent the tool from defacing or marking
the units or other materials during cleaning. This scraping should always be done before any other
cleaning is attempted. Dry brushing may be used where only a light scum is on the units which was left
from splatters of mortar on the units. Washing with water, accompanied by brushing, may do a
satisfactory job of cleaning on many walls. If a diluted, job mixed acid is to be used, the solution should
always be tried on an inconspicuous section of a wall. Dilute muriatic acid solutions should never be
used on walls built with units containing either manganese or vanadium, and should be used with
caution on any masonry work. When a dilute muriatic acid solution is used, it is very important the wall
be completely saturated with water before the application of the acid solution, this solution should never
be placed on a dry wall. The solution should never be allowed to dry on the wall, but must be completely
flushed from the surface.
Fortunately, there are many good, proprietary masonry cleaners available today that are formulated for
both general and specific uses, their use is recommended. The manufacturers directions should always
be followed to the letter to obtain a satisfactory job.
An experienced operator who knows and understands his equipment should only do pressure washing,
the cleaning solutions used, the masonry to be cleaned, and be aware of any possible side effects. He
should know the proper pressure to use, either water or a cleaning solution, and the effect on the
masonry to be cleaned.
Colored mortar should be cleaned with extreme caution when any thing other than water is used for the
cleaning solution as the final color of the mortar can be changed drastically by using the wrong solution
or method.
Materials and methods used to clean a masonry wall can have a great effect on the final appearance of
the wall.

14

It must be kept in mind that any acid or cleaning solution that attacks the mortar adhered to the
units, can also attack the mortar in the joints ! When some of the paste at the surface of a joint is
removed, the sand in the mortar may be exposed, which will have an effect on the color and
appearance of the joint.

E. MASONRY PROBLEMS
Unfortunately, problems do occasionally occur in masonry construction. Sometimes the problem may
affect the structural integrity of the building, but usually it is an appearance problem. Some of the
common problems are:
1. Wall Cracking
a. Poor soil support for foundations.
b. Soil heaving or soil subsiding.
c. Failure to design foundation for soil characteristics or properties.
d. Poor foundation design. (strength, width, depth, etc.)
e. Use of masonry units with high shrinkage properties.
f. Laying of very wet units with high shrinkage properties.
g. Use of units with high expansion properties.
h. Lack of contraction, expansion, or, control joints.
i. Improperly placed joints.
j. Improperly constructed joints.
k. Thermal expansion.
l. Thermal differential movement between inner structure and outer masonry when tied tightly
together.
m. Movement of structural frame tied to outer masonry.
n. Improper design for wind loads experienced.
Wall cracking can be eliminated by proper design, use of proper materials meeting applicable ASTM
Standards or Specifications, and the use of proper workmanship in construction.
2. Efflorescence
This is probably one of the most common masonry problems, especially in residential and light
commercial construction. The prevention of efflorescence is very simple, DO NOT ALLOW WATER
TO ENTER THE WALL, and, DO NOT USE MATERIALS THAT HAVE A HISTORY OF
EFFLORESCING !
British Standard BS - 3931, defines various classes of efflorescence as:
Serious: When a heavy deposit covers at least 50% of the exposed face along with surface powdering
or flaking, or both.
Heavy: When a heavy deposit covers at least 50% of the exposed face.
Moderate: When the exposed face is 10 to 50% covered with a heavy deposit. Slight: When a thin
deposit covers less then 10% of the exposed face.
Nil: When no noticeable deposit is seen on the exposed face.
For efflorescence to occur, there must be soluble salts present in the masonry, and, water must be
present in the masonry. These soluble salts may be in the masonry units, mortar materials, from
polluted rainwater, or, absorbed from ground water into the masonry wall. Some of the soluble salts that
may be present are: sulfates of sodium; magnesium; aluminum; calcium; chromium chlorides; nitrates
and salts. Any water-soluble salt present in the masonry could lead to efflorescence problems, if water
gains entry into the wall.

15

The water necessary to bring these salts to the surface can come from the water in the mortar; Rain
water in an unprotected (uncovered) wall or assembly under construction; lack of, or, poorly designed or
constructed flashings; poor joint sealing; porous or highly absorbent masonry units; or, moisture from
the interior of the building. Lack of flashing, poorly designed, or poorly constructed flashing, improper air
space, air space filled with mortar, mortar bridging the air space, lack of or poorly placed weepholes,
weepholes plugged with mortar, etc., can all contribute to improper drainage of water that is in a wall.
When water passes through a wall toward the exterior face of the masonry, the soluble salts are picked
up and carried along. When the water reaches the exterior face of the masonry, the water eventually
evaporates, leaving the salts deposited on the surface. The ambient weather conditions at the time of
the water and salts reaching the surface have an effect on the amount of salts deposited on the surface.
When the temperature is low, the relative humidity is high, and the wind velocity is low, the evaporation
rate is low as is the migration rate of the water through the masonry. When these conditions are
present, the depositing of salts is generally high.
When the ambient temperatures are moderate to high, with low relative humidities and moderate wind
velocities, the evaporation rate is high, and the water may deposit the salts before they reach the
surface, and, no efflorescence is noted. Some of these salts, when deposited just beneath the surface
of the masonry unit, may cause surface flaking or spalling, or, disintegration of the unit.
While it is relatively easy (and expensive) to determine the kind of efflorescing salt by X-Ray diffraction,
it may be difficult to determine the source of the salt.
There is one form of efflorescence, which can be attributed to the portland cement in the mortar, either
in portland cement/lime or masonry cement mortar. It is typically called either "new building bloom" or,
"new construction bloom", and can appear on new concrete work as well as new masonry work. It is
usually found during cool or cold weather, and is brought about by the release of calcium hydroxide,
which is an inevitable product of the hydration process of portland cement.
When the weather is cool or cold, the hydration rate of portland cement is slowed down. Then, any
water present will carry this product to the surface of the masonry where it is deposited when the water
evaporates. This deposit is easily removed by dry brushing or wet washing, and, will typically go away
when weather conditions permit further hydration of the cement. This problem normally does not occur
in warm or hot weather as the hydration rate of the cement is faster and the calcium hydroxide is bound
up by the other products of hydration. This is normally a temporary situation, which while unsightly, is
not harmful.
There are reported cases where individual masonry materials will not produce efflorescence when
tested alone, but, in combination may produce efflorescence.
It has been reported that some clay brick containing sulfate, which pass the ASTM efflorescence test,
may react with a very low alkali cement in the mortar to produce a water soluble alkali sulfate salt and
have heavy efflorescence.
Finding the material, or materials, that cause efflorescence can be very complicated. The best
prevention is to use materials with a proven record, use proper design methods for the structure, and,
insure that good workmanship practices are followed.
It should be noted that a Task Group in ASTM Committee C 15,"Manufactured Masonry Units", has
been working on various methods of test for determining the efflorescence potential of masonry
materials and assemblages for several years. And, a new Guide for the Prevention of Efflorescence
may be forthcoming before too long.
It has also been found some foreign countries have a different method of testing clay masonry units for
efflorescence. Russia's test method places the brick with the bedding face in the water as opposed to
the ASTM method which has the brick standing up on end in the water. There is reported cases where a
brick had no efflorescence when tested as per ASTM, but had efflorescence when tested by the
Russian method.

16

3. Color Variations in Mortar Joints ***

The age and consistency, or stiffness, of the mortar at the time the joints are tooled, has a dramatic
effect on the final color of the mortar joints. This is true of both regular and colored mortar joints. The
longer the time lapse between laying the units, under equal weather conditions, the darker the joints will
be. Sometimes a 10-minute difference in tooling time produces strikingly different shades of mortar
colors. The wetter the joint is when tooled, the easier it for the wet paste to be brought to the surface.
The stiffer the mortar is when tooled, the more difficult it is to produce a smooth, tight joint. When the
jointing tool is overused, "burning" of the mortar takes place, and a very dark, almost black joint can be
produced. Since weather conditions, mortar wetness or consistency, and, absorption properties of the
units all affect the stiffening of the mortar, a set time for proper tooling can not be set. All joints in a
given wall or structure should be tooled when the mortar reaches a certain degree of stiffness.
A sample panel, or, panels are usually constructed prior to the start of the masonry construction of many
commercial buildings. The joint appearance should be looked at, and a decision made at that time on
what is desired for that job. Frequently, the sample panels receive tooling relatively early due to the
small size of the panel, and the reluctance of the mason to stand around waiting for the proper time, and
consequently may not be tooled at the same degree of stiffness as the mortar in the building. When this
happens, the mortar joints in the structure do not match those in the sample panel, and then the
accusations as to the cause may begin to spread. This is especially critical when a colored mortar is
being used, and the desired color was selected based on the sample panel.
Color variations within a given length of bed joint may vary from light to dark within several inches or a
few feet. Usually this can be attributed to highly different IRA's of the units being used.
With units of very low IRA's, the mortar may remain plastic for a considerable length of time, while the
mortar adjacent to units with high IRA's may stiffen quite rapidly. Then, when the mason gets ready to
tool the joints, he has a mixture of very plastic and very stiff mortar very close together in the same bed
joint.
While it is recommended that units with high IRA's be prewet prior to use, it can be difficult to get an
even saturation of all units in this situation, and may be impractical. Units with a very low IRA are
sometimes called "floaters" because they pull little if any water from the mortar, and may "float" on the
mortar bed, slowing down the rate of bricklaying considerably. The problem of units with a high degree
of variation in their IRA's is relatively easy to detect, but the cure may be difficult to come by.
4. Color Variations in Walls or Sections of A Wall
Once a job is started, the same materials should be used throughout the job on the exposed masonry. A
change in the cement or sand can dramatically affect the color of the mortar. Masonry units should
come from the same lot or production run.
Masonry units supplied to the wall should be pulled from several cubes of units at the same time. The
mortar should be mixed in the same proportions and to the same consistency for each batch. On jobs
that continue through different seasons, or several weather changes such as spring and fall, can have
an effect on the mortar color due to varying amounts of retempering done to the mortar. If excessive
retempering was done to mortar in one portion of a wall, then that mortar is likely to be lighter in color
than the rest of the mortar.
Weather conditions at the time of construction can have a temporary effect on the color of the mortar in
the wall. If portions of a wall were left unprotected during a rainy spell the wall may be saturated, but
upon arrival of warm dry weather, the color may even out and be satisfactory.
The materials and methods used to clean a wall can affect the final color of the wall, or, portions of it.
If the cleaning work was done in a haphazard manner, maybe using uneven dilutions of a cleaning
solution, can have a temporary or permanent effect on the final mortar color. Anything that is not done in

17

a consistent manner can affect the color of the mortar. Uneven exposure of the sand in the mortar joints
can have a serious effect on the final appearance and color of the joints.
One critical point regarding high pressure cleaning of masonry. Typically, the masonry cleaning is done
by an independent masonry cleaning contractor who may or may not have any experience with masonry
other than filling the cleaning solution tank, turning on the pump, and, aiming the nozzle. All clumps and
splatters of mortar should be manually cleaned from the walls before any other cleaning steps are
taken. In many cases, they expect the high pressure to clean everything. If there is enough pressure to
clean the mortar clinging to the units, there is enough pressure to seriously damage the mortar in the
joints. It is not uncommon to have the high pressure "blow" the mortar out of the joints, especially at the
corners.
High pressure cleaning can do a great job of cleaning masonry, but it needs to be done properly with the
proper cleaning solutions.

5. Leaking and/or Wet Walls

Walls that leak noticeably or appear wet long after a rain has stopped can be caused by several factors,
either acting singly, or in combinations.
a. Poor Building Design
1. Poor design for roof to wall sealing
2. Poor roof design
3. Lack of flashing
4. Poor flashing detailing
5. Lack of vapor barrier
6. Improper design for expansion or contraction joints
7. Wrong choice of joint type for weather exposure encountered
8. Failure to include weepholes in design
b. Poor Construction Practices
1. Poorly proportioned or weak mortar used
2. Failure to fill all head joints
3. Failure to provide full bed joints - deep furrowing
4. Moving units after placing on mortar bed that has stiffened
5. Using mortar that is too stiff for the job at hand
6. Improper tooling of joints
7. Incorrect installation of vapor barrier
8. Incorrect installation of flashing
9. Improper sealing of roof to wall connection
10. Incorrect installation of expansion or contraction joints or joint material
11. Failure to keep air space open and clean.
12. Allowing mortar to bridge the air space.
13. Failure to place weepholes
14. Weepholes plugged with mortar droppings
15. Incorrect placement of ties, anchors, or reinforcement.
When a vapor barrier is specified and properly placed, the water in the humid air inside the building
cannot get into the wall and cause problems.

18

When the proper air space is specified, and kept free of mortar bridging the space, any water in the
cavity will run down the back of the exterior wythe of masonry until it comes to the flashing which will
direct the water to the weepholes where it will exit the wall harmlessly.
Any improper or improperly placed ties, anchors, reinforcement, mortar bridging can allow the water to
reach the interior wythe and possibly enter the building interior, and, possibly cause damage to the
sheathing, insulation, interior walls, floor,and electrical system.
F. ASTM C 780
ASTM C 780,"Standard Test Method for Preconstruction and Construction Evaluation of Mortars for
Plain and Reinforced Unit Masonry", covers the test methods to be used in evaluating various mortar
properties prior to, and during, construction of masonry structures. Ideally, a mortar to be used on a job
would be tested in the laboratory as per C 270, then tested as per the methods outlined in C 780 to test
for field mortar properties. C 780 plainly states in Section 1.3," the test results obtained under this
test method are not required to meet the minimum compressive values in accordance with the
property specifications in Specification C 270".
C 780 is strictly a series of test methods that may be used for field testing of actual field proportioned
and mixed mortar. It gives the prescribed test methods and gives the prescribed equipment to be used
for this testing. This is one of the least understood and most misused of any ASTM Specification and
Standard relating to masonry mortar, and, mortar testing !!!
Section 1, Scope, of C 780 states:
1. Scope
1.1 This test method covers procedures for the sampling and testing of mortars for composition and for
their plastic and hardened properties, either before or during their actual use in construction.
1.2 Preconstruction evaluation of mortars permits a comparison of mortar systems and an
approximation, by more complete identification, of the mortar mixture which will be produced at the
construction project.
The preconstruction laboratory investigation permits the establishment of the compatibility of the
individual materials in the mortar and the general strength characteristics of the mixture.
1.3 Construction-site testing procedures permit the establishment of conformance to the proportion
specifications and quality control of mortar production. Mix-composition measurements permit the rapid
assessment of conformance with the proportion specification and quality control, whereas later-age
strength testing provides verification that the mortar ingredients are compatible and are performing
normally. The test results obtained under this test method are not required to meet the minimum
compressive values in accordance with the property specifications in Specification C 270.
In essence, this test method is like the test methods ASTM has for testing concrete, it just gives the test
methods to use, it does not have any requirements the test results have to meet.
For a specifier to really know what the compressive strength is of a masonry wall, or masonry
assemblage, C 270 states it best in Note 7," Where necessary, Testing of a wall or a masonry prism
from the wall is generally more desirable than attempting to test individual components".
Sometimes, the best compressive strength results which relate to load carrying capacity of a wall may
be determined by testing prisms cut from a wall, or preferably, by testing prisms made on the job, by
masons working on the job, using mortar used on the job. Prism testing should only be done when the
procedures and methods of ASTM E 447," Standard Test Methods for Compressive Strength of
Masonry Prisms", are followed. The compressive strength values desired should always be decided
upon prior to prism testing, not after a job has started.

19

Any laboratory involved in masonry mortar testing, either by ASTM C 270 or C 780, should have
to demonstrate at least a basic knowledge of both, and have properly trained personnel, the
proper equipment and facilities for testing.

20

ASTM C 144
AGGREGATES for MASONRY MORTAR
(Highlights Only)

Referenced Documents:
C 40 Test Method for Organic Impurities in Fine Aggregate
C 87 Test Method for Effect of Organic Impurities in Fine Aggregate on Strength of Mortar
C 88 Test Method for Soundness of Aggregates by Use of Sodium Sulfate or Magnesium Sulfate
C 117 Test Method for Materials Finer than 75 um (No. 200) sieve in Mineral Aggregates by Washing
C 123 Test Method for Lightweight Pieces in Aggregate
C 128 Test Method for Specific Gravity and Absorption of Fine Aggregate
C 136 Test Method for Sieve Analysis of Fine and Coarse Aggregate
C 142 Test Method for Clay Lumps and Friable Particles in Aggregates
C 270 Specification for Mortar for Unit Masonry
C 404 Specification for Aggregates for Masonry grout
D 75 Practice for Sampling Aggregates

Materials and Manufacture

Aggregate for use in masonry mortar shall consist of natural sand or manufactured sand. Manufactured sand
is the product obtained by crushing stone, gravel, or air-cooled iron blast-furnace slag specially processed to
insure suitable gradation.
Note 1 Care should be taken to ensure a suitable particle shape, since excessive quanities of flat and
elongated particles have historically caused problems with workability.

Grading
Aggregates for use in masonry mortar shall be graded within the following limits, depending upon whether
natural sand or manufactured sand is to be used.

SIEVE SIZE
4.75 um (No. 4)
2.36 mm (No. 8)
1.18 mm (No. 16)
600 um (No. 30)
300 um (No. 50)
150 um (No. 100)
75 um (No. 200)

PERCENT PASSING
NATURAL SAND
MANUFACTURED SAND
100
100
95 to 100
95 to 100
70 to 100
70 to 100
40 to 75
40 to 75
10 to 35
20 to 40
2 to 15
10 to 25
0 to 5
0 to 10

The aggregate shall not have more than 50% retained between any two consecutive sieves of those listed
above nor more than 25% between 300 um (No. 50) and the 150 um (No. 100) sieve.

When an aggregate fails the gradation limits specified in 4.1 and 4.2, it may used provided the
mortar can be prepared to comply with the aggregate ratio, water retention, and compressive
strength requirements of the property specification of Specification C 270.

21

BULKING of SANDS
PERCENT INCREASE in VOLUME OVER DRY RODDED SAND
FINE SAND
MEDIUM SAND
COARSE SAND

Percent increase in volume

over dry, rodded sand

40

35

30

%
B 25
U
L 20
K
I 15
N
G

Fine
Medium
Coarse

10

0
0

2.5

7.5

10

12.5

15

17.5

20

% Moisture
Percent of moisture added by mass
to dry, rodded sand

% Moisture
Fine
Medium
Coarse

0
0
0
0

BULKINGOFSANDS.XLS

2.5
30
20
14

5
37.5
28
17.5

7.5
36
27
15.5

10
32
23
12

12.5
27
18
7.5

15
22
12
3

17.5
16
6
0

20
10.5
1.5

22

ASTM C 91 Masonry Cement, ASTM C 1329 Mortar Cement, UBC 24-19 Mortar Cement
Agency
ASTM
Spec.
C 91
Type
N
Fineness,-325%
24
Autoclave Exp. Max.%
1.0
Set-Minimum-min.
120
Set-Max.-min.
1440
psi-min, 7-day
500
psi-min, 28-day
900
Air-Min%
8
Air-Max%
21
Water Ret.-Min.%
70
Flexural psi-min.
NA

ASTM
C 1329
N
24
1.0
120
1440
500
900
8
16
70
70

UBC
24-19
N
24
1.0
120
1440
500
900
8
16
70
71

ASTM
C 91
S
24
1.0
90
1440
1300
2100
8
19
70
NA

ASTM
C 1329
S
24
1.0
90
1440
1300
2100
8
14
70
100

UBC
24-19
S
24
1.0
90
1440
1300
2100
8
14
70
104

ASTM
C 91
M
24
1.0
90
1440
1800
2900
8
19
70
NA

ASTM
C 1329
M
24
1.0
90
1440
1800
2900
8
14
70
115

UBC
24-19
M
24
1.0
90
1440
1800
2900
8
14
70
116

The test results required above, are based on mortar batched, mixed, and tested in
accordance with the applicable ASTM or UBC specification.
The flexural bond strengths are determined by the method outlined in ASTM C 1072,
Standard Test Method of Masonry Flexural Bond Strength.
UBC TABLE NO. 24-19-B
RESTRICTED MATERIALS - MORTAR CEMENT
MATERIAL
MAX. LIMIT-%
Chloride Salts
Caboxylic Acids
Sugars
Glycols
Lignin & Derivities
Stearates
Fly Ash
Clay (except Fireclay)

0.06%
0.25%
1.00%
1.00%
0.50%
0.50%
No Limit
5.00%

Neither ASTM C 91, , nor ASTM C 1329, have restricted or prohibited materials limits.
UBC TABLE 21-19-C
DELETERIOUS MATERIALS
NOT PERMITTED IN MORTAR CEMENT
Epoxy resins & derivities
Phenols
Asbestos Fiber
Fireclays
The basic difference between ASTM Masonry Cements and the ASTM and UBC Mortar
Cements is the Mortar Cements have a lower Maximum Air Content, and Minimum
Flexural Bond Strength requirements.

23

ASTM C 270, STANDARD SPECIFICATION for MORTAR for UNIT MASONRY

TABLE 1 PROPORTION SPECIFICATION REQUIREMENTS

Note: Two air-entraining materials shall not be combined in mortar.
Portland
or
Blended
Mortar Type Cement
M
1
Cement- S
1
Lime
N
1
O
1
M
1
M
****
Mortar
S
1/2
Cement- S
****
N
****
O
****
M
****
M
****
Masonry S
1/2
Cement- S
****
N
****
O
****

Mortar Cement
M
S
N
****
****
****
****
****
****
****
****
****
****
****
****
****
****
1
1
****
****
****
****
1
****
1
****
****
****
1
****
****
1
1
****
****
****
****
****
****
****
****
****
****
****
****
****
****
****
****
****

Hydrated
Lime
or
Lime
Putty

Masonry Cement
M
S
N
****
****
****
1/4
****
****
****
1/2
****
****
**** over 1/2 to 1 1/4
****
****
**** over 1 1/4 to 2 1/2
****
****
****
****
****
****
****
****
****
****
****
****
****
****
****
****
****
****
****
****
****
****
****
****
****
****
1
****
1
****
****
****
****
****
1
****
****
1
****
****
****
****
1
****
****
****
1
****

Aggregate Ratio
(Measured in Damp, Loose
Conditions)

Not less than 2 1/4 and not

more than 3 times the sum
of the separate volumes of
cementitious materials

TABLE 2 PROPERTY SPECIFICATION REQUIREMENTS A

Average Compressive
Strength at 28-days,
Mortar Type
Min, psi (MPa)
M
2500 (17.2)
Cement- S
1800 (12.4)
Lime
N
750 (5.2)
O
350 (2.4)
M
2500 (17.2)
Mortar
S
1800 (12.4)
Cement N
750 (5.2)
O
350 (2.4)
M
2500 (17.2)
Masonry S
1800 (12.4)
Cement N
750 (5.2)
O
350 (2.4)
A

Water
Retention,
min. %
75
75
75

Air
Content,
Max %
12
12
14c

Aggregate Ratio
(Measured in Damp, Loose
Conditions)

75
75
75
75

14c
12
12
14c

Not less than 2 1/4 and not

more than 3 1/2 times the sum
of the separate volumes of
cementitious materials

75
75
75
75

14c
18
18
20D

75

20D

Laboratory prepared mortar only.

When structural reinforcement is incorporated in cement-lime or mortar cement mortar, the maximum
air content shall be 12%.
D
When structural reinforcement is incorporated in masonry cement mortar, the maximum
air content shall be 18%.

24

SOME REFERENCE MATERIAL

1. ASTM C 144 Standard Specification for Aggregate for Masonry Mortar
2. ASTM C 270 Standard Specification for Mortar for Unit Masonry
3. ASTM C 91 Standard Specification for Masonry Cement
4. ASTM C 1329 Standard Specification for Mortar Cement
5. UBC 24-19 Mortar Cement
6. ASTM C 150 Standard Specification for Portland Cement
7. ASTM C 595 Standard Specification for Blended Hydraulic Cements
8. ASTM C 207 Standard Specification for Hydrated Lime for Masonry Purposes
9. ASTM C 67 Standard test Method for Sampling and Testing Brick and Structural Clay Tile
10. ACI 530 Building Code requirements for masonry Structures & Specifications for Masonry
Structures, also includes Commentaries for both
11. ASTM C 447 Standard test Method for Compressive Strength of Masonry Prisms
The above Standards, Specifications, Codes, Etc,., are subject to change on an annual basis.

25

Sources of Information for The SHORT MASONRY GUIDE

1. American Concrete Institute

Manual of Concrete Practice, Part 5
Masonry Structures Code
Masonry Structures Building Code
Masonry Structures Building Code Commentary
Masonry Construction Specifications
2. ASTM (American Society for Testing and Materials)
ASTM Book of Standards Volume 04.05, Construction
STP 871, Masonry, Research, Application, and Problems
Brick Masonry Wall Nonperformance Causes
Durability of Brick Masonry: A Review of the Literature, Clayford T. Grimm
3. Brick Industry Association (BIA)
Technical Notes on Brick Construction, #23, December 1969, Efflorescence, Causes
Technical Notes on Brick Construction, #18, April 1963
Technical Notes on Brick Construction, #7b, January 1965
4. Portland Cement Association (PCA)
Concrete Masonry Handbook
5. Many books, journals, magazines, articles, papers, training courses, seminars, and, conversations
with recognizes experts in the field of masonry.
Experts:
Occupation
Dr. H. C. Fischer
Consultant, Retired LCCO.
Albert Isberner
Consultant (retired); PCA-Retired
Jake Ribar
Consultant, Retired CTL, PCA
Tom Grimm
Consultant, Retired U of Texas, Austin
John Melander
Masonry Specialist, PCA
Ed Hedstrom
WJE, Retired-Lab Mgr.-NCMA, Retired
Pat Howley
Master Mason, Consultant, Retired ESSROC Cement
Val Dubovoy
Engineer, CTL(Construction technology Laboratories)
Bob Nelson
Robert L. Nelson Inc. (Masonry Testing & Investigations)
Many Coworkers
And, many others too numerous to mention.