Fpmat001kb 2

Mathematics
Unit 1 – The Number System and Indices, Surds and Logarithms

Modular Arithmetic
TOPICS
The Number System - Number line and the real number system- properties - HCF, LCM of
numbers - Tests on divisibility - Indices - laws of indices - problems based on indices - Surds –
Distinction between Surds and irrational numbers - Logarithm – Laws of logarithm – common
logarithm - Modular Arithmetic - Networking and Linear Programming - Permutation and
combination - Binary operation.
Learning Outcome
At the end of the unit the student must be able to understand to
• use number line and understand properties of natural numbers, Integers and rational numbers
• prove axiomatically the laws of basic operations of addition and multiplication on these numbers
• work on problems relating to the above
• decimal representation of a rational number
• change numbers from one base to another
• understand various properties of divisibility
• understand and do problems in modulo arithmetic
• know facts about Greatest Integer Function
• find HCF using Euclid’s algorithm and expressing it as a linear combination
• simplify surds
• simplify expressions involving indices
• solve simple exponential equations
• simplify expressions using basic laws of logarithms
• simplify logarithmic expressions and solve simple logarithmic equations
•
1.11. Introduction
Now you are growing; Growing to be adults. The concepts you are learning also grow along with
you. Sure! You learnt your addition, multiplication in earlier classes. Now you study them in a
structural form. Here the operations turn into concepts (as follows); these topics lay foundation for
an important area in mathematics, Modern Algebra.
Let us first recapitulate some of the ideas we must have seen before. These ideas are
fundamental ideas needed for understanding the number system.
(a) A mathematical system consists of a set and one or more binary operations
(b) When we have a rule (or a way) for combining two numbers of a set and there is never more
than one ‘answer ’, we say we have an operation
(c) If, for any two numbers of a set, the result of an operation is in that set, we say, the set is
closed under that operation.
(d) If we add 0 (in the system of natural numbers (i.e., 1, 2, 3 . . . . ) to any number n, then the
result is also n only. Therefore we say that 0 is additive identity of the set.
(e) The multiplicative identity in the number system of arithmetic (i.e., 0, 1, 2, . . . ) is the number
one
(f) If we multiply two numbers and the result is 1, then we call the two numbers as “multiplicative
inverses” or “reciprocals” i.e., A multiplicative inverse is also called a reciprocal
SFPMAT001KB 1 www.smartlearnwebtv.com
Mathematics
For example
(a) In the number system of arithmetic which of these numbers are names for the reciprocal of 3?
(a) 3 : 1 (b) 1/3 (c) 3 ÷ 1 (d) 1 ÷ 3 Ans: (b)
(b) Pickup the reciprocal of 3/4 from the following
1 1
4
(a) (b) 3 (c) 4 (d) 4 ÷ 3 Ans: (a) or (b)
3
4 3
(c) (i) An example of the commutative property of addition is 5 + 3 = 3 + 5
(ii) The commutative property of addition allows us to change the order of the addends in a sum.
(d) An example of the commutative property of subtraction is nil
(e) An example of the commutative property of multiplication is 5 × 3 = 3 × 5
Does the order of multiplicands matter? No
(f) Does the commutative law hold for division? No
(g) Give an example to illustrate the associative property of (i) addition (ii) multiplication
(i) 5 + (8 + 7) = (5 + 8) + 7
The associative property is sometimes known as a “Shifting the Bracket” or “grouping”
property. Here the order of writing the elements is very important.
(h) Does the Associative property hold for
(i) Division? (No) (ii) subtraction? (No) Justify by giving example;
12 ÷ (6÷ 2) = 4 and (12 ÷ 6) ÷ 2 = 1
(i) If there are two operations in a statement, say multiplication and addition, then multiplication
is distributive over addition. For example, 7 × (3 + 8) = (7 × 3) + (7 × 8)
or (3 + 8) × 7 = (3 × 7) + (8 × 7)
Can we say that addition is distributive over multiplication? (No)
Consider this example: 8 ÷ (4 × 2) = (8 ÷ 4) × (8 ÷ 2) . What do you conclude?
Is division distributive over multiplication? No
Is subtraction distributive over multiplication? No
Properties of N
(i) N is closed under addition and multiplication. Why?
(ii) N is commutative under addition and multiplication
(iii) N is associative under addition and multiplication
(iv) There is no additive identity for N
(v) There is a multiplicative identity for N, namely, 1.
If we add 0 to the set N, then we have the set of whole numbers (W). The set of numbers has all
the properties of N and one more namely, the additive identity property as 0 ∈ W
Factors, multiples, divisors

Any number (say x) which divides another number (say y) exactly i.e., with 0 remainder) is called
the zero divisor or factor of that number ie., x is a factor of y and we write x/y (ie., x divides y)
Consider 8 × 0 = 0 Here both 8 and 0 are factors of 0 but only 8 is a divisor 0 while 0 is not a
divisor of 0 (i.e., meaningless) why? 0 can never be used as a divisor.
Mathematics
Odd and even numbers
Numbers which are multiples of 2 are called even numbers and numbers which are not multiples
of 2 are called odd numbers
Thus set E = {2, 4, 6, 8,. . . } is the set of even numbers and O = {1, 3, 5, 7, . . .} is the set of odd
numbers
In general we denote ‘2n’ for even numbers and 2n+1 or 2n – 1 (or 2n ± 1) for odd numbers
1.1.2. Conceptual Questions
(i) Is the sum of two even numbers even? (yes)
(ii) Is the sum of two odd numbers odd (No)
(iii) Is the power of an even number even? (yes)
(iv) what about the power of odd numbers ? odd or even? (odd)
(v) what number will you get if you multiply an odd number by an even number?
an even number by an odd number? (always even)
Take your own example to illustrate the above five properties.
1.1.3. Consecutive Numbers
Two numbers or more are consecutive if the difference between a number and its previous
number (predecessor) is unity.
Prime and composite number
A number which has only two distinct exact divisors is called a prime number.
Is the number 1 a prime? No. Why?
(It has no two distinct divisors)
Is 27 a prime? Is 31 a prime? Is 2 a prime?
A number which has more than two distinct divisors is called a composite number.
Thus 1 is neither prime nor composite; 8 is a composite number. Why?
The exact divisors of 8 are 1, 8, 2, 4 (more than 2). A composite number can be expressed as a
product of prime factors
Example:
It is given that p, p + 2, p + 4 are prime numbers. Find p.
Solution
Let us take the three consecutive numbers
p + 2, p + 3, p + 4
One of them must be divisible by 6 and so by 2 × 3
i.e., one of them is divisible by 3.
As p + 2 and p + 4 are each greater than 3 (as the least prime number is 2) and as p + 2
and p + 4 are not divisible by 3 because they are primes we can conclude
3 divides (p + 3) ; i.e., 3 divides p and 3 divides 3 (which is true)
∴ Least prime number dividing p is 3
1.1.4. The system of integers

Let us introduce the negative numbers to the set of whole numbers and this system is now closed
under the operation of subtraction.
Mathematics
In general, the positive numbers (natural numbers), 0 and the negative numbers constitute a set
known as the set of integers,
Thus I = {. . . . –5, –4, –3, –2, –1, 0, 1, 2, 3, 4, 5, . . .}
The set I as the set N or W is also infinite that is why the symbol ‘ . . .’ is given to the left of –5 and
to the right of +5 to show that they are never ending.
Thus the set of integers possesses all the properties of N, W and also the additive inverse or the ‘
opposite ‘ property. We can say that a and –a are opposites as (a) + (–a) = 0
What is the opposite of 0? 0 itself (0 + 0 = 0)
1.1.5. Tests of divisibility

A positive integer N is divisible by
(i) 2 if and only if its unit digit is even
(ii) 4 if and only if the last two digits is divisible by 4
(iii) 8 if and only if the last three digits is divisible by 8
(iv) 3 if and only if the sum of all the digits is divisible by 3
(v) 9 if and only if the sum of all the digits is divisible by 9
(vi) 5 if and only if last digit is 0 or 5
(vii) 25 if and only if the last two digits is ‘00’ or divisible by 25
(viii) 125 if and only if the last digits is ‘000’ or divisible by 125
(ix) 11 if and only if the difference between the sum of three digits in the odd places (starting from
the right) and sum of the digits in the even places starting from the right) is 0 or a multiple of 11.
1.2.1. Rational numbers

If we express one integer over a non-zero integer, then such a number is called a rational
number (or ratio number)
In general we define a rational number as the ratio of two integers p and q (which are either
p
positive or negative) and are of the form such that q ≠ 0 . The set of rational numbers
q
possesses all the properties of integer (plus) the multiplicative inverse properties also. (Of course
the DR should not be 0)
1
Does represent a rational number? (yes) why?
2
−3
5
4
−3
Does 9 represent a rational number? (yes) why?
9
9 can be expressed as
1
Is 0 a rational number? (yes) why?
Mathematics
0
0 can be expressed as
1
1
Is a rational number? (No) Why?
0
(Division by 0 is not permitted in the definition; q must be a non- zero integer)
Is 2 a rational number? (No) why?
p
2 cannot be expressed as form
q
Another beauty with rational numbers is that it can be seen as an ending (i.e., terminating)
decimal or an infinite but cyclic decimal
2
= 0.4 (terminating decimal)
5
482 1
= 0.482  = 0.142857 i.e., 0.142857, 142857, 142857,. . . . (never ending decimal but
1000 7
repeating in blocks)
1
= 0.333...... (never ending but repeating)
3
(Cyclic decimal (or periodic decimal or repeating decimal) is denoted by the symbol
‘vinculum’ over the period (which repeats)
This leads us to the numbers, which cannot be expressed as a non-terminating and non –
cyclic (periodic) decimal
Example 0.1 0 1 0 1 1 0 11 1 0 1 1 1 1 0 . . . is one such number. There is no period by which
this number repeats. Such a number is called irrational (i.e. non- rational)
Familiar examples of irrational numbers are 2 , 3 , e, π etc.
These irrational numbers are usually denoted by Q 1 Irrational numbers do not obey the rule of
closure,
What is (5 + 2 2) + (3 − 2 2) ? Is it irrational? No. Why?
What is (3 − 5 ) × (3 + 5 ) ? Is it irrational? No. Why?
1.2.2. Real Numbers

The totality of all the above numbers, namely, the set of natural numbers, whole numbers,
integers, rational numbers and irrational numbers is what is known as the set of real numbers
and is usually denoted by R.
Thus a real number is either rational or irrational but not both.
We can represent the set of real numbers in the following Venn diagram (some numbers are
inserted in the appropriate circle)
Mathematics
1.2.3. Conjugate irrational numbers

Two numbers a + b x and a − b x and (a, b, x ∈ N) are called conjugate irrational numbers if
they differ only in sign of the irrational part
Example: 3 + 5 and3 − 5 are conjugates. Why? (Apply the definition)
−1 + 2 and − 1 − 2 are conjugates. Why? (Apply the definition)
But 3 + 7 and − 3 + 7 are not conjugates . Why?
3 + 7 and − 3 − 7 are not conjugates. Why?

Note: The rational part must retain its sign for the conjugate pairs. The idea of conjugates
will be useful for problem solving involving irrationals (surds or radicals)
1.2.4. Pythagorean triplet

A triplet is a set of three numbers
Let (a, b, c) be a triplet such that c > a, c > b
If there is a relation such that c2 = a2 + b2 among a, b, c we call such a triplet as Pythagorean
triplet
Example: (3, 4, 5) is a Pythagorean triplet because 52 = 32 + 42
Binary System This system has only two digits, namely 0 and 1. In a computer, information is
represented by the presence or absence of an electrical impulse. A system which has just 3 digits
(0, 1, 2) is called Ternary system. Our system is called Decimal or denary because we employ
ten symbols namely 0, 1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6, 7, 8, 9
Working with all the systems has the same structure
For example, 57 in decimal system has the value (10 × 5) + 7
What is the value of (11011)2 ?
11011 in binary system will have the value
Mathematics
24 23 22 2 1 Place value
1 1 0 1 1
16 8 0 2 1
= 16 + 8 + 0 + 2 + 1 = 27
What number does (1010101)2 represent?
26 25 24 23 22 2 1
Place value
1 0 1 0 1 0 1
26 0 24 0 22 0 1
= 64 + 16 + 4 + 1 = 85
What is the binary equivalent of 123?
Divide the number 123 successively by 2 till you get 1 < (2) i.e., 1 < 2 which is base here.
Then write all the remainder starting from the below:
2 123
2 61 −1
2 30 −1 ∴ (123)10 i.e., 123 = (1111011)2
2 15 −0
2 7 −1
2 3 −1
2 1 −1
0 −1
Draw a number line for the real number system
1.3.1. The absolute value

The absolute value of an integer x is represented by the symbol |x| . It is defined as follows.
|x| = x when x is positive or zero
|x| = –x when x is negative
Thus |5| = 5 ; |–4| = 4 ; |0| = 0
Absolute values are never negative
1.3.2. The absolute value of an integer

Absolute value of an integer can be thought of as its distance from zero and is usually
represented as | x |.
Clearly the distance (and so the absolute value) will never be negative.
A more precise definition of absolute value is
Mathematics
| x | = x if x is positive
or zero
| x | = – x if x is negative
For e.g. | 5 | = + 5 ; | –4 | = 4 ; | 0 | = 0
Note: From the above definition it is clear that absolute values are never negative
i.e., if x > 0, | x | = x and if x < 0, then | x | = – x
1.3.3. The graph of absolute value relationship

Let us take some values like
| 0 | = 0, | 1 | = 1, | 2 | = 2, | –1 | = 1, | –2 | = 2 and plot them in a graph paper. The graph will look
like this
y
x 3 x
x 2 x
x 1 x
x' x
−3 −2 −1 O 1 2 3
−1
−2
−3
y'
Note: The distance between two points on a line is the absolute value of the difference between
the Co- ordinates of the points.
Divisibility An integer ‘a‘ is said to divide an integer b if there exists an integer c such that
ac = b. If a divides b, we also say that a is a divisor of b or b is a multiple of a, we write this in
symbolic notation as a/b.
Note: a ﾒ b means “a does not divide b ”
1.3.4. Properties
The following properties of numbers can be easily checked with any numbers and can be proven
using the divisibility definition above.
Let a, b, c, p, q be any integers. Then
1. a/a (any integer divides itself)
This is called reflexive property
2. If a/b and b/c , then a/c (transitive property)
3. If a/b and a/c, then a/ (b ± c) or a/(pb ± qc) (linearity property)

4. If a/b, then ca/cb (multiplication property)
5. If ca/cb and c ≠ 0 , then a/b (cancellation law)

6. 1/a (property of unity or 1)
Mathematics
7. a/0 (property of zero)
8. If a/b and b ≠ 0, then | a | ≤ | b |

9. If a/b and b/a, then | a | = | b |
Note: If a/b, then b ﾒ a (unless a = b)
1.3.5. Change of bases

Various systems
When you look at a computer output, let’s say in machine language, you will see series of 0s and
1s. That is because in a computer, information is represented by the presence or absence of an
electronic impulse. This system has only two digits, namely 0 and 1. So it is binary system.
Similarly a system which has just 3
digits (0, 1, 2,) is called ternary. When you get more into computer science, you will study about
Hexadecimal that has 16 characters for representation. In our daily lives we handle the number
system called ‘ Decimal’ or ‘ denary’ as we use 10 digits, namely 0, 1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6, 7, 8, 9.
Working with all these systems has the same structure.
Structure
For example, 57 in decimal system has the value (5 × 10) + (7 × 1) = 57
But (57) in binary system will have a different value as follows:
Divide 57 by 2 successively, till we get a quotient less than 2 (i.e., 1)
2 57
2 28 − 1
2 14 − 0
2 7−0
2 3 −1
1− 1
Then write the number stating from the last quotient and remainders as shown by the around
i.e., (57)10 = (111001)2
Check
25 24 23 22 2 1
1 1 1 0 0 1
32 16 8 0 0 1
= 32 + 16 + 8 + 1 = 57
Writing the number 1435 in denary means
(1 × 1000) + (4 × 100) + (3 × 10) + 5 which is the same as (1 × 103 + 4 × 102 + 3 × 101) + 5
The same number in different bases will mean:
(1435)6 = (1 × 63) + (4 × 62) + (3 × 6) + 5
Mathematics
(1435)7 = (1 × 73) + (4 × 72) + (3 × 7) + 5
(1435)8 = (1 × 83) + (4 × 82) + (3 × 8) + 5
and so on.
Note that 1435 cannot be a number in any base less than 6 as digit 5 occurs in base 6 and
above.
1.3.6. The Greatest Integer Function

Given any real numbers x , we can always find an integer n such that n ≤ x ≤ n + 1. This helps
us to write
x = n + f where n is an integer and 0 ≤ f < 1 .
For example, for 2.003, n is 2 and n+ 1 is 3. And f is 0.003 is between 0 and 1.
The integer n is called the integral part of x and the number f is called the fractional part of n.
The greatest integer n is denoted by [x]. This means the greatest integer not exceeding x, in this
terminology,
f = x – [x]
Points to remember about greatest integer Function
(i) [x] ≤ x ≤ [x] + 1, ∀ x ∈ R
(ii) [x] < x if and only if x ∈ R – Z
(iii) [x] = x if and only if x ∈ Z

(iv) [x + y] = [x] + [y] if and only if at least one of x and y is an integer
[x + y] = [x] + n, ∀ x ∈ R and n ∈ Z
1.3.7. Euclid’s algorithm The largest common

factor of a group of
Highest Common Factor (HCF)
numbers is called the
Let us consider the factors of 18 and 24. highest common
Factors of 18: 1, 2, 3,6, 9, 18 factor (or HCF) of the
given numbers.,
Factors of 24: 1, 2, 3, 4, 6, 8, 12, 24
1, 2, 3 and 6 are the common factors of 18 and 24. The largest common
factor of 18 and 24 is 6.
There are different methods of finding the HCF of a group of numbers. We can use prime
factorisation to find their HCF in a more efficient way.
Example : Find the HCF of 225 and 750 using prime factorisation.
Solution We find the prime factorisation of each number,
225 = 32 × 52
750 = 2 x 3 × 53
We can visualise the process of taking common factors as shown.
225 = 3 x 3 × 5 x 5
750 = 2 x 3 x 5 x 5 x 5
HCF = 3 x 5 x 5 = 75
Mathematics
Note: We see that the HCF is obtained by multiplying the lowest power of each common prime
factor of the given numbers.
Example: Find the HCF of 84, 126 and 245.
Solution 84 = 22 x 3 x 7
126 = 2 x 32 x 7
245 = 5 x 72
7 is the only prime factor common to all the three numbers.
HCF = 7
Example : A rectangular field 20 m by 15 m is divided into

identical square plots of land. Find the largest possible length 5
of a side of each square plot of land.
5
Solution
The length (in metres) of a side of each square plot of land 15
should divide 20 and 15 exactly. Hence it is a common factor of
20 and 15. Therefore the largest possible length is the HCF of
20 and 15.
20 = 22 x 5
20
15 = 3 x 5
∴ HCF of 20 and 15 is 5. The figure shows the division.
The largest possible length of a side of each square plot of land is 5 m.
Lowest Common Multiple (LCM)

Let us consider the first 10 multiples of 6 and 8
Multiples of 6: 6, 12, 18, 24, 30, 36, 42, 48, 54, 60, ––
Multiples of 8: 8, 16, 24, 32, 40, 48, 5, 64, 72, 80, ––
24 and 48 are the common multiples of 6 and 8. The smallest common multiple of 6 and 8 is 24.
The smallest common multiple of a group of numbers is called

the lowest common multiple (or LCM) of the given numbers
Likewise, we can use prime factorisation to find the LCM of two or more numbers as shown by
the following three examples.
Mathematics
Example
Find the LCM of 24 and 90.
Solution
We find the prime factorisation of each number.
24 = 23 x 3
90 = 2 x 32 x 5
We can visualise process of taking all the different factors as the shown
below.
24 = 2 x 2 x2 × 3
are relatively prime,
90 = 2 × 3 × 3 × 5 they have no
LCM = 2 x 2 x 2 x 3 x 3 × 5 common factors
greater than 1.
LCM = 23 x 32 x 5 = 360 23 is of a higher power than 2 and
32 is of a higher power than 3.
Note: We see that the LCM is obtained by multiplying the highest power of each prime factor of
the given numbers.
Example
Find the LCM of 26 and 99
Solution
26 = 2 × 13
99 = 32 × 11
∴ LCM = 2 × 32 × 11 × 13 = 2574
Note : When two numbers are relatively prime, their LCM is the product of the two numbers
Example
Find LCM of 20, 24 and 70
Solution
20 = 22 × 5
24 = 23 × 3
70 = 2 × 5 × 7
∴ LCM = 23 × 3 × 5 × 7 = 840
Let a and b any two non-zero integers. Then H.C.F of a, b denoted by (a, b) exists and is unique.
Also there exists integers m and n such that (a, b) = am + bn
This theorem helps us to determine the HCF of a, b and also to express the HCF of a, b as a
linear equation involving a and b.
For e.g. to calculate the H.C.F of 143, 247 we use the above algorithm as follows:
Now 247 = 143 (1) + 104
143 = 104 (1) + 39
104 = 39 (2) + 26
39 = 26 (1) + 13
26 = 13 (2) + 0
∴ HCF of 143, 247 is 13.
Mathematics
Exploratory Exercises
1. Is – 12 a divisor of 144? (Yes)
2. Is 18 a divisor of (i) 324? (yes) (ii) – 288? (No) (iii) 0? (yes)
3. Every integer of the form 2n – 1 is odd. Can we conclude that every integer of the following
forms are also odd? Why?
(i) 2n2 + 3 (yes) (ii) 2n + 7 (yes)
(iii) 2n2 + 2n + 1 (yes) (iv) 4n + 1 (yes)
(v) 2n – 9 (yes) [even + odd = odd]
4. Every integer of the form 2n + 4 is even. Can we say that every integer of the following forms
are also even? Why?
(i) 2n + 6 (yes) (ii) 2 – 2n (yes)
(iii) 4n + 2 (yes) (iv) n2 + 2 (yes)
(v) 2n – 2 (yes)
5. Express the rational number 1/3 in rational form a/d in infinitely many ways,
1 2 3 4 5 
 3 = 6 = 9 = 12 = 15 = ........ 
 
6. If β is a rational number, then β 2 is also rational. Does this amount to proving that, if β 2
is
irrational then β is irrational? (Yes)
7. 9.999…… as a terminating decimal will be ………
[Let x = 9.999……=10, x = 9.999……9x = 90 ∴ x = 10]

8. Which rational number a/b have two essentially different decimal representations?
(Rational number a/b (in lowest terms) with the property that b is divisible by no prime other
than 2 and 5 and with a ≠ 0)
9. Look at this number
q = 0.101001000100001000001…… formed by a series of ones separated by zeroes, first
one zero then two zeros, then three zeros and so on. Is it rational or irrational? Why?
(Irrational no cyclic decimal although infinite)
10. What kind of number is 5 + 3 ? (Irrational)
11. Is 3
2 rational or irrational? (Yes) Can you prove it?
{Let x = 3 2 ⇒ x3 = 2; i.e., x3 – 2 = 0. The only factors of 2 are ± 1, ± 2 but these do not

satisfy x3 = 2}
12. Is 0 rational or irrational? (rational)
 12x − 10 
13. Is there any solution for 12x ≡ 10 (mod 15)?  ∈ k  = 12x – 10 = 15k or 12x – 15k = 10
 15 
(3/LHS but 3 does not divide RHS). Hence there is no solution

14. Show that the last digit of 61n – 1, where n is any positive integer, is zero.
(Whatever be n, the last digit of 61n is 1 ∴ 1 – 1 = 0 always)

Mathematics
15. If the H.C.F. of 12 and 15 can be expressed as 15x + 12y, find x and y
(15, 12) = 15x + 12y
15 = 12 . 1 + 3
12 = 3.4 + 0 ∴ 3 is the HCF.
∴ 3 = 15.(1) – 12.(1)
i.e., 3 = 15x + 12y where x = 1, y = –1
16. If c/a and c/b, show that c2/ab where a, b, c ∈ I
c/a ∴ c = a k where k is an integer
c/b ∴ c = b l where l is an integer
∴ c2 = (ak) (b l ) = (ab) (k l )
= (ab) m where k l = m ∈ I
i.e., c2 / ab
17. Find (741, 1079) and express it as a linear combination of 741 and 1049
or (Find the H.C.F of 741 and 1079 and express this HCF as 741x + 1079y where x and y are
integers which are to be determined)
1079 = 741.(1) + 338
741 = 338.2 + 65
338 = 65.5 + 13
65 = 13.5 + 0 ∴ HCF is 13
Now 13 = 338 – 65.5
= 338 – (741 – 338.2) 5
= 338.11 – 741.5
= (1079 – 741) 11 – 741.5
= 1079 (11) + 741(–16)
∴ 741x + 1079 (y)
∴ 741(–16) + 1079 (11)
Check: 1079 × 11 = 11869
741 × 16 = 11856
∴ 11869 – 11856 = 13
∴ x = –16 ; y = 11
Mathematics
Let us Explore Magic squares
1. What makes a magic square?
Magic square is the name given to a figure in which the sum of the numbers in every row,
every column and in the two diagonals is the same. The common sum is called the Magic
Number.
For example:
2 9 4
7 5 3
6 1 8
row sum = 15 is a magic square

column sum = 15
diagonal sum = 15
The magic number is 15 here.
2. A magic square is a perfect magic square if the numbers are in sequence as 1, 2, 3, ………9
3. The order of a magic square is the number of rows (or columns) of cells of a magic square.
magic squares of order 3, 5, 7, 9 are called odd-ordered magic square, magic squares of
order 4, 6, 8 and so on are even – ordered magic squares.
4. The formula for finding the magic number when the numbers are the first n consecutive
n3 + n
numbers is where n is the number of cells in a row.
2
Probing questions
1. Construct an order three magic square in which the numbers are not in sequence.
2. Construct an order five magic square
3. Construct an order four magic square using the numbers 0, 4, 8 and 12. The numbers must
not be repeated in any row.
4. Complete the magic square below using the numbers 1, 2, 3, 4, 5, and 6. What is the magic
number?
1 a b c d 6
e 2 f g 5 h
i j 3 4 k ℓ
m n 3 4 p q
r 2 s t 5 u
1 v w x y 6
5. Find the error in the following magic square. (where column–wise totals are equal)
Mathematics
47 56 34 22 38 7
24 67 44 26 15 75
29 52 3 99 18 48
17 49 89 4 53 37
97 6 33 11 76 28
35 19 46 87 9 54
ANSWERS
1.
16 2 12
6 10 14
8 18 4
Magic sum is 30
2.
8 1 24 17 15
5 23 16 14 7
22 20 13 6 4
19 12 10 3 21
11 9 2 25 18
magic sum is 65 for ordinary magic square.

3.
0 8 4 12
12 4 8 0
12 4 8 0
0 8 4 12
magic number is 24
4. a = 5 b=4 c=3 d=2 e=6 f=4
g=3 h=1 i=6 j=5 k=2 ℓ=1
m=1 n=5 p=2 q=6 r=6 s=3
t=4 u=1 v=2 w=4 x=3 y=5
magic number is 21
5. The error is in the last row. The number should be 49 instead of 9
1.4.1. Indices, Surds and Logarithms

Mathematics
Prerequisite: Knowledge of real number system and divisibility.
An expression such as a × a × a × a × b × b × b may be equivalent to a4b3. This is called the
base-exponent form of the expression.
Scientific Notation
We are using very large numbers and very small numbers in Science, Astronomy and
Engineering such as the distance of a planet from the earth or the diameter of an electron.
Using the laws of indices, any positive real number can be written in the form a × 10n where
1 ≤ a < 10 and n is an integer. For example.
65  68 = 6.568 × 10–1
924
.00924 = = 9.24 × 10 −3
1000
959000000 = 9.59 × 108
5.94 = 5.94 × 100
This way of writing any number (i.e., in the form a × 10n where 1 ≤ a < 10 and n is an integer) is
called Scientific notation.
Exercise
1. Find the value of the following in scientific notation
(a) (100)3 × (40)5 (Ans: 1.024 × 1014)
(b) (21000)2 × (0.001)4 (Ans: 4.41 × 10–4)
(c) (18000)4 × (30000)2 (Ans: 1.1664 × 108)
(d) (0.002)8 × (0.0001)3 ÷ (0.01)4 (Ans: 2.56 × 10–26)
(e) (120000) × (0.0005)2 ÷ (400000) (Ans: 7.5 × 10–8)
2. Write the following numbers in decimal form
(a) 3.25 × 10–6 (Ans: 0.00000325)

(b) 4.02 × 10 –5
(Ans: 0.0000402)
(c) 3.25 × 10 6
(Ans: 3250000)
(d) 1.432 × 10–3 (Ans: 0.001432)
(e) 4.132 × 10 –4
(Ans: 41320)
(f) 4.02 × 105 (Ans: 402000)
(g) 1.432 × 10 3
(Ans: 1432)
Consider the expression (a5)
Here a is called the base, ‘5’ the exponent and the whole symbol (a5) is called ‘power’ of a.
That is base – exponent form of a number is called the ‘power’ of that number.
Note that the base has restrictions to be meaningful. That is (i) It is not 0; (ii) It is not 1 (Why?)
1.4.2. Laws of indices

Mathematics
(i) am × an = am+n
Example: a4 × a2 = a4+2 = a6
(ii) am ÷ an = am–n
Example: a5 ÷ a3 = a5–3 = a2 (m > n)
a3 ÷ a5 = a3–5 = a–2 (m < n)
(iii) a0 = 1 (by agreement / definition)
(iv) (am)n = amn

× 4
Example: (x3)4 = x3 = x12
(v) (ab)n = anbn

Example: (x2 y3)4 = (x2)4 × (y3)4 = x8 y12
n
a an
(vi)   = n
b b
4
 x2  x 2×4 x8
Example:  4  = 4×4 = 16
y  y y
−n 1
(vii) a =
an
−4 1 1
Example: 5 = 4
; = 10 −3
5 103
1.4.3. Surds
An expression which is expressible in the form n n
a where a is rational and a is irrational, is
called a surd.
The symbol ‘ n ’ is called the radical sign. n is called the order of the surd (or radical) and ‘a’ is
called the radicand.
For example 2 appears to be not a surd because 2 is irrational but 2 can be expressed
as 4
2 and therefore it is a surd.
Any surd can be converted into base exponent form.
Example: 2
3 = (3)1/ 2 ; 5 7 = (7)1/ 5 etc.,
1.4.4. Laws of radicals

Mathematics
( a)
n 1
( )
n n ×n
(i) = a1/ n = a n =a
 1 1 1
(ii) ( n
)
a . n b = n ab ;  a n   b n  = (ab)n = ab
  
n
  
n
a a
(iii) n
= n
b b
n
(iv) ap = (ap )1/ n = ap / n
m
( a)
m
(v) a n = n am = n
( 8)
2
Example: 82 / 3 = 3 (8)2 = 3
=4
Examples
1
( ) ( )
3 3 ×3
(i) 3
5 = 51/ 3 = 53 =5
(ii) 4
625 = 4 25 × 25 = (25)1/ 4 × (25)1/ 4 = 51/ 2 × 51/ 2 = 5
1
(iii) 5 3
3 = (31/ 3 )1/ 5 = 315 = 15 3
3
(iv) Express 32 as a surd
4
2
3 2 9
Expression:  4  × ( 32) = 16 × 32 = 18
 
(v) Find the value of 1350 1350 = 2 × 625 = 2 × 25 × 25 = 25 2

A binomial surd consists of two terms.
Conjugate binomial surds
Two binomial surds of the form a + b and a − b (where a, b ∈ Q) are conjugates if the
rational parts (first part without root symbol) are the same and the irrational parts (under root
symbol) differ only in sign.
irrational parts
For example: 5 − 8 and 5 + 8 are conjugates
rational parts
The ‘conjugate’ idea will be very important for problem solving while we have a surd in the
denominator. It is conventional to rationalise the denominator always, i.e. not to leave the
Mathematics
denominator in surd form. So we may have to multiply and divide by the conjugate of the
denominator wherever possible
(i) a means the positive square root of a, while – a means the negative
square root of a.
(ii) An irrational number involving a root is called a surd
1.4.5. Logarithms
Definition: The logarithm of a number x to a given base ‘a’ is equal to the exponent of the power
to which the base is raised to equal the number i.e. ay = x; logarithm of x to the base a is y.
For example, 23 = 8; we say logarithm of 8 to the base 2 is 3 and we write log28 = 3
Note: The base cannot be 0; cannot be 1; cannot be negative.
1   1 
Examples: 3-2 = ∴  log3    = − 2
9   9 
2x = 49 ∴ log2 49 = x
 1 1
log2   = x ∴ 2x = 2 = 2−2 ∴ x = − 2
4
  2
Important points on logarithms

 1
(i) logarithms of a positive number may be negative (Example: log2   = − 3
8
(ii) logarithm of a number to the same base is 1 ie logaa = 1 (where a > 0, a ≠ 1)
(iii) logarithm of 1 to any base is 0 ie loga1 = 0 (a0 = 1)
(iv) logarithms of negative numbers are not defined
 1
(Example: log5 (–7) and log3  −  are not defined)
 4
(v) The base of a logarithm should be positive and also not 1.
Laws of logarithms
Product rule
(i) loga (mn) = logam + logan (m, n > 0, a > 0, a ≠ 1)
(i.e.) logarithm of a product of two positive numbers is the sum of their logarithms)
Proof
Let logam = x ∴ ax = m (1)
Let logan = y ∴ ay = n (2)
∴ log mn = a × a = a
x y x+y
∴ loga (mn) = x + y = logam + logan
Mathematics
Quotient rule
m
(ii) loga   = loga m − loga n (m, n > 0, a > 0, a ≠ 1)
n
(The logarithm of a quotient is the logarithm of numerator minus logarithm of denominator)
Let logam = x ∴ ax = m (1)
Let logan = y ∴ a =n
y
(2)
x
m a
∴   = y = ax − y
n a
m
∴ loga   = x − y = loga m − loga n
n
Power rule
(iii) loga mn = n . loga m
(The logarithm of a power of a number is the product of the exponent and the logarithm of that
number)
Let logam = x ax = m (1)

∴ mn = (ax)n = anx
∴ loga(mn) = n.x = n logam
(iv) Change of base rule

logb a = logc a × logb c (a, b, c > 0, b ≠ 1, c ≠ 1)
Let logb a = x ∴ b x = a (1)
Let logc a = y ∴ c y = a (2)
Let logb c = z ∴ b z = c (3)

Now a = cy
= (bz )y = bzy (4)
zy x
∴ a = b = b for (1) and (4)
∴ x = yz
ie logba = logca × logbc
Reciprocal rule
1
(v) logb a × loga b = 1 or logb a =
loga b
Let logb a = x ∴ b x = a (1)
Mathematics
Let loga b = y ∴ ay = b (2)
From (1) and (2)
a1 = b x = (a y )x = a xy
∴ xy = 1
1 1
∴ x=  or y = 
y x
1
ie logb a =
loga b
Common Logarithms
Logarithms that have a base of 10 are known as common logarithms. We use log x to denote
log10x.
The common logarithm is a number consisting of an integral part and a decimal part. The
integral part is called the characteristic and the decimal part is called the mantissa. Mantissa is
always positive.
The characteristic of a logarithm is 1 less than the number of digits in the integral
part or one more than the number of zeroes immediately after the decimal point, if
the number is less than 1 and in this case it is negative.
Example:
(i) Characteristic of the number 172 is (3 – 1) = 2
(ii) Characteristic of the number 0.0054 is – 3
(iii) log 0.04382 → has characteristic –2 or 2
(iv) log 4438.9 → has characteristic (4 – 1) = 3
Mantissa can be found from the log tables.

The mantissa is the same for the logarithms of all numbers having the same significant digits.
Let us take an example how the logarithm of a number is calculated from tables.
Find log 896.7
Here the characteristic is 2 (3 – 1 = 2)
Find the intersection number on the table of the row headed by 89 (first two digits) and the
column headed by 6 (at the top). Read this number as 9523.
Find the mean difference in the column (right across) headed by 7. Here the entry is 3
Thus we get 9523 + 3 = 9526 as the number for our consideration.
Now log 896.7 = 2.9526
Suppose we have to find the number whose logarithm is given, say, 0.9526
This process is known as Antilogarithm. The method is similar.
First find the intersection number headed by .95 and the column headed by 2. Now again move
horizontally to the main difference table and locate intersection at the top headed by 6.
Adding all these we get the number 8967
∴ antilog of 0.9526 = 8.967 as the characteristic is 0 and so decimal point is to be put between 8
and 9.
Mathematics
Let us Explore (Ideas for enrichment)
Formula for the number of divisors existing in a natural number n.
1. Let n = 150. Then 150 = 21 × 31 × 52
∴ n(D) = (1 + 1) (1 + 1) (2 + 1) = 2 × 2 × 3 = 12
In usual practice, the divisors of 150 are 1, 2, 3, 5, 6, 10, 15, 25, 30, 50, 75, 150 (12 in all)
Thus the formula for finding the number of divisors in a natural number n is given by
n(D) = (a + 1) (b + 1) (c + 1) .. where n = xa yb zc …, x, y, z being prime numbers and
a, b, c ∈ N
2. Formula for finding the sum of all divisors (including itself and one) of a natural number
Let us take the number as 144.
24 +1 − 1 32 +1 − 1 25 − 1 33 − 1
Now 144 = 24 × 32 ∴ S(D) = × = ×
2 −1 3 −1 1 2
= 31 × 13 = 403
In usual practice, the sum of all the divisors (including itself and one) of 144 is
1 + 2 + 3 + 4 + 6 + 8 + 9 + 12 + 16 + 18 + 24 + 36 + 48 + 72 + 144 = 403
Thus the general formula for the sum of all factors (including itself and one) of a natural
number is given by
xa+1 − 1 yb+1 − 1 zc +1 − 1
SD = × × ....
x −1 y −1 z −1
where x = xa . yb . zc .., x, y, z etc are prime numbers and a, b, c ∈ N
3. Formula for finding the sum of all proper divisors of a natural number n.
Let us take the natural number 42
∴ 42 = 21 × 31 × 71
The proper divisors of 42 are 2, 3, 6, 7, 14, 21 ∴ Sum is 53
(Note 1is a trivial divisor and 42 is improper divisor) and therefore both are excluded in the
formula but added separately.
The formula for finding the sum of all proper divisors is given by
 21+1 − 1 31+1 − 1 71+1 − 1
SD =  × ×  − (42 + 1)
 2 − 1 3 −1 7 − 1 
= (3 × 4 × 8) – 43 = 53
In usual practice the sum is
2 + 3 + 6 + 7 + 14 + 21 = 53
(1 and 42 are omitted from the sum)
In general the formula is given by
 xa +1 − 1 yb +1 − 1 
Sd =  × × .. − [n + 1]
 x − 1 y −1 
where n = xa yb …, x, y, z … ∈ prime numbers and a, b, c, … ∈ N
Mathematics
1.4.5. Modular Arithmetic
Introduction: The above topics are distinct but kept as part of syllabus in various State boards
for Std X only. Fundamentals are to be stressed and simple applications to be solved
Nevertheless, the above topics are extremely important from the competitive examination point of
view and as such students are advised to learn.
Books for reference: Standard text books on number theory, statistics and Algebra – Books
prescribed by State boards in southern states.
Modular Arithmetic: (or congruencies)

In a clock, if it is 4 O’ clock and we add 5 hours the time will be 9 O’ clock. We say that 4 + 5 = 9.
But if it is 9 O’ clock and we add 5 hours, the time will be 2 O’ clock. So we write 9 + 5 = 2.
Every time we go past 0 on the dial, we start counting the hours at 1 again. All multiples of 12
are equivalent to 0. To convert whole numbers to their clock 12 equivalent, we simply divide 12
and record the remainder. It is the remainder above that interests us. This is the basis of
modular arithmetic.
The credit for discovering congruencies (that is modulo arithmetic) should go to Karl Frederic Gauss.
On a 12 – hour clock, there are only 12 numbers in the whole number system. However, every
number has lots of different names. For example, the number before 1 is 0 ∴ 12 = 0 on a 12
hour clock
A notation for writing equations here in the hour clock is 12 ≡ 0 (mod 12) ; 13 ≡ 1 (mod 12)
This means 13 and 1 are the same number on a 12 – hour clock.

Definition: Let a, b and be integers, and m > o. Then we say that a is congruent to
b if m divides (a – b) i e m / (a – b)
We also say that a is congruent to b modulo m
We denote this by a ≡ b (mod m)
Example: (i) Is 8 ≡ 1 (mod 7) a true statement?

Yes; because 7 divides (8 – 1)
i.e 8 and 1 are equal in a 7 – digit clock.
(ii) Is 4 ≡ 1 (mod 3) true?
Yes; because, 3 / (4 – 1)
(iii) Is 7 ≡ 2 (mod 4) true?
No ; because (7 – 2) is not divisible by 4 or 4 X (7 – 2)
Facts about modulo arithmetic (clock arithmetic)

(i) Let a ≡ b (mod m) and x be an integer (i.e x ∈ I)
(ii) Then a + x ≡ b + x (mod m)
(ii) Then a – x ≡ b – x (mod m)
Example: 9 ≡ 4 (mod 5)
∴ 9 – 3 ≡ 4 – 3 (mod 5)
(iii) a x = b x (mod m)
Mathematics
Example 12 ≡ 3 (mod 9)
∴ 12 × 2 ≡ 3 x 2 (mod 9)
Let a ≡ b (mod m) and c ≡ d (mod m). Then
(a) a + c ≡ b + d (mod m)
(b) a – c ≡ b – d (mod m)
(c) ac ≡ bd (mod m)
(d) pa + qc = pb + qd (mod m)
(e) am ≡ bm (mod m) for all integers m
(f) If ca = cb (mod m) and (c1 m) = 1, then a ≡ b (mod m)
An integer x satisfying the linear congruence ax ≡ b (mod m) is called a solution of the

congruence x (a, m). If 1, then the linear congruence ax ≡ b (mod m) has a solution.
The linear congruence ax = b (mod m) has a solution if and only if d /b where d is the
H.C. F of a and m
i.e. d = (a, m)
1.4.6. Permutation and combination

In this topic you will be able to
(i) understand the concept of permutations and combinations
(ii) distinguish between permutation and combination
(iii) understand factorial notation
(iv) understand the meanings of npr and ncr
(v) develop the skill in solving the problems
Permutation is an orderly arrangement of objects
Combination is mere selection of objects
The concept of permutations and combinations have applications in solving problems of

probability and genetic engineering.
(i) Consider three objects A, B, C, how many ways you can arrange them, in a row, two at a time?
The arrangements are
A B, A C, B A., B C , C A, C B, (six in all)
These arrangements are called permutations
(ii) Consider three objects A, B, C Arrange them in a row rating all the three at a time.
The arrangements are
A B C, A C B, B A C, B C A, C A B, C B A (six in all)
(iii) There are four different digits 1, 2, 3, 4, How many numbers can be formed using two digits at
a time?
The two – digit numbers that can be formed are
Mathematics
12 21 31 41
13 23 32 42 (12 in all)
14 24 34 43
Let us tabulate the above results (i) (ii) (iii) and observe a pattern.
S R No Total number Objects taken Symbol Number of Pattern

Of objects ‘n’ at a time mPn permutations
1 3 2 3P
2
6 3× 2=6
2 3 3 3P 6 3× 2× 1=
3
6
3 4 2 4P
2
12 4 × 3 = 12
Permutation of “n” objects taken “n” at a time is denoted by npn
An act of arrangement of objects in an orderly way is permutation
Fundamental principle of counting:

(i) Suppose an event occurs in ‘m’ different ways and another event occurs independently in ‘n’
different ways
Then, the two events together can occur in “m × n” i.e. “m n” different ways.
(ii) The number of permutations of m things taken ‘n’ at a time is given by the formula.
mPn = m (m – 1) (m – 2) (m – 3) ………(m – n − 1 )
i.e. m(m-1
)(m-2
)(m-3
).............(m -n+1)
(iii) The product of first n natural number is denoted by n! or n ! and it is read as factorial n.
Thus 5 ! = Factorial 5 = 5 × 4 × 3 × 2 × 1
= 120
m!
Also mPn =
(m − n) !
(iv) mp1 = m
(v) mpm = m!
(vi) O! = 1
1.4.7. Combinations
The number of combinations of ‘n’ things taken ‘r’ at a time is denoted by nCr
In combinations, arrangement of objects do not matter as combinations is a mere selection of

different objects.
Mathematics
Examples:
(i) How many groups of objects be selected from amongst A, B and C?
Number of selections = AB, AC, BC (only 3)
Note that AB and BA is the same selection.
(ii) There are three objects A, B and C. In how many different ways can all the three objects be
chosen?
(A B C only – ie only one)
(iii) Consider 4 objects A, B, C, D. In how many different ways (i) 2 objects (ii) 3 objects (iii) 4
objects be selected?
(i) AB, A C, A D, B C, B D, C D (6 in all)
(ii) A B C, A C D, A B D, B C D ( 4 in all)
Formula for nCr : n

Pr
n! ie r !
n
Cr =
(n − r) r!
Example:
There are 8 non-collinear prints. How many straight lines can be drawn by joining these points?
Solution:
A straight line is obtained by giving any two points on a plane.
∴ Number of straight lines formed = 8C2
8 (8 − 1) 8 × 7
= = = 28.
2! 1× 2
Algebraic structure:
Binary operation
Definition: A binary operation on a set, is a rule which assigns to each ordered pair of
elements of the set, a unique element of the set
The word “ordered” in the definition is very important for the element assigned to the pair (a, b)
Why? This is different from the element, assigned to the pair (b, a)
The following notations are used for varying sets of numbers:
Z – The set of all integers (whole numbers, positive, negative and zero)
Z + – Also equal to N – The set of all positive integers or natural numbers (0 excluded)
Q – The set of all rational numbers
∗
Q – The set of all non – zero rational numbers
Q+ – The set of all positive rational numbers
R – The set of all real numbers
∗
R – The set of all non – zero real numbers
R+ – The set of all positive real numbers
C – The set of all complex numbers
∗
C – The set of all non – zero complex numbers
Mathematics
1.4.8. Properties of Binary operation:
(i) If ∗ is a binary operation, then a * b ε S for all a, b ε S – we say that S is closed under the
operation.*
Example: Show that the operation of subtraction is not a binary operation on the set N.
N o 5, 8 ε N and 5 – 8 = –3, ∉ N
∴ Subtraction is not a binary operation on N.
(ii) The operation ∗ is associative if
(a ∗ b) ∗ C = a ∗ (b ∗ C) for all a, b, c ε S
(iii) An element e of S which satisfies
e ∗ a = a ∗ e = a . for all a ∈S.
Is called the identity element for the binary operation ∗ on S
(iv) A binary operation ∗ on S iS Commutative if a ∗ b = b ∗ a for all a, b, ∈ S
(v) For each element a ∈ S, if there is an element b ε S such that a ∗ b = b ∗ a = e; then the
element b is called the inverse of a under the binary operation. *
The element b, “inverse of a” is usually denoted by a”
The following symbols are used in this topic (in pulling)
Symbols Meaning
∀ for all
∈ belong to
∉ does not belong to
∃ there exist
: or / Such that
We have thus learnt to examine the given set with respect to a given operation is an algebraic
structure i.e A non – empty set equipped with certain Binary operation. is called an algebraic
structure and is denoted by (S,∗)
Example:
a+b
Given set Z, operation ∗ and r defined by a ∗ b = , a, b, ∈ z
2
Verify whether (z, ∗) is an Algebraic structure.
a+b
Now a ∗ b =
2
1+ 2 3
Let a = 1, b = 2, Then 1 ∗ 2 = =
2 2
3
But ∉z
2
∴ z is not closed under ∗ in Z
∴ ∗ is not a binary operation
i.e. (z , ∗) is not an Algebraic structure.
Mathematics
ab
Example: Verify whether (Q, ∗) defined by a * b = where a, b, ∈ Q is an
2
Algebraic structure. If it is so verify whether the operation ∗ is associative.
1
1 1× 1
Let a = 1, b = so that a * b = 2 = ∈Q
2 4
2
∴ (Q, ∗) is an Algebraic structure as
∗ is a binary operation in Q.
 ab 
Also (a, ∗ b) ∗ C =   ∗ (C)
 2 
 ab 
c
=  2  abc
=
2 4
 bc  abC
a ∗ (b ∗ c) = a ∗   =
 2 4
∴ a ∗ (b ∗ c) = (a ∗ b) ∗ c
∴ The operation is associative

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Mathematics

Unit 1 – The Number System and Indices, Surds and Logarithms

Factors, multiples, divisors

1.1.4. The system of integers

1.1.5. Tests of divisibility

1.2.1. Rational numbers

What is (3 − 5 ) × (3 + 5 ) ? Is it irrational? No. Why?

1.2.2. Real Numbers

1.2.3. Conjugate irrational numbers

−1 + 2 and − 1 − 2 are conjugates. Why? (Apply the definition)

But 3 + 7 and − 3 + 7 are not conjugates . Why?

3 + 7 and − 3 − 7 are not conjugates. Why?

1.2.4. Pythagorean triplet

1.3.1. The absolute value

Absolute values are never negative

1.3.2. The absolute value of an integer

1.3.3. The graph of absolute value relationship

3. If a/b and a/c, then a/ (b ± c) or a/(pb ± qc) (linearity property)

5. If ca/cb and c ≠ 0 , then a/b (cancellation law)

8. If a/b and b ≠ 0, then | a | ≤ | b |

1.3.5. Change of bases

1.3.6. The Greatest Integer Function

(ii) [x] < x if and only if x ∈ R – Z

(iii) [x] = x if and only if x ∈ Z

1.3.7. Euclid’s algorithm The largest common

Example : A rectangular field 20 m by 15 m is divided into

Lowest Common Multiple (LCM)

The smallest common multiple of a group of numbers is called

[Let x = 9.999……=10, x = 9.999……9x = 90 ∴ x = 10]

10. What kind of number is 5 + 3 ? (Irrational)

{Let x = 3 2 ⇒ x3 = 2; i.e., x3 – 2 = 0. The only factors of 2 are ± 1, ± 2 but these do not

(3/LHS but 3 does not divide RHS). Hence there is no solution

(Whatever be n, the last digit of 61n is 1 ∴ 1 – 1 = 0 always)

12 = 3.4 + 0 ∴ 3 is the HCF.

16. If c/a and c/b, show that c2/ab where a, b, c ∈ I

c/a ∴ c = a k where k is an integer

c/b ∴ c = b l where l is an integer

row sum = 15 is a magic square

magic sum is 65 for ordinary magic square.

1.4.1. Indices, Surds and Logarithms

(a) (100)3 × (40)5 (Ans: 1.024 × 1014)

(b) (21000)2 × (0.001)4 (Ans: 4.41 × 10–4)

(c) (18000)4 × (30000)2 (Ans: 1.1664 × 108)

(d) (0.002)8 × (0.0001)3 ÷ (0.01)4 (Ans: 2.56 × 10–26)

(e) (120000) × (0.0005)2 ÷ (400000) (Ans: 7.5 × 10–8)

2. Write the following numbers in decimal form

(a) 3.25 × 10–6 (Ans: 0.00000325)

1.4.2. Laws of indices

(iii) a0 = 1 (by agreement / definition)

(iv) (am)n = amn

(v) (ab)n = anbn

Any surd can be converted into base exponent form.

1.4.4. Laws of radicals

(v) Find the value of 1350 1350 = 2 × 625 = 2 × 25 × 25 = 25 2

For example: 5 − 8 and 5 + 8 are conjugates

Note: The base cannot be 0; cannot be 1; cannot be negative.

Important points on logarithms

∴ loga (mn) = x + y = logam + logan

Let logam = x ax = m (1)

(iv) Change of base rule

Let logb a = x ∴ b x = a (1)

Let logc a = y ∴ c y = a (2)