Enrollment No.

MBISMCT11720138

MBA Information Systems 1st Year - Assignment

Annamalai University

7: RESEARCH METHODS FOR MANAGEMENT

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Enrollment No.MBISMCT11720138
Question 2: Explain various data collection tools and which one is the best in
your view. Why?
Answer 2:
Data-Collection Tools
Depending on the nature of the information to be gathered, different
instruments are used to conduct the assessment: forms for gathering data
from official sources such as police or school records; surveys/interviews to
gather information from youth, community residents, and others; and focus
groups to elicit free-flowing perspectives.
Types of data collection

Sample survey
Administrative data

Data can be collected using three main types of surveys: censuses, sample
surveys, and administrative data. Each has advantages and disadvantages.
As students, you may be required to collect data at some time.
The method you choose will depend on a number of factors.
Census
A census refers to data collection about every unit in a group or population. If
you collected data about the height of everyone in your class, that would be
regarded as a class census. There are various reasons why a census may or
may not be chosen as the method of data collection:
Advantages (+)
Sampling variance is zero: There is no sampling variability attributed to the
statistic because it is calculated using data from the entire population.
Detail: Detailed information about small sub-groups of the population can be
made available.
Disadvantages ()
Cost: In terms of money, conducting a census for a large population can be
very expensive.
Time: A census generally takes longer to conduct than a sample survey.
Response burden: Information needs to be received from every member of
the target population.
Control: A census of a large population is such a huge undertaking that it
makes it difficult to keep every single operation under the same level of
scrutiny and control.
Sample survey
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Enrollment No.MBISMCT11720138
In a sample survey, only part of the total population is approached for data.
If you collected data about the height of 10 students in a class of 30, that
would be a sample survey of the class rather than a census. Reasons one
may or may not choose to use a sample survey include:
Advantages (+)
Cost: A sample survey costs less than a census because data are collected
from only part of a group.
Time: Results are obtained far more quickly for a sample survey, than for a
census. Fewer units are contacted and less data needs to be processed.
Response burden: Fewer people have to respond in the sample.
Control: The smaller scale of this operation allows for better monitoring and
quality control.
Disadvantages ()
Sampling variance is non-zero: The data may not be as precise because the
data came from a sample of a population, instead of the total population.
Detail: The sample may not be large enough to produce information about
small population sub-groups or small geographical areas.
Administrative data
Administrative data are collected as a result of an organization's day-to-day
operations. Examples include data on births, deaths, marriages, divorces and
car registrations. For example, prior to being issued a marriage license, a
couple must provide the registrar with information about their age, sex,
birthplace, address and previous marital status. These administrative files
can be used later as a substitute for a sample survey or a census.
Advantages (+)
Sampling variance is zero: There is no variability attributed to the statistic
because it was calculated using data from the entire population.
Time series: Data are collected on an ongoing basis, allowing for trend
analysis.
Simplicity: Administrative data may eliminate the need to design a census or
survey and the associated work.
Response burden: Since the data are already collected, there is no additional
burden on the respondents.
Disadvantages ()
Flexibility: Data items may be limited to essential administrative information,
unlike a survey.
Population: Data are limited to the population on whom the administrative
records are kept.
Change over time: Definitions are created to serve specific purposes, but
often change and evolve over time. The statistician must understand that
there is a possibility of change to the definitions of these files.
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Concepts and definitions: The definitions are established by those who create
and manage the file for their own purposes. For example, income definitions
may not include everything a user expects to see.
Data quality: The emphasis placed on data quality may differ from
organization to organization. This may be evident when someone relies on
data collected from another organization.

Data collection methods

Personal interviews

Telephone interviews

Self-completed

Other methods

Personal interviews

Face-to-face: involves trained interviewers visiting people to collect

questionnaire data. It is a good approach for ensuring a high response rate to
a sample survey or census, and trained interviewers gather better quality
data. However, there are some disadvantages to this approach. Respondents
may not always be available for interviews and the travel costs of the
interviewer could be high.
Computer Assisted Personal Interviewing (CAPI): is a form of personal
interviewing, but instead of completing a questionnaire, the interviewer
brings along a laptop or hand-held computer to enter the information directly
into the database. This method saves time involved in processing the data,
as well as saving the interviewer from carrying around hundreds of
questionnaires. However, this type of data collection method can be
expensive to set up and requires that interviewers have computer and typing
skills.
Telephone interviews
Telephone: involves trained interviewers phoning people to collect
questionnaire data. This method is quicker and less expensive than face-toface interviewing. However, only people with telephones can be interviewed
(about 98% of the Canadian population), and the respondent can end the
interview very easily!
Computer Assisted Telephone Interviewing (CATI): is a type of telephone
interview, but with the interviewer keying respondent answers directly into a
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computer. This saves time involved in processing data, but can be expensive
to set up, and requires interviewers to have computer and typing skills.
Statistics Canada uses this approach for many of its surveys such as the
Youth In Transition Survey, the Monthly Survey of Manufacturing, the General
Social Survey and the Workplace Employee Survey.
Self-completed
Mail survey: a common method of conducting Statistics Canada's economic
surveys. It is a relatively inexpensive method of collecting data, and one that
can distribute large numbers of questionnaires in a short time. It provides the
opportunity to contact hard-to-reach people, and respondents are able to
complete the questionnaire in their own time. Mail surveys do require an upto-date list of names and addresses, however. In addition, there is also the
need to keep the questionnaire simple and straightforward.
A major disadvantage of a mail survey is that it usually has lower response
rates than other data collection methods. This may lead to problems with
data quality. Also, people with a limited ability to read or write English or
French may experience problems.
Hand-delivered
questionnaire:
a
self-enumerated
survey
where
questionnaires are hand-delivered to people and mailed back by the
respondent after completion. This method usually results in better response
rates than a mail survey, and is particularly suitable when information is
needed from several household members. The hand-delivered with pickup
method has been used by Statistics Canada's Census of Population. The
hand-delivered with respondent mail-back method can reduce the cost of
collecting forms and gives a greater sense of privacy for respondents
concerned with someone entering their home or business to collect the
forms.
Other methods
Electronic Data Reporting (EDR): Electronic forms have been available at
Statistics Canada for some surveys (mainly for business surveys) since the
early 1990s. Although this type of data reporting is still quite rare, it gives
the respondents the option of choosing how they would like to report the
data: filling out the usual paper questionnaire or using the electronic version.
Because the technology evolves so quickly, remaining up-to-date with good
and secure applications requires major investments. Statistics Canada keeps
up its efforts in this area.
The Internet: The growing popularity of the Internet brought a major shift in
Electronic Data Reporting (EDR). It is hard to find a quick and easy way of
reporting answers through the Internet without sacrificing any of Statistics
Canada's principles concerning confidentiality, privacy and data quality. The
Agency has begun introducing pilot projects for a diverse range of important
surveys involving respondents from households, universities, businesses, and
federal departments. Pilot projects include, most recently, the 2001 Census
of Population, the Annual Retail and Wholesale Trade Survey, the Unified
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Enterprise Survey and the Business Payroll Survey.
Other methods include direct observation, such as that used in pricing
surveys, or the use of existing administrative records. The choice of method
depends on various factors: complexity and length of questionnaire,
sensitivity of requested information, geographical dispersion of survey
population, cost and time frame.
Often the most satisfactory collection strategy uses a combination of
methods. For example, mail surveys have proven to be quite efficient when
designed as a follow-up for those who did not respond by telephone
interview.
Questionnaire design
Questionnaires play a central role in the data collection process. A welldesigned questionnaire efficiently collects the required data with a minimum
number of errors. It facilitates the coding and capture of data and it leads to
an overall reduction in the cost and time associated with data collection and
processing. The biggest challenge in developing a questionnaire is to
translate the objectives of the survey into a well-conceptualized and
methodologically sound study.
Before you can design the questionnaire, you must plan the survey as a
whole, including the objectives, data needs and analysis. Once the
questionnaire is designed, it must be tested before you can proceed with the
data collection.
There is a lot to consider when developing a questionnaire. The following is a
list of some key points to think about:
Is the introduction informative? Does it stimulate respondent interest?

Are the words simple, direct and familiar to all respondents?

Do the questions read well? Does the overall questionnaire flow well?

Are the questions clear and as specific as possible?

Does the questionnaire begin with easy and interesting questions?

Is there a specific time reference?

Are any of the questions double-barreled?

Are any questions leading or loaded?

Should the questions be open- or close-ended? If the questions are

close-ended are the response categories mutually exclusive and
exhaustive?

Enrollment No.MBISMCT11720138

Are the questions applicable to all respondents?

Introduction and conclusion of the questionnaire

The introduction of the questionnaire is very important because it outlines
the pertinent information about the survey. The introduction should:
provide the title or subject of the survey

identify the sponsor

explain the purpose of the survey

request the respondents co-operation

Inform the respondent about confidentiality issues, the status of the

survey (voluntary or mandatory) and any existing data-sharing
agreements with other organizations.

Respondents frequently question the value of the gathered information to

themselves and to others. Therefore, be sure to explain why it is important to
complete the questionnaire, how the information will be used, and how
respondents can access the results. Ensuring that respondents understand
the value of their information is vital in undertaking a survey.
The opening questions of any survey should establish the respondents
confidence in their ability to answer the remaining questions. If necessary,
the opening questions should help determine whether the respondent is a
member of the survey population.
A good questionnaire ends with a comments section that allows the
respondent to record any other issues not covered by the questionnaire. This
is one way of avoiding any frustration on the part of the respondent, as well
as allowing them to express any thoughts, questions or concerns they might
have. Lastly, there should be a message at the end thanking the respondents
for their time and patience in completing the questionnaire.
Wording of questions
One of the most important factors in any survey is the design of the actual
questionnaire. The questions and instructions should be easy to understand
and respond to. The way a question is worded is very important as the same
question worded in a different manner may achieve completely different
results. Consider the following.
Abbreviations and acronyms
Always spell out the complete form of abbreviations and acronyms.
Complex words and terminology
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Avoid specialized terminology and complicated words.
Frame of reference
Give all the details concerning the questions frame of reference.
Specific questions
A questions frame of reference is not the only specific detail required. In
order to get a uniform response from the entire sample, the question
sometimes needs to state the type of response needed.
Double-barreled questions
In some instances, the answer to each half of the question is the same.
However, sometimes there could be two very separate answers, which would
make interpreting this question difficult. The best solution could be to split
such questions in two.
Loaded questions
A possible explanation for the difference in the results could be that some
respondents did not quite understand the implications of the question. Some
people may be opposed to working on Sundays, but are still in favor of
shopping. However, if no one works on Sundays, then stores cannot stay
open for shoppers!
Open or closed questions
Generally there are two types of questions: open and closed. Open questions
give respondents an opportunity to answer the question in their own words.
Closed questions give respondents a choice of answers and the respondent is
supposed to select one.
There are advantages and disadvantages to using one type of question
versus another. The open question allows the respondent to interpret the
question and answer it anyway he or she chooses. The respondent writes the
answer or the interviewer records verbatim what the respondent says in
answer to the question.
The closed question restricts the respondent to select an answer from the
specified response options. For the respondent, a closed question is easier
and faster to answer and for the researcher, closed questions are easier and
less expensive to code and analyse. Also, closed questions provide
consistency, an element that is not necessarily going to occur with an open
question.
Questionnaire testing
This is a fundamental step in developing a questionnaire. Testing helps
discover poor wording or ordering of questions; identify errors in the
questionnaire layout and instructions; determine problems caused by the
respondents inability or unwillingness to answer the questions; suggest
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additional response categories that can be pre-coded on the questionnaire;
and provide a preliminary indication of the length of the interview and any
refusal problems. Testing can include the complete questionnaire or only a
particular portion of it. The complete questionnaire will at some point in time
have to be fully tested.
Role of interviewers
It is important to note that not all persons who collect data are interviewers.
In some instances, the data are collected by having people go into grocery
stores or clothing stores on a monthly basis. They record the price of a given
list of goods and services on hand-held devices and then they report their
data back to Statistics Canada.
However, the role of the interviewer is very important. The process of
interviewing people to collect data involves a number of skills. Without these
skills, the quality of data collected can be affected. Therefore, when someone
is employed to collect data they may need:
good communication skills

a confident and professional appearance

use of a car and telephone

Statistics Canada employs a large number of interviewers to collect data.

Interviewers are trained before collecting data. This training emphasizes that
the interviewer's opening remarks and the manner in which they are made
have a strong influence on a respondent's reaction and willingness to cooperate. Because of this, interviewers should ensure they carry out certain
tasks before asking respondents to answer questions. They must:

give the respondent their name and provide identification

explain that a survey is being conducted and by whom

describe the survey's purpose

explain that the respondent's household or business has been selected

in the survey sample

give the respondent time to read or be informed about confidentiality

issues, the voluntary or mandatory status of the survey, and any
existing data-sharing agreements with other organizations

read the introduction message of the questionnaire to the respondent.

Enrollment No.MBISMCT11720138
In addition, it is important that the interviewer have appropriate skills and
abilities such as:

stimulating the respondent's interest

listening attentively

asking questions as worded for each respondent interviewed

NOT suggesting any answers for the respondent

answering the respondent's questions properly

keeping the respondent 'on track'

Explaining that the information collected is confidential.

Above all, the interviewer should let respondents know that he or she
understands the respondent.
Pilot Studies and Pre-tests
A pre-test usually refers to a small-scale trial of particular research
components.
A pilot study is the process of carrying out a preliminary study, going through
the entire research procedure with a small sample.

Question 4:

a) Descriptive method Describe.

b) Write a note on report writing

Answer: a)

Descriptive Methods

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"Descriptive" method of research is where the person doing the reseach
presents it in a descriptive manner." The descriptive research designs enable
researchers to describe or present the picture of a phenomenon or
phenomena under investigation".It is the opposite of another form of
research methodology called "Analytical".
One of the goals of science is description. Descriptive research methods are
pretty much as they sound they describe situations. They do not make
accurate predictions, and they do not determine cause and effect.
There are three main types of descriptive methods: observational methods,
case-study methods and survey methods. This article will briefly describe
each of these methods, their advantages, and their drawbacks. This may
help you better understand research findings, whether reported in the
mainstream media, or when reading a research study on your own.
Observational Method
With the observational method (sometimes referred to as field observation)
animal and human behavior is closely observed. There are two main
categories of the observational method naturalistic observation and
laboratory observation.
The biggest advantage of the naturalistic method of research is that
researchers view participants in their natural environments. This leads to
greater ecological validity than laboratory observation, proponents say.
Ecological validity refers to the extent to which research can be used in reallife situations. Proponents of laboratory observation often suggest that due
to more control in the laboratory, the results found when using laboratory
observation are more meaningful than those obtained with naturalistic
observation.
Laboratory observations are usually less time-consuming and cheaper than
naturalistic observations.
Of course, both naturalistic and laboratory
observation are important in regard to the advancement of scientific
knowledge.
Case Study Method
Case study research involves an in-depth study of an individual or group of
indviduals. Case studies often lead to testable hypotheses and allow us to
study rare phenomena. Case studies should not be used to determine cause
and effect, and they have limited use for making accurate predictions.
There are two serious problems with case studies expectancy effects and
atypical individuals. Expectancy effects include the experimenters
underlying biases that might affect the actions taken while conducting
research.
These biases can lead to misrepresenting participants
descriptions.
Describing atypical individuals may lead to poor
generalizations and detract from external validity.
Survey Method
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In survey method research, participants answer questions administered
through interviews or questionnaires.
After participants answer the
questions, researchers describe the responses given. In order for the survey
to be both reliable and valid it is important that the questions are
constructed properly. Questions should be written so they are clear and easy
to comprehend.
Another consideration when designing questions is whether to include openended, closed-ended, partially open-ended, or rating-scale questions.
Advantages and disadvantages can be found with each type:
Open-ended questions allow for a greater variety of responses from
participants but are difficult to analyze statistically because the data must be
coded or reduced in some manner. Closed-ended questions are easy to
analyze statistically, but they seriously limit the responses that participants
can give. Many researchers prefer to use a Likert-type scale because its
very easy to analyze statistically.
In addition to the methods listed above some individuals also include
qualitative and archival methods when discussing descriptive research
methods.
It is important to emphasize that descriptive research methods can only
describe a set of observations or the data collected. It cannot draw
conclusions from that data about which way the relationship goes Does A
cause B, or does B cause A?
Unfortunately, in many studies published today, researchers forget this
fundamental limitation of their research and suggest their data can actually
demonstrate or suggest causal relationships. Nothing could be further from
the truth.
Answer: b)
REPORT WRITING
A report is a presentation of facts and findings, usually as a basis for
recommendations; written for a specific readership, and probably intended to
be kept as a record.
When some people write a report, that's all they do: write. But the really
successful
writers only spend part of their time doing this, and then only towards the
end. Before
that, they are planning their report - thinking about its purpose, and who is
going to read
it; deciding what to put in it, and fitting it into shape. And even when they're
finally writing
it, they'll probably spend just as much time thinking about how best to
present their
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ideas, as actually putting them onto paper.
This guide draws on the experience of such writers, and describes their stepby-step
approach, the six stages being:
Purpose and reader
Materials and structure
Style and presentation
The guide has been devised for you to use as a memory aid once you are
back at your
desk, and working on your next report. We hope that you'll find it helpful, and
that you and your readers - will benefit.
Purpose and Reader
Experienced writers always allow plenty of time for these - the first two
stages in report
writing, even when they are working against the clock. They know that once
these are
clear in their minds, they'll save themselves hours of work and worry later
on.
1 Defining the purpose
First, the purpose - the major aim - the reason why you are writing the report
at all. This
will determine what kind of report you write.
a) Factual report
For example, it may be to inform - when, say, there's been an accident, or a
new
programme of work. What's needed here is a factual report - a
straightforward
statement of the facts - to give people an accurate record.
b) Instructional report
Or, it may be to explain - for example, when some change is introduced, like
a revised
appraisal system, or a new job evaluation scheme. Here you write an
instructional
report - a step-by-step description - to tell people about the new procedures.
c) Leading report
Lastly, it may be to persuade - when you are trying to sell your ideas. This
kind is usually
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called a 'leading' report, because you are leading the reader towards making
a
decision - the one you want him or her to make.
Once the major aim has been defined in this way, subsidiary aims will fall
into place thus, we inform in order to explain, and inform and explain in order to
persuade. And
usually the result will be a leading report - which is often the most difficult to
write,
because it has to motivate the reader to do something at the end.
2 Identifying the reader
But who is the reader? What do we really know about them? Often, they are
just a dim
and shadowy figure in the mind, but we can usually get a clearer picture by
asking three
questions:
a) What does the reader know?
Two common mistakes in report writing are to overestimate a reader's
knowledge-and
blind them with science, or to underestimate it - and bore them to tears. We
must
always try to discover how much the reader knows already, so that we can
communicate at their level of knowledge.
b) What are the reader's attitudes?
However good our ideas, they may get thrown out if we don't take account of
these, the
reader's special interests, likes, and dislikes. The truth has many faces, and it
is only
sensible to feature the one most likely to appeal to them.
c) What does the reader really want?
The reader is rarely a passive recipient of our report, to be swayed this way
and that by
our arguments. We'll need to find out just what their hopes and expectations
are. Then
we shall know what we're up against, and can prepare our case accordingly.
Sometimes, it is difficult to answer these questions, especially when writing
for a varied
readership. In such cases, aim for the important reader - that is, the most
important to
you - but without offending others. Some are probably only on the
distribution list anyway
for reasons of prestige or courtesy, or because no-one remembered to cross
them off.
They will probably be quite happy just to read the opening summary
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3 Setting the objective
Matching the purpose to the reader, we are now ready to set our objective. In
other
words, what do we want the reader to think and do after reading our report?
Here is an
example:
To persuade the managing director to authorize a proposed system of flexible
working
hours.
Notice the words 'to persuade' and 'to authorize'. They show that we must
produce a
logical and consistent case: one that will spur our reader to positive action.
Also, once
we have set the objective, we can usually anticipate the likely problems in
meeting it,
eg:
a) Knowledge
The managing director is a busy man, and has never heard of flexible
working hours.
We'll need to give him ample background information, and define any
technical terms
as we go along.
b) Attitudes
He is a stickler for discipline and good timekeeping. We'll have to convince
him that the
scheme won't be a license for lateness, but that, on the contrary,
timekeeping might
actually improve.
c) Wants
According to the grapevine, he is worried just now about rising costs. So we'll
need to
stress how flexible working hours would actually save him money, even if
this means
playing down other benefits.
Arriving at an objective like this is the most important step in writing any
report.
Sometimes the process will even show that a report is not necessary at all,
and that the
objective can best be met in some other way - in which case, you will have
saved
Yourself a great deal of time and trouble. Materials and structure
Most writers imagine that their report will be the major event in the reader's
day, when,
in reality, the poor fellow is awash with reading matter, drowning in facts,
figures, and
opinions. What he wants is easily-digested information, and then only
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enough to help
him reach a decision. So the content of our report, and its structure, must be
very
carefully planned.
1 Selecting our material
The two golden rules to follow when deciding what to put into a report are:
a) Simplify, and be ruthless about it. Reject the irrelevant, agonize over the
doubtful,
and make sure you've got the essential.
b) Justify your conclusions with facts, and state their sources. Build the facts
into a
logical and consistent case, so as to lead the reader to the same conclusions
as
your own.
2 Planning the structure
The facts themselves should therefore be a set of directions, which will lead
and guide
your reader along a route. This route has to be planned before you write your
report,
perhaps as follows:
Turn a large sheet of paper sideways, and work across it. Work horizontally,
so that you
can see the whole plan of your report at one time (see p.6).
First, divide it into major sections. Every subject can be broken down in this
way, and
the headings will probably become the headings in your report.
Make a list under each heading of all the points you would like to mention.
Note the
information that you'll need to support them.
Now mark the most important points, the essential steps in your reasoning.
Next, mark the least important ones, points your reader would find
irrelevant. These you
will probably reject.
The points that remain-the unmarked ones, are the 'doubtful'. Some you may
want to
use as examples, or to include in the appendices. But some of these also
you'll reject.
Lastly, arrange the points in a final, logical sequence, so as to meet your
objective.
Some people write them out on scraps of paper at this stage, and shift them
around
until they get the order right.
A plan like this will show you what information you'll need for the body of the
report, and
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what should go in the appendices. Once written, you draw out your
conclusions andadd your recommendations. And last of all, you add your title
page, summary, contents
list, and introduction. These eight items make up the conventional structure
of a report,
dealt with in more detail below.
3 Rules and guidelines
The following rules and guidelines relate to the conventional structure of a
report. Some
Organizations lay down their own ('House style').
a) Title page
This normally carries the title, sub-title if any, date, author's name and
position, and
distribution list. It may also carry a reference number or other classification
(eg,
confidential). But don't overcrowd the page: a clear, simple layout is always
the best.
b) Summary
A necessity if the report is a long one. It gives busy people the gist of the
report without
their having to read it all; but if attractively written, it may whet their
appetite, and
stimulate them to read the whole thing.
c) Contents list
The contents of short reports may be shown on the title page - or not at all.
More
extensive ones should always have a separate page, listing the major
sections or
chapters, sub-sections if any, and appendices, and giving their page
numbers. It should
be laid out clearly so as to show the relationship between them.
d) Introduction
This gives the background to the report, and shows why it was necessary. It
usually
states the objective of the report (in formal terms), who called for it, and the
scope and
treatment. The shorter it is, the better.
e) Body of the report
This contains your detailed facts and findings, shows how they were arrived
at, and
indicates the inferences to be drawn from them, all in accordance with your
horizontal
plan.
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f) Conclusions
Here you draw out the main points of your report and present a considered
judgment on
them) Recommendations
Finally, set down any recommendations, relating them clearly to what has
gone before.
In a good report, the reader is carried along by the argument, so that by the
time he
reaches the end, he'll need no further convincing.
h) Appendices
Some reports need detailed supporting information or perhaps information
that only
some readers need. All this goes in the appendices.
In some cases you may also need to include:
j) Bibliography and/or References
This lists either the books or articles consulted as a basis for the report, or
those you
want to suggest as further reading - or both. Make clear which they are.
k) Glossary or Nomenclature
This can be a help if your readers include non-experts as well as experts.
When writing
on a specialist subject for non-experts alone, define any technical terms as
you go
along. Style and presentation
Having dealt with the four essential stages in planning our report, we can
now look at
the two essential aspects of writing it.
1) Style
This is how you write - how any individual writes, so as to convey your
thoughts to other
people. But problems may arise, especially if you try to evaluate each word
or sentence
as you write it. 'That's silly,' you say, or, 'That won't work,' and you end up
by blocking the
natural expression of your ideas.
To overcome these problems:
a) Write the first draft to yourself. Just as it comes. Don't evaluate what you
are writing:
simply break the spell of that blank, white sheet of paper.
b) Then edit your draft, reading it through the eyes of your reader. In
particular:
Clear up any clichs and obvious ambiguities, eg, '. . . the flooding was
caused by the
liquidation of the contractors working on the sewage system.'
Substitute short, simple words where appropriate, eg, 'start' for
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commencement', and
'end' for 'termination'.
Choose words familiar to your reader. Technical terms are useful shorthand to
use
with fellow specialists, but simply cloud the issue for anyone else.
Use active, rather than passive verbs, eg, 'The Board has approved this
project,' rather
than 'Approval has been given by the Board for this project.' This is a
contentious issue
most scientific reports tend to be written using the passive form. Ask about
the
'House Style' if in doubt.
Follow these rules, and your problems will diminish. In fact, choose the right
words, and
you'll find that they have a happy knack of arranging themselves.
2 Presentation
You may need to use tables, graphs, bar charts, or other diagrams. This is a
subject in
itself, so ask your local librarian for some helpful books. (The standard work,
but
expensive, is Diagrams, by A. Lockwood, published by Studio Vista.)
Also, remember the old journalistic principle: solid blocks of type weary the
eye. Set
your report out generously. Use wide margins; space out paragraphs; and
indent subheadings. It will make all the difference.

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