Sunteți pe pagina 1din 33

Report to Congress on International

Economic and Exchange Rate Policies

U.S. Department of the Treasury


Office of International Affairs

April 9, 2015

This Report reviews developments in international economic and exchange rate policies and is submitted
pursuant to the Omnibus Trade and Competitiveness Act of 1988, 22 U.S.C. 5305 (the Act).1

The Treasury Department has consulted with the Board of Governors of the Federal Reserve System and
International Monetary Fund management and staff in preparing this Report.

Contents
KEY FINDINGS ........................................................................................................................... 2
INTRODUCTION......................................................................................................................... 5
U.S. MACROECONOMIC TRENDS ......................................................................................... 5
THE GLOBAL ECONOMY ........................................................................................................ 7
THE DOLLAR IN FOREIGN EXCHANGE MARKETS ..................................................... 11
ANALYSES OF INDIVIDUAL ECONOMIES ....................................................................... 11
ASIA........................................................................................................................................... 11
China ..................................................................................................................................... 11
Japan ..................................................................................................................................... 14
South Korea .......................................................................................................................... 17
Taiwan................................................................................................................................... 19
EUROPE ...................................................................................................................................... 21
Euro Area .............................................................................................................................. 21
Switzerland ........................................................................................................................... 23
United Kingdom.................................................................................................................... 24
WESTERN HEMISPHERE.............................................................................................................. 25
Brazil ..................................................................................................................................... 25
Canada................................................................................................................................... 26
Mexico .................................................................................................................................. 27
ANNEX I: LOWER OIL PRICES AND GLOBAL IMBALANCES .................................... 29
GLOSSARY OF KEY TERMS IN THE REPORT ................................................................ 31

KEY FINDINGS
The Omnibus Trade and Competitiveness Act of 1988 (the Act) requires the Secretary of
the Treasury to provide semiannual reports on the international economic and exchange rate
policies of the major trading partners of the United States. Under Section 3004 of the Act,
the Report must consider whether countries manipulate the rate of exchange between their
currency and the United States dollar for purposes of preventing effective balance of
payments adjustment or gaining unfair competitive advantage in international trade.
This Report covers developments in the second half of 2014, and where pertinent and available,
data through end-March 2015. This Report reviews the macroeconomic and exchange rate
policies of economies accounting for 65 percent of U.S. foreign trade and assesses global
economic developments more broadly. The Report draws attention to and expresses concern
over the impact that an imbalanced mix of macroeconomic policies is having on global
outcomes, including a suboptimal composition of global growth and the threat of widening
external imbalances. The Report calls for policymakers, especially those in surplus economies,
to use the full set of policy tools at their disposal (monetary, fiscal and structural) to support
growth and realize the collective G-20 objective of strong, sustainable and balanced global
growth.
The U.S. economy expanded at a robust 3.6 percent annual rate during the second half of 2014,
supported by continued strong growth of private demand. Labor market conditions improved
considerably in the latter half of the year, with the average pace of job growth accelerating
sharply to its fastest pace in 20 years and the unemployment rate falling to its lowest level in
almost seven years. Inflation slowed, largely reflecting a steep drop in oil prices over the period.
Although GDP growth appears to have slowed in the first quarter of 2015, in part reflecting the
temporary effects of severe winter weather, an array of economic indicators suggests that the
underlying momentum of the recovery remains intact and growth is expected to remain strong
through the end of this year.
In contrast to solid U.S. performance, global economic outcomes have been disappointing and
remain of concern. Not only has global growth failed to accelerate, but there is worry that the
composition of global output is increasingly unbalanced. Weak global growth importantly
reflects an insufficiently comprehensive mix of macroeconomic policies in some key countries,
which leaves substantial scope for efforts to support domestic demand. Alongside strengthening
U.S. economic activity, lackluster growth abroad, and falling commodity prices the broad
nominal trade weighted dollar appreciated by 7.9 percent in the second half of 2014, with
another 4 percent appreciation in the first quarter of 2015.
The global economy should not again rely on the United States to be the only engine of demand.
Doing so will not lead to a pattern of strong, sustainable and balanced global growth, the very
aim of the G-20. To achieve this objective, many countries need to implement a balanced policy
mix. Excessive reliance on any single lever of policy is not enough. Rather, policymakers need
to use all levers, including fiscal stimulus where fiscal space exists, to complement monetary
policy accommodation. In conjunction, many countries also need to implement structural
reforms to help boost potential growth and address persistent stagnation. Balanced approaches to

macroeconomic policy are particularly needed in large surplus countries, notably in Germany,
China, Japan, and Korea consistent with agreed G-7 and G-20 commitments.
The Report emphasizes that the key priority for the euro area is to bolster domestic demand
growth. In the face of ongoing disinflation, the European Central Bank (ECB) has taken forceful
steps to support growth and combat downward price pressures. Complementing these monetary
measures with supportive national fiscal policies, and appropriate structural reforms, would help
deliver the strongest boost to domestic demand. Such a policy mix would help ensure a balanced
composition of GDP growth, and would avoid the risk that growth becomes excessively reliant
on the external sector. Already the euro areas current account surplus tops $300 billion (2.3
percent of euro area GDP), nearly all of which is accounted for by Germany (7.8 percent of
German GDP). It remains vital that the euro area contribute to global demand by taking all
necessary steps to build its own domestic demand momentum.
The Report also flags weak domestic demand in Japan as an ongoing concern and calls for a
balanced macroeconomic policy approach there as well. Domestic demand fell by 1.5 percent
over the course of 2014, as Japanese policy did not sufficiently offset the impact of the increase
in the consumption tax on demand. Going forward the government needs to deploy all three
policy levers fiscal, monetary, and structural to secure a balanced and durable recovery and
ensure monetary stimulus is appropriately supporting the growth of domestic demand. Overreliance on monetary policy without appropriate support from fiscal policy and structural reforms
will put Japans recovery and escape from deflation at risk and could generate negative
spillovers. As such, Japans medium-term deficit reduction targets should be sufficiently flexible
to respond to weakness in domestic demand growth.
China continues to work its way out of a significant undervaluation that led to large internal and
external imbalances, and the Report concludes that fundamental factors for RMB appreciation
remain intact, highlighting the need for further strengthening over the medium-term. In recent
months, China has benefited from a sizeable terms of trade gain from lower oil prices, with its
monthly goods surplus repeatedly reaching new nominal highs. The current account surplus
exceeded $200 billion in 2014 (2.1 percent of GDP), up $60 billion from the year before, and is
expected to remain on a rising trajectory in the year ahead. Additionally, China continues to see
relatively higher productivity growth than its major trading partners. Finally, Chinas currency
needs to appreciate to bring about the necessary internal rebalancing toward household
consumption that is a key goal of the governments reform plans and necessary for sustained,
balanced global growth. While China has made real progress, with its real effective exchange
rate appreciating meaningfully over the past six months, these factors indicate an RMB exchange
rate that remains significantly undervalued.
The Report notes Chinas reduced level of intervention in the foreign exchange market,
consistent with the commitment of Chinas government at the Sixth Round of the U.S.-China
Strategic and Economic Dialogue (S&ED). The Report also observes that the RMB is one of the
few currencies to remain relatively range-bound against the U.S. dollar over the past year.
In line with its S&ED commitments, China should allow the market to play a greater role in
determining the exchange rate and build on the recent reduction in foreign exchange intervention

by durably curbing its activities in the foreign exchange market, including at times when there is
market pressure for further appreciation.
The Report looks forward to progress on Chinas plan to subscribe to the IMFs Special Data
Dissemination Standard (SDDS) for economic and financial data, including foreign exchange
reserve disclosure, but highlights that more needs to be done to enhance transparency. In line
with the practice of most other G-20 nations, China should disclose foreign exchange market
intervention regularly to enhance its exchange rate and financial market transparency.
Lastly, the Report notes that the Korean authorities have intervened to resist won appreciation in
the context of a large and growing current account surplus, now at 6.3 percent of GDP. Korea
also has substantial foreign exchange reserves, as well as significant fiscal space. Estimates
based on valuation-adjusted reserves show that the Korean authorities intervened heavily last
summer. After reducing their presence in the foreign exchange market from August through
November, Korean authorities appear to have substantially increased intervention in December
and January, a time of appreciation pressure on the won. Refraining from intervention and
allowing more space for won appreciation would help with rebalancing and encourage a
reallocation of productive resources to the non-tradables sector. Treasury has intensified its
engagement with Korea on these issues. We have made clear that the Korean authorities
should reduce foreign exchange intervention, limiting it to the exceptional circumstance of
disorderly market conditions, and allow the won to appreciate further. The authorities
should also increase transparency of foreign exchange operations.
Based on the analysis in this report, Treasury has concluded that no major trading partner of the
United States met the standard of manipulating the rate of exchange between their currency and
the United States dollar for purposes of preventing effective balance of payments adjustments or
gaining unfair competitive advantage in international trade as identified in Section 3004 of the
Act during the period covered in the Report. Treasury continues to closely monitor
developments and policy implementation in economies where growth is weak and exchange rate
adjustment is incomplete, and continues to push for comprehensive adherence to all G-7 and G20 and IMF commitments. These include the recent G-7 commitments to orient fiscal and
monetary policies towards domestic objectives using domestic instruments and to not target
exchange rates. They also include the G-20 commitments to move more rapidly toward marketdetermined exchange rate systems and exchange rate flexibility, to avoid persistent exchange rate
misalignments, to refrain from competitive devaluation, and to not target exchange rates for
competitive purposes.

Introduction
This report focuses on international economic and foreign exchange developments in the second
half of 2014. Where pertinent and when available, data and developments through end-March
2015 are included.
Exports and imports of goods to and from the ten economies analyzed in this report accounted
for 65 percent of U.S. merchandise trade in 2014.

U.S. Macroeconomic Trends


The U.S. economy expanded at a robust 3.6 percent annual rate during the second half of 2014,
supported by strong growth of private demand. Labor market conditions improved considerably
in the latter half of the year, with the average pace of job growth accelerating sharply and the
unemployment rate, as of February 2015, at its lowest level in almost seven years. Inflation
slowed, largely reflecting a steep drop in oil prices over the period. Favorable underlying
fundamentals suggest that the economy will continue to grow at an above-trend pace through the
end of this year and into 2016.
U.S. GDP Growth Momentum Remains Solid
The U.S. economic recovery strengthened in the second half of 2014. Real GDP expanded at a
robust 3.6 percent annual rate over the final two quarters of the year, accelerating markedly from
the 1.2 percent pace in the first two quarters. Robust growth in consumption, private fixed
investment, and government spending accounted for the faster pace of expansion. Consumer
spending rose at a 3.9 percent pace over the final two quarters of 2014, double the 1.8 percent
pace of the first half of the year, and the pace of private fixed investment more than doubled to
3.5 percent during the final two quarters of 2014 from 1.5 percent during the first two quarters of
the year. Growth of government spending accelerated to 1.2 percent during the latter half of last
year from a 0.4 percent pace in the first half. The trade balance was little changed on average in
the second half of 2014 compared with the first half of the year. However, the change in private
inventories swung from providing a modest boost to GDP growth in the first half of the year to
acting as a slight drag on growth in the second half.
Although GDP growth appears to have slowed in the first quarter of 2015, in part reflecting the
temporary effects of severe winter weather, an array of economic indicators suggests that the
underlying momentum of the recovery remains intact and growth is expected to remain strong
through the end of this year. The improvement in labor market conditions along with the recent
sharp decline in energy prices have been a boon for consumers, helping to lift consumer
confidence to its highest level in a decade. Household wealth has risen considerably over the
past year and credit conditions are improving. In addition, spending at all levels of government
is expected to make a small positive contribution to economic activity after being a drag on
growth in recent years. A consensus of private forecasters is projecting real GDP growth of 2.8
percent over the four quarters of 2015.

Recovery in the Housing Sector Was Mixed


The recovery in the housing market was mixed during 2014 and early 2015, as single-family
home building remained subdued but sales of existing single-family homes rebounded and multifamily construction spending returned to its pre-recession range. Residential investment rose
3.3 percent at an annual rate, on average, over the third and fourth quarters of 2014, accelerating
from a 1.8 percent pace during the first half of 2014 but still well below the double-digit
advances posted in mid-2013. The outlook for housing remains generally favorable, as
continued improvement in labor markets is expected to help boost housing demand this year.
Although rising home prices have eroded housing affordability, it remains higher than its
historical average. Falling mortgage rates have also helped boost affordability. The average
interest rate for a 30-year fixed rate mortgage fell by 61 basis points between January and
December of 2014, from 4.48 percent to 3.87 percent after rising almost a full percentage point
between May and December of 2013 and had fallen a further 17 basis points to 3.7 percent as
of early April 2015. For much of the past three years, the pace of household formation a key
determinant of housing demand had remained below its long-term average, but it accelerated
sharply in the fourth quarter of 2014, moving above its long-term average to the highest level in
nine years.
Fiscal Headwinds Diminished
After posing a large drag on growth from mid-2009 through 2013, total government spending
made a small positive contribution to economic activity over the course of 2014. At the federal
level, government expenditures added an average 0.1 percentage point per quarter to real GDP
growth over the final two quarters of 2014, after subtracting an average 0.4 percentage point per
quarter during the first two quarters of the year. Fiscal conditions at the state and local level
continued to improve and supported growth for a second straight year in 2014, after three years
of subtracting from growth. In the second half of 2014, state and local government expenditures
contributed 0.2 percentage point on average to real GDP growth, up from an average quarterly
contribution of 0.1 percentage point during the first half of the year.
Labor Market Conditions Continued to Improve, and Inflation Slowed
The pace of job creation picked up throughout 2014 and the unemployment rate moved notably
lower. Nonfarm payroll employment increased by 281,000 per month on average during the last
six months of 2014, stepping up from an average monthly increase of 239,000 over the first six
months of the year. The pace of job growth moderated in the first quarter of 2015 but at an
average monthly gain of 197,000 was still strong. Roughly 11.5 million jobs have been created
since February 2010, reflecting a gain of 12.1 million in the private sector and a net loss of
578,000 in the public sector. However, over the past year or so, the public sector has been
creating jobs on a net basis. Between January 2014 and June 2014, the unemployment rate fell
by 0.6 percentage point to 6.1 percent and over the following nine months, through March 2015,
had fallen an additional 0.7 percentage point to 5.5 percent, the lowest level in nearly seven
years. About two-thirds of the improvement in the unemployment rate over the past year was
due to declining long-term unemployment. Even so, the long-term unemployment rate

(reflecting workers without a job for 27 weeks or more) remains elevated at 1.6 percent, well
above its pre-recession average of 1 percent (from 2001-2007).
Headline inflation slowed sharply during the latter half of 2014, largely reflecting the decline in
energy prices, while core inflation remained low and stable. The consumer price index was flat
during the year ending in February 2015, down from a 1.1 percent advance in the year ending in
February 2014. Core consumer inflation (which excludes the volatile food and energy
categories) was 1.7 percent over the year ending in February 2015, up slightly from the 1.6
percent rate over the year-earlier period. Core inflation has been roughly stable around that level
for the past three years. Growth of compensation costs remained subdued. The Employment
Cost Index (ECI) for private-industry workers rose 2.3 percent over the year ending in December
2014, remaining well below gains averaging 3.5 percent annually in the decade prior to the last
recession. Persistent labor market slack and the low level of capacity utilization are among the
factors that have restrained wage growth and inflationary pressures.
Putting Public Finances on a Sustainable Path Remains a Priority
The federal deficit continued to narrow in FY 2014, declining to 2.8 percent of GDP from
4.1 percent of GDP FY 2013. Since peaking in 2009, the deficit has fallen by 7.0 percentage
points the most rapid pace of fiscal consolidation for any five-year period since the
demobilization following World War II. The Presidents FY 2016 Budget would trim the deficit
slightly further on net to 2.5 percent of GDP over the latter half of the 10-year budget period
well below the 40-year average of 3.2 percent of GDP. The primary deficit (non-interest outlays
less receipts) is projected to become a primary surplus in FY 2022, at which point it will no
longer be adding to federal debt. Publicly-held debt as a share of the economy is expected to
stabilize in the current fiscal year and decline steadily to 73.3 percent of GDP in FY2025.

The Global Economy


In contrast to solid U.S. performance, global
economic outcomes have been disappointing
and remain of concern. Not only has global
activity failed to accelerate, but there is a
growing worry that the composition of global
output increasingly unbalanced. Weak global
growth importantly reflects an insufficiently
comprehensive mix of macroeconomic policies
in some key countries, which leaves substantial
scope for efforts to support domestic demand.
Global economic growth was 3.3 percent in
2014, the same as in 2013. However, this
aggregate measure masks significant variations
in performance driven by both economyspecific and global factors. Euro area growth turned positive in 2014, though it was driven by
just a few economies most notably, Germany and Spain. In contrast, growth in France was flat

and economic activity in Italy contracted last year. Economic growth lost momentum in Japan as
it struggled to rebound from the April 2014 consumption tax increase. Some advanced
economies including the United States, Canada, and the United Kingdom have seen strong
growth, serving as key drivers of growth globally.
There were also marked differences in performance among emerging market economies last
year. Growth in China continued to moderate as the economy undertakes a necessary
rebalancing toward a greater reliance on domestic demand. Economic growth lost momentum in
Brazil, and the impact of sanctions and low oil prices is taking a large toll on growth in Russia.
In contrast, after a slowdown associated with a deceleration in investment, growth in Korea is
picking up, and the recovery in India is accelerating.
Looking forward, divergent developments are likely to remain. Low oil prices are positive for
the global economy in aggregate, although they will negatively impact growth in major oil
exporters. Growth in China is expected to continue to slow and Russia is contracting sharply,
with regional growth implications, while growth in India should continue to improve. The
January IMF projections foresee the global economy expanding 3.5 percent in 2015, 0.2
percentage points higher than 2014. Real GDP in the advanced economies is projected to expand
by 2.4 percent in 2015 compared with 1.8 percent in 2014, driven by strong growth in the United
States, and a continued but modest acceleration of growth in the euro area. Real GDP growth in
emerging markets and developing economies is projected to continue trending down, from a
post-crisis peak of 6.2 percent in 2011 to 4.3 percent in 2015, led by a continued moderation of
growth in China, a sharp contraction in Russia, and ongoing weakness in Brazil.
Global Rebalancing
The global economy should not again rely on
the United States to be the only engine of
demand. Doing so will not lead to a pattern of
strong, sustainable and balanced global growth,
the very aim of the G-20. To achieve this
objective, many countries need to implement a
balanced policy mix. Excessive reliance on any
single lever of policy is not enough. Rather,
policymakers need to use all policy levers,
including fiscal stimulus where space exists, to
complement monetary policy accommodation,
in order to boost domestic demand and reduce
output gaps. In conjunction, they also need to implement structural reforms to help boost
potential growth and address persistent stagnation. Balanced approaches toward macroeconomic
policy, consistent with G-7 and G-20 commitments, are especially important in large surplus
countries including Germany, China, Japan and Korea.
Notably, Germany, China, and Korea are poised to see further increases in their already large
external surpluses. Each of these economies will benefit significantly in 2015 from lower oil
prices (see Annex 1) and Germany has seen its real effective exchange rate depreciate over the

past year. Japans external surplus in 2014 was modest, but it is expected to rise in 2015.
Excessive surpluses reflect a reluctance to consume or invest domestically and should be a red
flag to policymakers that domestic demand is falling short, with adverse consequences for
growth. Moreover, these rising surpluses are a further argument to take strong action to
rebalance global demand.
Reserve Accumulation
Global foreign-currency reserves declined in dollar
Foreign Currency Reserve Accumulation Major Holders
terms in the second half of 2014, largely due to
valuation effects associated with currency moves.
Latest
Though China appears to have sharply reduced its
Average Monthly increase, $
average monthly increase in reserves in recent months,
billions
Jan 2009
and at sometimes appears to have sold foreign currency,
Reserves
to Dec
Chinese reserves remain at a very high level relative to
$ billions
2012
2013
2014
the rest of the world, comprising roughly one-third of
Global
11,686
77.3
58.8
-0.5
global reserves. Indias foreign exchange reserves
China
3,843
28.4
42.5
1.8
Japan
1,192
4.0
0.8
-0.2
reached an all-time high in March 2015 as the central
Saudi Arabia
721
4.2
5.8
0.7
bank purchased foreign currency to moderate the
Switzerland
537
8.8
1.7
0.9
impact of large foreign investment inflows on the rupee. Taiwan
418
2.3
1.1
0.2
354
3.6
-1.1
0.5
Russias foreign reserves have declined markedly as the Brazil
Korea
353
2.4
1.6
1.5
Central Bank of Russia has attempted to stem the sharp
India
316
0.3
0.6
2.2
fall in the ruble in the face of large capital outflows.
Russia
302
1.3
-2.2
-10.7
Singapore
249
1.7
1.1
-1.3
Switzerlands low level of dollar reserve growth in
2014 does not reflect that reserves increased
significantly in euro terms in December and grew further in the first quarter of 2015.
The reduced pace of reserve accumulation is a welcome development. Small amounts of foreign
reserves may be needed for day-to-day transactions, while some economies may want to hold a
stock of reserves to intervene if necessary to contain a disorderly depreciation. However,
excessive reserves have both a domestic cost as well as global costs in that they distort the
international monetary system and are often symptomatic of intervention to prevent adjustment
needed to avoid large global imbalances.
U.S. Current Account as Percent of GDP

U.S. International Accounts


0

Current Account

The U.S. current account deficit remained stable in


2014 at 2.4 percent of GDP, the same ratio as the
previous year. This marks a 3.4 percentage point of
GDP narrowing of the current account deficit since
reaching a peak of 5.8 percent in 2006. The deficit
in the trade of goods increased during 2014, but this
was offset by an increase in the trade of services
surplus and an increase in receipts of income on U.S.

Non-Oil

Oil

-1
-2

-3
-4

-5
-6
-7
2005 2006 2007 2008 2009 2010 2011 2012 2013 2014

investments abroad. Much of the reduction in the current account deficit in recent years has been
due to a decrease in the oil trade deficit, driven by increased domestic oil production and, in the
second half of 2014, lower oil prices. Since reaching a peak of 3 percent of GDP in 2008, the oil
deficit fell to 0.9 percent of GDP in the final quarter of 2014.
At the end of the third quarter of 2014, the U.S. net international investment position was $-6.2
trillion or -35 percent of GDP, a decline of nearly 3.4 percentage points of GDP from the second
quarter of 2014. The value of U.S.-owned foreign assets was $24.6 trillion, while the value of
foreign-owned U.S. assets was $30.7 trillion. The fall in the net international investment
position was driven in part by valuation effects that lowered the value in dollar terms of U.S.
assets held abroad, and the continued accumulation of foreign-owned U.S. assets.

10

The Dollar in Foreign Exchange Markets


In the second half of 2014, the dollar appreciated steadily against both major and emerging
market currencies. On a broad, trade-weighted basis, the dollar appreciated 13.6 percent between
end June 2014 and end-March 2015. Among advanced economies, appreciation has been the
largest against the euro 25 percent between end-June and end-March. But it has also
appreciated notably against the pound sterling, Canadian dollar, Japanese yen, and many
emerging market currencies.
On a real (inflation-adjusted) effective basis, which reflects real purchasing power abroad, the
U.S. dollar appreciated 11.4 percent between end-June 2014 and end-March 2015. The broad
trade weighted dollar remains well below its peak in the early 2000s.

Analyses of Individual Economies


Asia
China
After a slight rebound in mid-2014, Chinas economy slowed moderately in the fourth quarter.
Annual GDP growth softened to 7.4 percent in 2014, the lowest rate since 1990. Data from the
first two months of 2015 indicate a continued slowdown. At the National Peoples Congress in
March 2015, the Chinese leadership announced a GDP growth target of 7 percent for 2015, down
from 7.5 percent in 2014. Looking ahead, China should avoid a return to dependence on external
demand to fuel growth, while consumption should replace investment as the key driver of
domestic demand.
Progress toward internal rebalancing has been slow to materialize. Investment in China remains
very high at nearly 50 percent of GDP, while private consumption has increased only
incrementally in recent years and stands at about 35 percent of GDP. The property market
slowdown, which accelerated in mid-2014, poses a risk to growth as it will reduce investment in
the housing sector, with attendant linkages to household consumption and the financial sector. In

11

the short term, China has the policy tools to support growth, but should focus on those that assist
in rebalancing, such as increasing social spending and consumption. Over the medium term, the
Chinese leadership has committed to take steps toward interest rate liberalization, factor price
reform, and improving market access for private and foreign firms, all of which would contribute
to unwinding Chinas large internal imbalances.
Since the global financial crisis, Chinas
current account surplus fell significantly,
from 10 percent of GDP in 2007 ($353
billion) to approximately 1.5 percent of GDP
($148 billion) in 2013. However, Chinas
current account surplus increased to 2.1
percent of GDP ($220 billion) in 2014,
highlighting the challenges associated with
sustaining progress on external rebalancing
in the face of a weaker domestic outlook.
Chinas goods trade surplus, based on nonseasonally-adjusted balance of payments
data, was $476 billion in 2014, up more than
$100 billion from the previous year. The goods trade surplus surged in the second half of 2014
and early-2015, with five of the last eight months through February 2015 setting new records.
These surpluses were driven by continued export growth and significant import weakness, both
in volume and value. A large increase in the services deficit limited the increase in Chinas
overall surplus.2 The U.S.-China bilateral merchandise trade deficit was $343 billion in 2014,
up from $319 billion in 2013.
Over the medium term, Chinas currency
needs to appreciate further to bring about
the necessary internal rebalancing towards
household consumption. In this regard,
Chinas bilateral and multilateral
commitments including in the context of
the 2014 Strategic and Economic Dialogue
(S&ED) in Beijing to reduce foreign
exchange intervention as conditions
permit, and allow the market to play a
greater role in determining the exchange
rate, remain critical. The real test of this
commitment will be whether China refrains from intervening even when there is appreciation
pressure on the RMB.
At the November 2014 G-20 summit in Brisbane, Australia, President Xi announced that China
will subscribe to the IMFs Special Data Dissemination Standard (SDDS) for reporting foreign
2

Rising tourism explains a part of the increase in the service deficit, but the bulk of the recent increase stems from a
higher deficit in other business services.

12

exchange reserves as well as other economic data. As explained in the October 2014 Report, the
SDDS commitment is a much-needed step toward increasing the transparency of Chinas foreign
exchange reserves. More generally, to promote exchange rate and financial market transparency
China should disclose foreign exchange market intervention regularly and contribute to the
IMFs aggregate Currency Composition of Foreign Exchange Reserves (COFER) database.3
Over 2014, the RMB depreciated by 2.4 percent against the dollar. Year-to-date, the RMB is flat,
after depreciating through February but sharply appreciating in mid-March. On a trade-weighted
basis and adjusted for relative inflation, Chinas real effective exchange rate appreciated by more
than 10 percent in the past six months, the fastest pace since 2009.
China does not publish its foreign
exchange intervention, in contrast to
other economies with major
international currencies. However, it
is possible to construct estimates of
foreign exchange market intervention
using data that China does publish.
On balance, foreign exchange
intervention proxies4 indicate that
after large-scale foreign exchange
purchases in the first quarter of 2014,
the Peoples Bank of China (PBOC)
reduced foreign exchange intervention
through November 2014. Such
proxies indicate that the PBOC
gradually shifted to foreign exchange sales toward the end of the year to support the RMB, amid
capital outflows and a slowing domestic economy. They also show modest foreign exchange
purchases in January, followed by roughly the same amount of sales in February.5
There were several short-term factors that put pressure on the RMB against the dollar in recent
months. First, the PBOC cut the benchmark lending rate in November 2014 and February 2015
amid concerns about weak domestic demand, especially as investment began to slow.6 Second,
non-FDI net capital outflows nearly doubled in Q4 to $102 billion from $54 billion in Q3. Third,
3

See Box 1 in the October 2014 Report.


Analysts look closely at several estimates from publicly available data, including: net foreign exchange assets of
the PBOC, which excludes valuation changes (i.e. booked at historical cost); valuation-adjusted estimates of the net
foreign exchange assets of PBOC; and the foreign exchange position of Chinese financial institutions (banks and the
PBOC). The foreign exchange position of Chinese financial institutions includes the foreign exchange assets of both
the central bank and commercial banks, and is considered the most reliable indicator of foreign exchange activity in
China. All three estimates are included in the chart on monthly foreign exchange intervention proxies.
5
Foreign exchange reserves increased modestly in 2014 by 0.6 percent, and stand at almost $4 trillion, equivalent to
over 40 percent of Chinas GDP, or about $2940 per person, well beyond established benchmarks of reserve
adequacy.
6
Following the November interest rate cut, the RMB depreciated against the dollar and shifted from the strong side
of the RMB reference rate to the weak side.
4

13

there were anecdotal reports of unwinding of carry trades based on one-way RMB appreciation
expectations and corporate hedging of foreign exchange liabilities.
Notwithstanding 10 percent real effective appreciation over the past six months, fundamental
factors point to the need for further RMB appreciation over the medium-term. In recent months,
China has benefited from a sizeable terms of trade gain from lower oil prices, with its monthly
goods surplus repeatedly reaching new nominal highs. The current account surplus exceeded
$200 billion in 2014 (2.1 percent of GDP), up $60 billion from the year before, and is expected
to remain on a rising trajectory in the year ahead. Furthermore, Chinas net foreign direct
investment (FDI) inflows continue to reach annual sums of $160 to $200 billion. Chinas
nominal basic balance (current account surplus plus net foreign direct inflows), a measure of
stable net balance of payments inflows, also grew in 2014, reaching approximately 4 percent of
GDP, and is expected to increase further in 2015. China continues to see relatively higher
productivity growth than its major trading partners, which suggests that continuing appreciation
is necessary over time to prevent the exchange rate from becoming more undervalued. While
China has made real progress, with its real effective exchange rate appreciating meaningfully
over the past six months, these factors indicate an RMB exchange rate that remains significantly
undervalued. A stronger RMB is needed to avoid widening imbalances, as well as support the
shift away from investment-led and capital-intensive industries and support greater consumption
by increasing household purchasing power and shifting production to domestically-oriented
goods and services.
Japan
Since taking office in December 2012, Prime Minister Shinzo Abe has led a policy shift to end
decades of deflation and restore growth in Japan through his three arrows economic program.
The first two arrows of monetary and fiscal stimulus were actively deployed at the launch of the
program, with the promise of a third arrow of structural reforms to follow. Aggressive monetary
policy and initially supportive fiscal policy contributed to a modest recovery from a slump in
late-2012. However, growth fell sharply in the second quarter of 2014 after Japan increased the
consumption tax from 5 to 8 percent. The fall in private spending after the tax hike was more
persistent than the government expected. Domestic demand in the fourth quarter of 2014 was
about 1.5 percent below its level in the fourth quarter of 2013.
Doubts remain about the durability of Japans recovery and the strength of domestic demand.
Headline inflation, inclusive of the consumption tax hike, has so far more than offset modest
increases in nominal wages, and absent new government actions to boost demand fiscal
policy will once again be significantly contractionary this year as past stimulus measures roll off.
Going forward, the government needs to pursue a balanced macroeconomic policy approach to
avoid excessive reliance on exports and support a recovery driven by domestic demand while
redoubling efforts to promote meaningful structural reforms necessary to raise long-term growth
in Japan.
In order to escape long-standing deflation, the Bank of Japan (BOJ), under Governor Haruhiko
Kuroda, has undertaken significant monetary stimulus. Beginning in April 2013, Kuroda
committed the BOJ to achieving a 2 percent inflation target within a two-year time frame after
unveiling a program of quantitative and qualitative easing (QQE) aimed at doubling the

14

monetary base. Core inflation rose to a high of 1.5 percent (excluding the impact of the
consumption tax hike) one year after the programs launch. But core inflation began to falter
over the latter half of 2014 after the consumption tax hike, prompting the BOJ in late-October to
further expand its program of asset purchases and raise the annual growth target of the monetary
base from 60-70 trillion to 80 trillion.7
Barring further stimulus, fiscal policy will continue to be contractionary in 2015 even with Prime
Minister Abes decision to delay a second scheduled increase in the consumption tax from
October 2015 to October 2017. The Cabinet Office projects the primary deficit of the general
government will fall from 5.2 percent of GDP in fiscal year 2014 to 3.3 percent in fiscal year
2015.8 With net public debt of 140 percent of GDP and gross public debt of 250 percent of
GDP, Japans government needs a credible strategy to control its debt in the medium- to longterm, but a premature emphasis on rapid fiscal consolidation could compromise Japans recovery
and with it the broader reform program. With zero growth in real GDP in 2014, the
contractionary effects of fiscal consolidation before recovery has durably taken hold are
concerning.
Japan maintains a floating exchange rate regime and has not intervened in foreign exchange
markets in over three years. In the G-7 statement of February 2013, Japan joined the other G-7
countries in pledging to base economic policies on domestic objectives using domestic
instruments, and to avoid targeting exchange rates. Japan was also part of the subsequent G-20
consensus and statement at the February 2013 Finance Ministers and Central Bank Governors
meeting in Moscow that countries would not target exchange rates for competitive purposes.
These statements were affirmed by G-20 Leaders in September 2013 at the St. Petersburg
Summit. Since the G-7 and G-20 statements, Japanese official have ruled out purchases of
foreign assets as a monetary policy tool.
The yen depreciated substantially from
late-2012 through 2013 against the U.S.
dollar and on a real trade-weighted basis in
anticipation of monetary easing and the
BOJs subsequent adoption of QQE. After
a brief period of appreciation in early2014, yen depreciation resumed in August
2014 on the back of divergent economic
prospects and policies in the United States
and Japan. Following the BOJs decision
to accelerate its program of asset purchases
at the end of October 2014, the yen entered
another period of sharp depreciation,
falling from 108 against the dollar in

7
8

The measure of core inflation on which the BOJ bases its policy targets excludes fresh food but includes energy.
The Japanese government follows a fiscal year that runs from April through March.

15

October to 119 in December. The yen has since settled around 120, bringing the nominal
exchange rate of the yen against the dollar to levels last observed in 2007 before the Global
Financial Crisis.
In its last Article IV Consultation Report for Japan from July 2014, when the yen was at 102,
the IMF assessed the yens real effective exchange rate to be broadly consistent with the
economys medium-term fundamentals, while noting the very large uncertainty about its
assessment given the major changes to Japans economic policies and lags between exchange
rate moves and the variables that influence the IMFs assessment. Since then, Japans trade
weighted real exchange rate has depreciated 9 percent.
Japans nominal goods trade balance moved
into deficit in 2011 for the first time since
1980 as exports slowed following production
disruptions stemming from the tsunami and
imports increased due to higher commodity
prices and rising demand for imported fuel
and reconstruction materials. After reaching
roughly 3 percent of GDP in early 2014, the
trade deficit has since narrowed as exports
responded to yen depreciation over the course
of the second half of the year and Japans
import values have shrunk on the back of the
fall in commodity prices.
After recording a deficit in the first half of the year, the current account balance increased in the
second half of 2014 on growth in overseas income and a recovery in net exports, showing a
surplus of 0.5 percent of GDP for the year as a whole. Japans bilateral trade surplus with the
United States totaled $67.0 billion in 2014, down slightly from $73.4 billion in 2013. The IMF
projects that Japans current account surplus will increase in 2015 as exports continue to rise and
import values continue to respond to the fall in commodity prices.
As Japan takes policy steps to bring about a durable recovery and escape deflation, the
authorities need to pursue a balanced macroeconomic policy that bolsters growth of domestic
demand. Establishing durable domestic demand growth will depend on rises in real wages and
growth in business and residential investment, as well as supportive fiscal policy in the near
term. Over-reliance on monetary policy and an excessive tightening of fiscal policy will put
Japans recovery and escape from deflation at risk, and could generate negative spillovers. As
such, Japans medium-term deficit reduction targets should be sufficiently flexible to respond to
weakness in domestic demand growth.
Ambitious structural reforms to increase Japans growth potential should include measures to
raise household income through greater labor force participation, including reducing the tax
penalties that limit spousal earnings. They also would include measures to facilitate new
domestic opportunities for activity and investment, by opening up domestic sectors particularly
services to new products and new competition through deregulation, as well as measures to

16

encourage more effective use of land, especially land now classified as agricultural. Since
unveiling its revised growth strategy in June 2014, the Abe administration has taken important
steps, such as an overhaul of corporate governance and agricultural collectives, but the
governments ability to deliver ambitious reforms to other politically sensitive areas remains in
question. Agreement on the Trans-Pacific Partnership (TPP) would be an important step to lead
to internal reforms such as deregulation in areas including agriculture and medical services that
could support growth.
South Korea
Korean annual economic growth has slowed to around 3 percent after averaging close to 5
percent in the initial post-crisis period (2009-2011). Deceleration in investment, which makes up
30 percent of GDP, has been particularly pronounced. Koreas elevated household debt
currently above 150 percent of gross disposable income and a conservative fiscal stance have
weighed on consumer spending and domestic demand.
President Geun-hye Park announced in February 2014 a sweeping economic reform agenda that
targets a potential growth rate of 4 percent, an employment rate of 70 percent of the population,
and per capita income of $40,000 (compared with approximately $24,000 at present). This plan
seeks to reduce Koreas dependence on exports and largely targets the services sector, where
productivity growth has lagged the export sector.
Following President Parks cabinet re-shuffle in June 2014, and in response to economic
headwinds, the government announced a fiscal stimulus package of 11.7 trillion won ($11
billion), as well as targeted incentives to boost household income, investment, and the growth of
the services sector. This fiscal stimulus, combined with two 25 basis point rate cuts by the Bank
of Korea in August and October, helped boost domestic demand in the second half of 2014.
Growth picked up markedly during the third quarter of 2014, but stalled in the fourth quarter as
public sector construction slowed and private consumption softened. For 2014 as a whole,
domestic demand contributed 2.2 percentage points and net exports 1.1 percentage points to
overall GDP growth of 3.3 percent. The government also announced, in September 2014, that it
will further increase 2015 budget expenditures by 5.7 percent (year-on-year) to support domestic
demand. The fiscal deficit is projected to widen from 1.7 percent of GDP in 2014 to 2.1 percent
in 2015. On March 12, 2015, the Bank of Korea announced a further 25 basis point reduction in
the policy rate.
South Korea officially maintains a marketdetermined exchange rate, and its
authorities intervene with the stated
objective of smoothing won volatility. In
February 2013, Korea joined the rest of the
G-20 in committing to refrain from
competitive devaluation and to not target its
exchange rate for competitive purposes.
The Korean authorities have intervened on
both sides of the market, but the sustained
rise in their reserves and net forward

17

position indicates that they have intervened on net to resist won appreciation. Unlike many other
major emerging markets and industrialized economies, Korea does not publicly report foreign
exchange market intervention. However, market participants derive estimated intervention from
Koreas balance of payments data and changes in Koreas published foreign exchange reserves
and forward positions.
Valuation-adjusted estimates of foreign exchange purchases indicate substantial net purchases of
foreign exchange to limit won appreciation since May 2014.9 The summer of 2014 saw heavy
intervention, followed by a relative lull from August through November. Intervention appears to
have accelerated in December and January, a time of appreciation pressure on the won.
Market participants believe that Korea typically intervenes when there is pressure in the market
for the won to appreciate. In the second quarter of 2014, the won appreciated to close to 1000 to
the dollar; it is widely believed that, in response, Korea intervened to prevent appreciation
through 1000. In the first quarter of 2015, the won has not strengthened through 1075 against
the dollar.
Korean official comments on November 7,
2014 noting the intention to manage the
won against the Japanese yen helped drive
the won weaker, and since late November
the won has traded in a tight 9.1 to 9.4
band against the yen. The Ministry of
Strategy and Finance later issued a press
release clarifying that Korea intended to
strengthen monitoring efforts in
response to exchange rate movements of
major currencies. Since June 2014
through February 2015, the won
depreciated 9 percent against the dollar
and was unchanged in real effective terms.
The real exchange rate remains well below
its pre-global financial crisis level.
Koreas intervention has taken place in the
context of a large current account surplus.
Koreas bilateral trade surplus in goods
with the United States totaled $14 billion in
the second half of 2014, larger than the $9.6
billion surplus from the same period the
year before.

Korean intervention can manifest itself either as a rise in headline reserves or as a rise in the central banks forward
position. (A long forward position indicates a future inflow of foreign exchange reserves, and consists of the long
position in forwards and futures in foreign currencies, including the forward leg of currency swaps.)

18

In July 2014, the IMFs External Sector Report assessed that the Korean won remains
undervalued. Going forward, though planned fiscal stimulus and broader economic rebalancing
efforts should continue to help support domestic demand, the authorities need to refrain from
intervening in the foreign exchange market and allow the exchange rate to adjust, especially
given expected benefits from a terms of trade improvement due to the decline in oil prices.
Given Koreas sizeable current account surplus, substantial reserves, and undervalued currency,
we have made clear that Korea should reduce foreign exchange intervention, limiting it only
to the exceptional circumstance of disorderly market conditions, and allow the won to
appreciate further. Appreciation would help with rebalancing and encourage reallocation of
production resources to the non-tradables sector. Importantly, the Korean authorities should
increase transparency of foreign exchange operations, and ensure that macroprudential
measures, to the extent needed, focus on reducing financial sector risks in design, timing, and
description rather than alleviating upward pressure on the exchange rate.
Taiwan
Net exports and moderately stronger
domestic consumption supported GDP
growth in Taiwan of 3.7 percent in 2014, up
from 2.2 percent in 2013. Consumer prices
rose by 1.4 percent in 2014, although lower
global oil prices led to moderate deflation in
the first two months of 2015. Taiwan faces
low real wage growth while investments
share of economic activity has remained
stagnant despite low borrowing rates.
While the fiscal deficit of the central
authorities is a modest 1.3 percent of GDP,
fiscal expansion is constrained as Taiwans
public debt approaches a legislatively
mandated limit of 40.6 percent of GDP on
central borrowing. This underscores the
need for implementation of growthenhancing structural reforms, as well as
moving towards a more fully marketdetermined exchange rate, to support more
balanced growth.
Taiwan has a large and rising current
account surplus, which reached 12.4 percent
of GDP in 2014, up from 10.7 percent in
2013. Taiwans goods and services trade
surplus totaled $52.7 billion in 2014, up 20
percent from 2013, and the income surplus
increased to $15.5 billion, up from $14.2
billion a year earlier. Alongside the growing current account surplus, domestic demand also
improved moderately in 2014, particularly in the third quarter of 2014, due to strong investment.

19

Taiwan maintains a managed floating exchange rate regime, and the central bank states that the
New Taiwan Dollar (NTD) exchange rate is determined by the market, except when the market
is disrupted by seasonal or irregular factors. The NTD depreciated 5.7 percent against the dollar
in 2014, with most of the depreciation occurring in the fourth quarter, and appreciated 1.2
percent in the first three months of 2015. The real effective exchange rate as calculated by the
Bank for International Settlements (BIS) appreciated 0.1 percent in 2014. Taiwans foreign
exchange reserves grew by $2.2 billion to $419 billion in 2014, and stood at $415 billion as of
end-March 2015. Taiwans foreign exchange reserves are well in excess of adequate levels by
any metric. They are equivalent to 79 percent of GDP, 19 months of imports, and 2.6 times the
economys short-term external debt.
Despite its large current account surplus, Taiwans foreign reserve accumulation has been
limited by significant capital outflows, in large part prompted by policy changes. Since a change
in leadership in mid-2013, Taiwans Financial Supervisory Commission has been actively
encouraging overseas expansion of Taiwans banking and insurance sectors. In early 2015,
Taiwans legislature approved amendments making it easier for banks and insurance companies
to invest in and acquire assets abroad. Taiwan residents (including banks and insurance
companies) increased their overseas assets by $84 billion in 2014, compared to an overall
financial account deficit of $53 billion.
Although not a member of the IMF, Taiwan uses the IMFs Special Data Dissemination Standard
(SDDS) framework to provide data on many aspects of its economy, including the real, fiscal,
financial, and many external sector accounts. However, Taiwan does not publish data on
international reserves that conform to the SDDS reserves template. Now that mainland China has
announced it will subscribe to the SDDS, Taiwan will soon be the only major emerging market
economy in Asia not to report reserves data based on the SDDS template.
Taiwan also does not disclose its foreign
exchange market intervention. Looking at
publicly available statistics, Taiwan appears to
intervene on both sides of the market but, on net,
much more to resist appreciation. Intervention
appears to be in excess of what would be expected
if the central bank were adhering to its mandate of
only intervening when the market is disrupted by
seasonal or irregular factors, although the
authorities appear to be intervening less since the
post-crisis period. The change in foreign assets
on the central banks reporting of Factors
Responsible for Changes in Reserve Money
(which excludes valuation changes resulting from
foreign exchange fluctuations) was positive throughout 2014 apart from December, signaling the
purchase of foreign exchange to weaken the NTD. Analysts have estimated that average
monthly intervention in 2014 was approximately $1 billion.

20

The IMF does not release an assessment of the valuation of Taiwans currency. However, the
Peterson Institute for International Economics (PIIE) estimated in November, 2014 that Taiwans
real effective exchange rate would need to appreciate by 14 percent to reach its fundamental
equilibrium level10.
Policies to stimulate consumption and investment, including moving towards a more fully
market-determined exchange rate, further liberalizing the services sector, and removing trade and
investment barriers, would help rebalance the Taiwanese economy. Given Taiwans sizeable
current account surplus, substantial reserves, and undervalued currency, the authorities should
move towards a more fully market-determined exchange rate, limit foreign exchange
interventions to the exceptional circumstances of disorderly market conditions, and allow the
NTD to appreciate, as well as increase the transparency of reserve holdings and foreign exchange
market intervention.
Europe
Euro Area
The euro, which is a freely floating currency, depreciated sharply against the dollar in the second
half of 2014, by 13.2 percent, and it continued its rapid pace of depreciation in the first quarter of
2015, falling another 10 percent to its lowest level against the dollar in 11 years. On a real tradeweighted basis the euro has depreciated by a smaller amount because many other currencies also
have declined against the dollar. Real depreciation totaled 3 percent in the second half of 2014,
and by a further 6.8 percent in 2015 through February. Cyclically divergent economic prospects
and the euro areas reliance primarily on monetary policy to stimulate growth are major factors
in the euros sizable depreciation.
The euro areas recovery has lagged substantially that of other developed countries, in part
because euro area policymakers have not used all available policy tools to support demand
growth. There are some tentative signs of economic improvement in recent months influenced
by lower oil prices and support from the European Central Banks (ECB) policies. But the
durability of any gains remains in question. Euro area GDP grew by 0.3 percent quarter-onquarter in the fourth quarter of 2014, up from 0.2 percent in the third quarter. In year-on-year
terms, output expanded by 0.9 percent in the fourth quarter, up from 0.8 percent in the third
quarter. Credit conditions have modestly improved, with household and corporate borrowing
rates falling slightly and the decline in private sector credit growth easing.
The fourth quarter expenditure breakdown revealed that growth depended importantly on
external demand, though private consumption did pick up. Net exports of goods and services
contributed 0.2 percentage points, year-on-year, to growth, the same level as in the third quarter.
Within domestic demand, private consumption contributed (0.8 percentage points year-on-year),
supported by lower oil prices and a modest improvement in labor market conditions. Investment
10

The PIIEs semiannual fundamental equilibrium exchange rate (FEER) calculations examine the extent to which
exchange rates need to change in order to curb any prospectively excessive current account imbalances back to
limits of 3 percent of GDP.

21

growth, on the other hand, continued to be a net drag on the economy (-0.3 percentage points
year-on-year), slightly worse than in the third quarter (-0.2 percentage points year-on-year).
Even with a moderate pickup in private consumption, euro area growth remains unbalanced and
considerable headwinds to recovery remain. Domestic demand is still nearly 5 percent below its
pre-crisis peak, and unemployment remains high at 11.2 percent. While the pace of fiscal
consolidation has slowed, the regions fiscal stance remains only neutral, and bank deleveraging,
low real wage growth, and weak investment continue to weigh on economic activity. Inflation
continued to fall in the second half of 2014, and by December was in negative territory (-0.2
percent), with negative year-on-year changes in the consumer price index continuing through
March. Although the fall in commodity prices has been a large factor in the decline of headline
inflation, core inflation has declined as well, which is reflective of the weak demand
environment.
The ECB has taken significant steps to support growth and combat the disinflationary pressures.
In January 2015 it announced a large quantitative easing program (the Public Sector Purchasing
Program or PSPP). However, reliance on a single lever of policy raises concerns, especially as
lower oil prices and a much weaker currency will feed increased net exports on top of an already
large external surplus of over $300 billion (2.3 percent of GDP). The lower price of oil alone
could boost the euro areas current account surplus by over $100 billion (see Annex 1). In this
respect, and especially given its status as a surplus region, the euro area should not be absorbing
even more demand from the rest of the world. Accordingly, euro area economies need to take
stronger actions, using a balanced set of tools (including fiscal and structural), to provide support
to domestic demand. Such a policy mix would help ensure a balanced composition of GDP
growth, and would avoid the risk that growth becomes excessively reliant on the external sector.
It remains vital that the euro area contribute to global demand by taking all necessary steps to
build its own domestic demand momentum.
More balanced growth would also support the internal rebalancing that is still needed between
the core and periphery countries. Current account deficits in Italy, Spain, and the smaller
economies in the periphery have turned into small surpluses. However, there has not been a
corresponding reduction in the surplus of the euro areas large surplus countries. The
Netherlands and Germany have continued to run very large current account surpluses since 2011,
with Germanys surplus growing to an unprecedented 7.8 percent of GDP in 2014 ($300 billion),
with low oil prices pushing this higher.
Key to the adjustment process is achieving stronger domestic demand growth. Reducing
stubbornly high unemployment will not be possible otherwise, and achieving sustainable public
finance will be more difficult as well in the absence of more robust growth. Stronger demand
growth in Germany is absolutely essential, as it has been persistently weak. Germanys
relatively low unemployment and recovery to pre-crisis output has relied heavily on increased
exports outside the euro area. Domestic demand in Germany was only 1.3 percent stronger in
2014 than in 2013, while overall euro area domestic demand was only 0.8 percent stronger.
Investment growth has been particularly weak. There are some signs that demand in Germany
may be picking up, but much will depend on the evolution of wage growth, household
consumption, and investment over the next several quarters.

22

A key priority for the euro area moving forward is to build on the modest pickup in economic
momentum and accelerate the recovery. While the PSPP program is an important part of the
policy mix to increase inflation and output, a balanced approach that includes more determined
deployment of fiscal resources where space exists, continued flexibility toward fiscal targets, and
demand-enhancing structural reforms will be important as well. And, if inflation remains very
low and growth prospects weak, additional policy support for demand will be needed. Finally,
deepening euro area financial, economic, and fiscal integration more centralized risk sharing,
greater resource pooling, enhanced cost sharing would support the ongoing adjustment and
make the euro area more resilient to future shocks.
Switzerland
On January 15, 2015, the Swiss National Bank (SNB) abandoned its minimum exchange rate
(floor) of 1.20 Swiss franc per euro and returned to a managed float exchange rate regime.
The floor had been in effect since September 2011, following significant franc appreciation
against the euro. The SNB cited the divergence in advanced economy monetary policies which
it expects to persist and the impact on foreign exchange markets as the reason behind
eliminating the floor. The floor was an important factor in reducing the degree of deflation
during a period of severe stress, but was always meant to be temporary.
The removal of the floor led to an 18 percent appreciation of franc against the euro in the first
week, but the franc has subsequently depreciated about 7 percent and has remained relatively
stable since. After the removal of the floor, the franc initially appreciated 16 percent against the
dollar, but has subsequently retraced much of this appreciation and is now at roughly the same
level as prior to the removal of the floor. More broadly, the real effective exchange rate
depreciated 0.7 percent in second half of 2014, but since the removal of the floor has appreciated
by 9.3 percent (through February).
Consumer prices had been roughly flat over the last two years, but since November 2014 turned
down, driven by a sharp decrease in prices of imported goods. At end-February 2015, consumer
prices had decreased 0.8 percent on a year-on-year basis, while core prices are flat on year-onyear basis. The SNB expects consumer price deflation of 1.1 percent and 0.5 percent,
respectively, in 2015 and 2016, and inflation of 0.4 percent in 2017. The decrease in prices of
imported goods has been driven by the decline in global commodity prices as well as the recent
appreciation of the franc. To achieve its inflation objectives subsequent to the removal of the
exchange rate floor, the SNB lowered its target Libor rate to between -1.25 percent and -0.25
percent and the interest rate on sight deposits (beyond an exemption threshold) to -0.75 percent
The SNB also stated that if necessary [it will] remain active in the foreign exchange market
to influence monetary conditions.11
In December 2014 and early January 2015, prior to removal of the floor, the SNB purchased
foreign assets12 to defend the floor, resulting in an increase in SNBs foreign currency reserves

12

SNB intervention has been against the euro.

23

from $480 billion in November to $537 billion (77 percent of GDP) in January. During the
second half of 2014, reserves declined $6.6 billion in U.S. dollar terms due to valuation effects
(the euro denominated portion of reserves fell in U.S. dollar terms due to euro depreciation).
The Swiss real economy grew 2 percent in 2014, up slightly from 1.9 percent in 2013. Both
domestic demand and real net exports contributed positively to growth. The SNB forecasts 2015
economic growth at just under 1 percent, largely due to the contractionary impact of the
appreciated franc. This impact is expected during the first half of 2015 and the SNB also
anticipates a rise in the unemployment rate from 3.2 percent in February. Given the slack in the
economy, ongoing deflation, the limits on monetary policy, and a healthy fiscal position, Swiss
authorities should take full advantage of any room allowed under their fiscal rules.
The current account surplus declined from 10.7 percent of GDP in 2013 to 7.0 percent in 2014,
largely due to a decrease in net investment income. While the overall current account balance
narrowed, the goods and services trade surplus remained at its 2013 level of 10.9 percent of GDP
in 2014. The U.S. trade deficit with Switzerland increased during the second half of 2014
compared to the first half (from $1.8 billion to $2.4 billion) and also compared to the second half
of 2013.
United Kingdom
The UK economy grew by 2.8 percent in 2014, taking total output above its pre-crisis peak after
six years, and is expected to expand by 2.7 percent in 2015. Household consumption and
investment made strong positive contributions to growth, while the growing trade deficit acted as
a modest drag. Consumption and investment were both buoyed by a rebound in business and
consumer confidence, as well as recovering credit conditions, which helped to unlock private
demand that had been pent-up in the wake of the global financial crisis.
The unemployment rate stood at 5.7 percent in January, down from 7.2 percent at the end of
2013. Real wage and productivity growth remained subdued, however, and the outlook for these
two key indicators is uncertain. Headline inflation fell to 0.0 percent in February, while
underlying inflation (which strips out food and energy prices) stood at 1.2 percent. The low
inflation trend has limited upward pressures on wages, suggesting that there may still be some
slack in the economy. Finally, the high level of uncertainty surrounding the outcome of the
general election on May 7, 2015, the potential for difficult coalition talks, and subsequently the
design and implementation of economic policy is broadly perceived as a material downside risk
for businesses and investors.
The fiscal deficit continues to narrow. The UK Office of Budget Responsibility (OBR) reported
in December that net public sector borrowing had fallen to 5.0 percent of GDP in fiscal year
(FY) 2014-15, down from a post-crisis peak of 10.2 percent in FY 2009.13 According to OBR
projections, the deficit is expected to fall further over the next several years before reaching a
surplus in 2018. The OBR also estimates that the net stock of public debt peaked at 80.4 percent
of GDP in FY 2014-15, and will gradually fall to 71.6 percent by FY 2019-20.
13

The UK fiscal year runs from April to March.

24

UK monetary policy remains accommodative. The Bank of England (BOE) has maintained its
policy rate at 0.5 percent since 2009 and its quantitative easing program at 375 billion since
2011. BOE officials had suggested last year that they might raise interest rates, though the recent
downtrend in prices has pushed back expectations for policy normalization. Market-implied
measures and analysts forecasts now indicate that the first BOE rate hike will likely not take
place until late 2015 or early 2016.
The UK has a freely floating exchange rate. The pound depreciated by 11.5 percent against the
U.S. dollar on a nominal basis between end-June 2014 and end-March 2015. However, on a real
effective basis, it appreciated by 3.7 percent in 2014, and by an additional 3.0 percentage points
in the first two months of this year. Further, the pound appreciated by around 10 percent on a
nominal trade-weighted basis last year, which constitutes a downside risk to inflation outlook.
The reasons behind the appreciation of the pound include stronger growth prospects and market
expectations of upcoming monetary policy normalization.
The current account deficit widened to 5.6 percent of GDP during the fourth quarter of 2014
from 4.5 percent at the end of 2013. The 2014 deficit is the largest deficit since 1989, reflecting
a widening of the income deficit. The goods and services trade deficit remained more modest at
1.8 percent of GDP in 2014, down slightly from 2.0 percent of GDP in 2013. The increase in the
income deficit was driven by a reduction in income from FDI abroad as well as an increase in
income paid abroad on portfolio and direct investment liabilities. Recent weakness in euro area
growth and depreciation of the euro could further widen the UK current account deficit.
Western Hemisphere
Brazil
Brazils economy has slowed markedly, and real GDP growth was 0.2 percent year-on-year in
2014. The Brazilian Central Banks (BCB) March, 2015 survey of private economists
anticipates recession in 2015, with the economy forecast to contract by 0.7 percent this year.
Inflation for 2014 finished the year at 6.4 percent, close to the upper bound of the BCBs target
band of 4.5 percent 2 percent, and the market consensus in the BCBs March survey was for
inflation to increase to 7.9 percent for 2015. The BCB has responded to inflationary pressures by
hiking interest rates to 12.75 percent as of March 2015 a 550 basis point increase since it began
tightening in April 2013 and has reiterated that it will take further action as needed to bring
inflation down to target by the end of 2016.
Brazil maintains a floating exchange rate regime, although the authorities have taken measures in
recent years to manage the volatility of Brazils currency, the real. In August 2013, in response
to sharp depreciation, the BCB announced a formal intervention program, with a stated objective
of providing hedging and liquidity to the foreign exchange market. Since that time, the BCB has
renewed the program three times, while gradually reducing the size.
The BCB announced that it will allow the swaps program to expire at the end of March 2015, but
will roll over current swaps that expire on May 1. As of mid-March, due to the swaps program,
the BCB had an accumulated net short U.S. dollar position in the foreign exchange futures

25

market of $114 billion. The BCB also had an approximately $10 billion in outstanding U.S.
dollar repurchase contracts, and indicated that it would continue to offer spot sales through
repurchase contracts on a discretionary basis as needed to provide liquidity. Brazils headline
foreign exchange reserves totaled $354 billion as of end-February 2015, equivalent to 13 months
of import cover, and 635 percent of short term debt.
The real has again moved weaker since mid-2014, with depreciation accelerating sharply in the
first quarter of 2015. Since June 2014, the real has depreciated 31.4 percent against the dollar
through mid-March and 9.9 percent in inflation adjusted, trade weighted terms through February
(latest data). However, the most recent estimates of real valuation have found that the real
remained overvalued in 2014, so subsequent depreciation may be moving its value more in line
with fundamentals14.
Brazils current account deficit has steadily widened from near balance in 2007 to an estimated
deficit of about 4 percent of GDP in 2014. A weakening of Brazils terms of trade (reflecting
commodity price declines), a widening fiscal deficit, and relatively weak exports of
manufactured goods have all contributed to the persistence of the current account deficit. Net
foreign direct investment (FDI) has financed about three fourths of the current account deficit in
recent years.
Canada
Canada maintains a flexible exchange rate and employs an inflation-targeting monetary policy
regime. Headline inflation increased modestly over the course of 2014, reaching 2.4 percent
year-over year in October, but fell along with oil prices to 1 percent year-over-year in early 2015,
at the bottom of the Bank of Canadas target band of 2 percent 1 percent. The Bank of Canada
revised in January its forecast for 2015 inflation from 1.6 percent to 0.6 percent because of the
lower oil prices but it still expects inflation to bounce back to nearly 2 percent by 2016.
In nominal terms, the Canadian dollar depreciated by 13 percent year-over-year against the U.S.
dollar as of end-February. On a real effective basis, the Canadian dollar depreciated 5.6 percent
year-over-year through January. Canadas current account deficit was 2.2 percent of GDP in
2014, and the IMF forecasts it will widen to 2.6 percent of GDP in 2015 due to falling terms of
trade and a decline in the value of oil exports. Canada had foreign exchange reserves (consisting
of U.S. dollar, pound sterling, euro-, and yen- denominated assets) of $63.3 billion as of endJanuary 2015, 6.7 percent higher year-on-year, representing about 3.5 percent of GDP and 1.5
months of imports.
After third quarter 2014 growth of 3.2 percent quarter-on-quarter (seasonally adjusted,
annualized), growth in the fourth quarter decelerated to 2.4 percent quarter-on-quarter, as falling
oil prices drove investment and exports lower. Full-year growth for 2014 was 2.5 percent,
slightly higher than the 2 percent growth realized in 2013. However, the sharp drop in the price
of oil will weigh on Canadian economic activity in 2015, particularly through negative effects on
investment. The IMF expects full-year growth to moderate slightly to 2.3 percent in 2015, as
14

Peterson Institute, November 2014 and IMF, July 2014.

26

increased non-oil sector investment and lower imports are expected to only partially offset the
effects of reduced energy investment and falling terms of trade. The Bank of Canada has called
falling oil prices unambiguously negative and cut its policy rate by 0.25 percentage points to
0.75 percent in January. The governments ongoing fiscal consolidation effort has been largely
successful but, in the context of slowing growth and elevated downside risks, it may become
appropriate to adjust fiscal policy at the federal level to provide near-term support to the
economy.
Going forward, the Bank of Canada expects the economy to adjust, as lower gasoline prices help
to drive consumer spending and manufacturing activity higher, and exports to pick up based on
stronger U.S. demand and a weaker Canadian dollar.
Mexico
Growth decelerated in the third quarter of 2014, but picked up slightly in the fourth quarter to 2.7
percent quarter-on-quarter (annualized), supported by Mexicos manufacturing and service
sectors, resulting in full year 2014 growth of 2.1 percent. Lower oil prices will act as a
constraint on growth this year, including through the governments decision to respond to
reduced oil revenue by cutting its 2015 budget by 0.7 percent of GDP. However, the IMF
expects overall that growth will increase to 3.2 percent in 2015, as the impact of the stronger
U.S. expansion on Mexican manufacturing and exports will outweigh the negative oil price
effects. The current account deficit was 2.1 percent of GDP in 2014, and is forecast to narrow
slightly to 2 percent of GDP in 2015.
Mexico pursues an inflation-targeting monetary policy regime and maintains a flexible exchange
rate, while employing some currency market intervention during periods of sharp volatility (as
described below). Inflation was around 4 percent year-on-year for much of 2014, at the top of
the central banks inflation target band of 3 percent +/- 1 percent, due mostly to a tax increase
that took effect at the beginning of the year. Inflation decreased to 3.0 percent year-on-year in
February 2015. In nominal terms, the Mexican peso depreciated by 14 percent against the U.S.
dollar in the year ended in March. On a real effective basis, the Mexican peso depreciated by 4.6
percent year-on-year through February.
In response to the pesos sharp depreciation over the fourth quarter of 2014, the Foreign
Exchange Commission (FEC), which consists of officials from the Ministry of Finance and the
Bank of Mexico and is responsible for foreign exchange policy, in early December 2014
announced a rules-based program of foreign exchange intervention, with the stated aim to
provide liquidity and dampen volatility in the foreign exchange market. The authorities
suspended a prior system of daily dollar auctions to manage peso volatility in April 2013. In the
new program, the Bank of Mexico initially offered up to $200 million every day at a peso price
1.5 percent weaker than the previous days reference rate (meaning in effect, that the offer would
only be used in a day where the peso depreciated more than 1.5 percent against the dollar). As
of mid-March, the mechanism had been activated only twice, auctioning $200 million in each
instance. However, as the peso continued to depreciate relatively rapidly, in mid-March 2015,
the FEC expanded the program, offering an additional $52 million daily without a minimum
price. The FEC indicated that this program will run through June 8, 2015, at which point it will

27

assess whether to continue the program. The Bank of Mexico has not ruled out taking further
measures in the event that the peso market becomes disorderly.
Mexico has a comfortable level of foreign exchange reserves at $188.6 billion as of end-January
2015, 10.2 percent higher year-on-year, representing about 14 percent of GDP and 5 months of
import cover. Mexicos reserves continue to be backed by the availability of an additional $72
billion from a two-year Flexible Credit Line (FCL) with the IMF, which was last renewed in
November 2014. As of March 2015, Mexico has never drawn on this line.

28

Annex I: Lower Oil Prices and Global Imbalances 15


Oil prices have fallen sharply over the past 8
years to as low as $45 per barrel in January.
Lower priced oil will generate a large and
meaningful shift in the dollar value of global
transfers related to oil. Figure 1 illustrates the
potential transfers assuming an average price
of oil in 2015 of $60 per barrel and constant
demand, relative to a baseline of $99 per
barrel used in the IMFs October 2014 WEO.
This exercise also assumes that net imports
remain constant at 2014 levels.
Impact on Oil Exporters:

Saudi Arabia would experience the largest loss of income, with oil earnings dropping
roughly $140 billion.

Russia would also be hard hit, with losses of about $105 billion.

GCC (Gulf Cooperation Council) countries, outside Saudi Arabia, would see their
collective earnings decline roughly $105 billion.

Norways oil revenue would fall nearly $20 billion.

Several other large oil exporting countries also would face significant reductions in
income. Iraqs oil earnings would drop by nearly $40 billion, Nigerias by around $30
billion, Angolas by about $25 billion, and Venezuelas by roughly $25 billion.

Key Beneficiaries of Lower Oil Prices:

15

Asia would see the greatest benefit from lower oil prices, gaining nearly $310 billion.
o Chinas savings from lower oil prices would be roughly $100 billion making it
the country with the largest dollar gain from lower oil prices.
o Japan ($65 billion), India ($40 billion), and Korea ($35 billion) would also see
sizeable import savings from lower oil prices.

Euro Area economies would experience a substantial boon from lower oil prices as well,
with a reduction in oil spending of around $130 billion.
o Germanys oil expenditure would fall by roughly $30 billion, France by $25
billion, and Spain by $15 billion.

Prepared by Jeremy Zook.

29

Despite declining oil imports over the past several years, the United States would still see
a net benefit from lower prices.
o U.S. spending on oil imports would be reduced by roughly $75 billion in 2015.

Impact on Global Imbalances:


Current account balances would be significantly affected as well, but probably by a lesser
amount than the transfers noted previously.
Oil exporters would receive notably less in oil revenues, and after some period of time, after
likely drawing down their sizable reserves to support spending, they would need to adjust their
spending and thus imports downward. All told, their external surpluses would shrink.
Conversely, oil importing countries would pay out much less for imported oil and thus their
external positions would rise; in some instances such as China, Japan, Germany, and Korea the
increases would be sizable. In the United States, the impact would be a sizable reduction in the
current account deficit. In time, were the lower prices to persist, some of the associated income
gains would be spent and thus result in larger imports of non-oil goods.
Figure 2 provides an indication of the impact of
Figure 2. Global Current Account Balances - Baseline vs. Oil Adjusted
(USD, billions)
1600
lower oil prices on global imbalances making
Stat. Discrepancy
the somewhat implausible assumption that the
1200
Other Deficit
transfers in their entirety pass through directly
800
Other Surplus
to current account balances. The baseline for
Oil Exporters
400
this exercise is the IMFs WEO projections
Euro Area (ex.
0
from October 2014, which were based on an
Germany)
Germany
-400
assumption of $99 per barrel oil. Under the
Asia (ex. China)
baseline, oil producers were expected to have a
-800
China
large aggregate surplus, but oil at $60 would
-1200
extinguish this surplus. Some of the biggest
United States
-1600
beneficiaries of lower oil prices, Asia and
2015 Baseline
2015 Oil Adj.
Europe, already maintain aggregate surpluses
and would see these surpluses grow larger relative to the baseline. Under this static assumption,
the United States would see its deficit reduced.

30

Glossary of Key Terms in the Report


Bilateral Real Exchange Rate The bilateral exchange rate adjusted for inflation in the two
economies, usually consumer price inflation.
Exchange Rate The price at which one currency can be exchanged for another. Also referred
to as the bilateral exchange rate.
Exchange Rate Regime The manner or rules under which an economy manages the exchange
rate of its currency, particularly the extent to which it intervenes in the foreign exchange market.
Exchange rate regimes range from floating to pegged.
Floating (Flexible) Exchange Rate A regime under which the foreign exchange rate of a
currency is fully determined by the market with intervention from the government or central
bank being used sparingly.
International Reserves Foreign assets held by the central bank that can be used to finance the
balance of payments and for intervention in the exchange market. Foreign assets consist of gold,
Special Drawing Rights (SDRs), and foreign currency (most of which is held in short-term
government securities). The latter are used for intervention in the foreign exchange markets.
Intervention The purchase or sale of an economys currency in the foreign exchange market
by a government entity (typically a central bank) in order to influence its exchange rate.
Purchases involve the exchange of an economys foreign currency reserves for its own currency,
reducing foreign currency reserves. Sales involve the exchange of an economys own currency
for a foreign currency, increasing its foreign currency reserves. Interventions may be sterilized
or unsterilized.
Managed Float A regime under which an economy establishes no predetermined path for the
exchange rate but the central bank frequently intervenes to influence the movement of the
exchange rate against a particular currency or group of currencies. Some central banks explain
this as a policy to smooth fluctuations in exchange markets without changing the trend of the
exchange rate.
Nominal Effective Exchange Rate (NEER) A measure of the overall value of an economys
relative to a set of other currencies. The effective exchange rate is an index calculated as a
weighted average of bilateral exchange rates. The weight given to each economys currency in
the index typically reflects the amount of trade with that economy.
Pegged (Fixed) Exchange Rate A regime under which an economy maintains a fixed rate of
exchange between its currency and another currency or a basket of currencies. Typically the
exchange rate is allowed to move within a narrow predetermined (although not always
announced) band. Pegs are maintained through a variety of measures including capital controls
and intervention.

31

Real Effective Exchange Rate (REER) The effective exchange rate adjusted for relative
prices, usually consumer prices.
Sterilized Intervention An action taken by the central bank to offset the effect of intervention
on the domestic money supply. Intervention in which the central bank sells domestic currency
increases the domestic money supply, and is, in essence, expansionary monetary policy. To
neutralize the effect of the intervention on the money supply, the central bank will sell domestic
government securities, taking an equivalent amount of domestic currency out of circulation. If
the intervention involved the purchase of domestic currency, the central bank will buy
government securities, placing an amount of domestic currency equivalent to the size of the
intervention back into circulation. An intervention is partially sterilized if the action by the
central bank does not fully offset the effect on the domestic money supply.
Trade Weighted Exchange Rate see Nominal Effective Exchange Rate
Unsterilized Intervention The purchase of domestic currency through intervention in the
exchange market reduces the domestic money supply, whereas the sale of domestic currency
through intervention increases the money supply. If the central bank takes no action to offset the
effects of intervention on the domestic money supply, the intervention is unsterilized.

32

S-ar putea să vă placă și