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LABORATORY MANUAL
LMPHY121: PHYSICS LABORATORY
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TEXTBOOK:
1. LMPHY121.doc
OTHER READINGS:
2. Arora C.L., B.Sc. Practical Physics Chand S. & Company, New Delhi, Twentieth edition,
2007.
Experiment 1.
Aim: An introduction to units, errors, different types of graphs and measurement of length, mass and
time.
Step 2. Choose a linear graph sheet which is linearly (normally in mm) graduated on both X
as well Y- axis
Step 3. Choose Y-axis for T2 and X-axis for L
Step 4. Max T2 is 1 and min is 0.25; choose your scale so that you can mark 0.25 clearly.
Similarly choose scale for L on X-axis.
Step 5. Mark the points on the graph with a sharp pencil
Step 6. Draw a straight line through the points so that maximum number of points are very
close to the line (Best fit we will not discuss presently)
Step 7. Find the slope from the graph and calculate g
Exercise
In the above experiment the error ( in time period T is (0.1s) while the length L has error
(L) equal to 0.01m. Calculate the error in g
Semi-log graph paper
Radioactive decay is given by N(t) = N(0) e-at , where N(t) are the observed counts at time t,
N(0) are the counts at time t = 0 (fixed arbitrarily) and a is the decay constant. Calculate N(0)
and a by graphical technique from the given data (Table 2)
N(t) = N(0) e-at
Or ln N(t) = ln N(0) - t (ln is log to the base e)
Or 2.3log N(t) = 2.3 log N (0) -t (change of log base to 10)
Or log N(t) = log N(0) - (/2.3) t.(3)
This is an equation of a straight line with y=log N(t), x- - (/2.3) t with log N(0) as intercept
and plot of log N(t) vs t will give values of . Since y is in log form and x is in linear form
the plot has to to prepared using semi-log graph paper whose y-axis is in log scale while xaxis is in linear scale.
Table 2 summarizes the data collected from an experiment on radioactive decay. Plot the data
on semi-log paper and calculate and N(0) for this decay.
Exercise: Half-life is defined as the time needed to have [N(t)/N(0)]= ; derive an
expression for .
Calculate the value of for the radioactive process tabulated in Table 2.
Table 2
Time (days) Relative Activity
0.2
35.0
2.2
25.0
4.0
22.1
5.0
17.9
6.0
16.8
8.0
13.7
11.0
12.4
12.0
10.3
15.0
7.5
18.0
4.9
26.0
4.0
33.0
2.4
39.0
1.4
45.0
1.1
Important:
(i) Give a title to the graph; in present case it will be T2 Vs L for a simple pendulum.
(ii) Mark scales on the graph sheet; X-axis 10mm = so many m and Y-axis 10mm= so
many seconds
(iii) Mark X-axis and Y-axis with quantity (along with units) you are plotting
(iv)Calculate the slope and g on the graph sheet so that a graph is complete and one need
not to refer to the Lab Sheets.
Interpolation: From the graph you can find the L for T=0.44 (for example, within the
present data set)) even though there is no experimental data; this process is called
interpolation.
Extrapolation: One can extend the length of the line so that one can predict L for T =0.1s or
2.5s (outside the present data set); this is called extrapolation.
Cautions:
1.Zero error of the instrument must be taken in to account.
2.The cap of screw gauge should be turned till the object is just held between jaws without
pressure.
Experiment 2.
Aim: To study variation of angular acceleration with torque acting on the fly wheel. Find out
the minimum torque required to overcome the friction between the flywheel and bearing and
also find out the moment of inertia of the flywheel
Apparatus Required: A wall mounted flywheel, slotted mass with hanger (50gm each), a strong and
thin string or fine cord, stop watch, meter rule or measuring tape and vernier callipers.
Learning Objectives:
Rotational dynamics
Learn to Measure the angular acceleration , torque and hence moment of inertia of the flywheel.
Learn to apply the principle of conservation of energy to rotational dynamics.
Learn to aware of the limitations in an experiment and devise method to solve the problems.
Learn to handle error estimation using sum of percent errors.
The student will learn about torque, angular acceleration produced due to torque and hence
physical importance of the moment of inertia of circular bodies like wheels.
Parameter and Plots:
Calculate Vernier constant of vernier calliper
Calculate the radius of the axle
Sources of errors1--The angular velocity has been calculated on the assumption that the friction remains
constant when the angular velocity decreases to zero,but in actual practice friction increase as
velocity decreases.
2The instant at which the string is detached can not be correctly found out.
Cautions:
Mass of string can be taken into account for better results.
Stop watch should be started and stopped with accuracy to avoid any kind of time interval
measurement error.
FORMULA USED:
FR
F= R, where F= force of friction
=coefficient of friction
R=normal reaction
PROCEDURE:
Weight the scale pan (p) & each of the wooden blocks (w).
Place the inclined plane horizontally on the table & level it with the help of a spirit level.
Attach one end of the thread to the scale pan & the other end to the hook of the wooden
block.
Place the block on the inclined plane apparatus & pass the thread over the pulley.
Place the weight in the pan & tap the surface of the inclined plane gently. The weight
should be placed in the pan in order the wooden block just begin to slide on tapping the
horizontal surface.
Note down the weight in the pan (P1); then the force of friction, F1=p+P1 & normal
reaction, R1=w. Now place a known weight (W) on the wooden block & again find
weights (P2) to be placed in the pan in order that the wooden block just begin to slide on
tapping the horizontal surface. Then, then the force of friction, F2=p+P2 & normal
reaction, R2=w+W.
If F1/R1=F2/R2, then F R. Now remove the glass top of the inclined plane apparatus
carefully & the place the wooden block on it & repeat the procedure as mentioned
above. Now replace the block with other identical block but having rough surface &
repeat the procedure as above.
OBSERVATIONS:
A) To study the dependence of force of friction on normal reaction:
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Weight on the
block (W)
Normal
reaction
(R=w+W)
Weight in the
pan (P)
Force of friction
(F=p+P)
F/R=
1
2
3
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Experiment: To plot graph between distance knife edges from the center of gravity and the
time period of a compound pendulum.
Equipment Required: Bar Pendulum, Small metal wedge, Spirit level, Telescope, Stop watch,
Meter rod, Graph paper
Learning Objectives:
1. To determine the acceleration due to gravity using compound pendulum.
2. To determine the radius of gyration and the moment of inertia of the bar about an axis
passing through the centre of gravity.
Theory:
A bar pendulum is the simplest form of compound pendulum. It is in the form of a rectangular
bar (with its length much larger than the breadth and the thickness) with holes (for fixing the
knife edges) drilled along its length at equal separation. Two knife-edges are placed
symmetrically with respect to C.G as at A and B.
The time period of the compound pendulum about a horizontal axis through Centre of
Oscillation is the same as about Centre of Suspension.
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Observations:
S.No Side A
Time for
vibrations
1
Side B
20 Time
Distance Time
for 20 Time
Distance
Period t
from
vibrations
Period t
from
(Mean/20) C.G.
(Mean/20) C.G.
Mean
1
2
Mean
1.
2.
3.
To Plot the graph:
1. Take the Y-axis in the middle of the graph paper .Represent the distance from the C.G. along
the X-axis and the time-Period along the Y- axis.
2. Plot the distance on the side A to the right and the distance on the side B to the left of the
origin.
3. Draw smooth curves on the either side of the Y-axis passing through the plotted points
taking care that the two curves are exactly symmetrical as shown in graph.
To find the value of g:
1. Draw two lines parallel to the X-axis cutting the curves at the points CAGBD and
CAGBD respectively. Also draw the line MON touching the two portions of the
graph at M and N respectively.
2. Select points like C and B, A and D etc. on the graph on the two sides of the C.G., not
equidistant from it, having the same time period. Measure the distance AD and CB.
3. Similarly measure the distance AD and CB.
Mean L/t2 =
Hence
=
ms-2
Actual value of g=9.8 ms-2A
To find the radius of gyration: Measure the distances GD, AG; GC, BG; GD, AG ;
GC,BG; as well as NO and MO.
S.No.
L1
L2
K=
1
GD
AG
2
GC
BG
3
GD
AG
4
GC
BG
5
NO
MO
Moment of inertia:
Find the mass of the pendulum
Mass of pendulum
M=
kg
Radius of gyration
K=
m
Hence, Moment of inertia MK2=
kg-m2
Error analysis:
Percentage Error =
X100
Cautions:
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Theory
Katers pendulum is a Compound pendulum based on the principle that the centre
of suspension and centre of oscillation are interchangeable. The movable
cylinders, knife edges and the metallic weight are so adjusted such that the time
periods of the pendulum about the two knife edges situated asymmetrically with
respect to the center of gravity are exactly equal. Then, the distance between the
knife edges is equal to the length of equivalent simple pendulum whose time
period is given by
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Since T1~T2 and positions of K1 and K2 are asymmetrical about C.G, l1-l2 is fairly
large. Hence, the second term in the denominator is negligibly small and thus, an
approximate value of l1-l2 is sufficient.
Therefore,
(1)
Where
g = Acceleration due to gravity in cm/s2
T1 = Time period about K1 in seconds
T2 = Time period about K2 in seconds
l1 = Distance of K1 from C.G. in cm
l2 = Distance of K2 from C.G. in cm
Procedure:
1. Determine the middle point of the rod and fix the smaller metal weight W
there. Fix the brass weight W1 near one end of the Katers pendulum and the
knife edge K1 just below it.
2. Similarly, adjust the wooden weight W2 and the knife edge K2 at the other end
(end 2) of the pendulum with the same symmetry. The metallic and wooden
cylinders are placed at different ends to eliminate viscous drag of air and to
make the C.G. asymmetrical about the knife edges .Screw all the five tightly.
Knife edges must be sharp, horizontal and parallel to each other so that the
oscillations are confined to a vertical plane.
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3. Suspend the pendulum vertically about K1 and focus the telescope at the tip of
its lower end. Set it oscillating with amplitude of about 4-5 degrees for the
motion to remain simple harmonic. Note the time for 30 oscillations using a
stop watch.
4. Now suspend the pendulum vertically about K2 and repeat step 3.This time
will be quite different from that about K1.
5. Keep moving K1 and K2 towards W by small distance (approx. 1 cm) and
repeat steps 3 and 4 till the difference in time about K1 and K2 is less than one
second. If at any stage the time difference increases, then K1 and K2 should be
moved towards W.
6. Now, move the weight W and repeat step 5 to reduce the time difference to
about 0.5 second.
7. The apparatus is ready to record the measurements. Suspend the pendulum
about K1 and K2 vertically and record the time taken for 100 oscillations.
Repeat this 5 times each.
8. Remove the pendulum from support and place it horizontally on a wedge.
Balance it and find the C.G. of the system.
9. Measure the distances of knife edge K1 and K2 from the center of gravity.
Observations
Least count of meter scale = ------ mm
Least count of stop watch = ------ sec.
Knife edge
1
K1
K2
mean
Time
period
T1=
T2=
Calculations
T1 = ------ sec
T2 = ------ sec
l1 = ------ cm
l2 = ------ cm
Substitute in the Equation (1) and obtain the value of g.
Result
The value of acceleration due to gravity g as calculated in the lab is (---------
max. log error) cm/s2.
Percentage error
The percentage error can be calculated as
Standard value calculated value
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Percentage error =
---------------------------------------------- X 100
Standard value
Where
Standard value = 9.81 cm/s2
Calculated value = g
cautions:
1. The heavy weight should be placed at one end so that the C.G. lies near one
end of the Knife edges and wooden weight symmetrically at the other end to
avoid the error due to air drag.
2. The amplitude of vibration should be small so that the motion of the pendulum
satisfies the condition sin = .
3. For final observations the time period must be taken with an accurate stop
watch.
Learning outcomes: to be written by the students in 50-70 words.
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Experiment: To find the moment of inertia of an irregular body about an axis through the
centre of gravity with a torsion pendulum.
Equipment Required: Moment of inertia table, a regular body (right circular cylinder or
cube), an irregular body, spirit level, vernier calipers, telescope with an inverted scale with a
zero mark in middle, a stop watch, a balance and a weight box.
Learning Objectives:
1. To familiarize students with the concept of moment of inertia.
2. To familiarize students with the concept of torsion and modulus of rigidity.
Outline of the Procedure:
1. Suspend the moment of inertia table by means of a copper wire of a suitable length and
thickness from a rigid support. Place a spirit level amongst the diameter and see that the
table is horizontal. If it is not horizontal, then adjust the nuts provided at the ends of the
two rods.
2. Place a telescope with an inverted centimeter scale clamped to its stand at a distance not
less than one meter towards the mirror fixed to the torsion head.
3. Place the eye just above the telescope and adjust the position of the scale so that the
images of the scale divisions are seen in the mirror. Now place the telescope in the
position of the eye.
4. Adjust the eye piece of the telescope so that the cross-wires are clearly visible.
5. Twist the table 5-6 times so that it begins to execute torsional vibrations. Count time for
5 vibrations. Repeat three times.
6. Now, place the regular body in the centre of the table. Adjust the position of the table to
check if it is perfectly horizontal. Repeat step 5.
7. Remove the cylinder and place the irregular body on the table. Adjust the table so that it
is perfectly horizontal. Repeat step 5.
8. Weigh the regular body and find its dimensions with the help of vernier calipers.
Observations:
Sr. no.
Time period
(mean/5)
mean
Table alone
With regular
body
t1
With irregular
body
t2
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2) For cube:
Calculations:
Moment of inertia of irregular body;
= kg-m2
Result: The moment of inertia of the irregular body is . kg-m2
Error analysis--NA
cautions:
The amplitude should be small so that the wire is not twisted beyond the elastic
limits.
Learning outcomes: to be written by the students in 50-70 words.
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OBSERVATIONS:
Mass of the pan, W = kg
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Required Results: Find the frequency of tuning fork in transverse mode and also in longitudinal
mode. Observe and discuss the difference between these arrangements.
Graphs/Plots: Also show and plot {(2)/T} = constant
These variations can also be plotted.
For studying laws of string discuss the observations according to i) law of mass ii) law of length
iii) law of tension iv) law of diameter and v)law of density.
ERROR ANALYSIS;Find various sources of erreos and do calculate percentage error..
Cautions:
1.The thread should be uniform and inextensible.
2 Well defined loops should be obtained by adjusting the tension with milligram weights.
3 The loops in the central part of the thread should be counted for measurement. The nodes at the
tip of the prong and at the pulley should be neglected.
4 Frictions in the pulley should be least possible.
Learning outcomes: to be written by the students in 50-70 words.
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EXPERIMENT NO. 8:
EXperimnt: To study one dimensional elastic collision using two hanging sphere.
Equipments to be used: two metallic spheres of equal masses, a metre rod,
light & uniform thread, fixed unyielding support with suspension head to
suspend the spheres.
Learning Objectives:
To learn to study the one dimensional elastic collision
To learn to apply the principle of conservation of energy & momentum
To understand the limitations of the experiment set-up and devise
a method to overcome those limitations.
Procedure:
Find the weight of the two metallic spheres P & Q separately. See that the
two are nearly equal as possible.
Suspend the two spheres with threads of the same length L from the
suspension clamps & see that they are perfectly vertical.
Place a meter scale horizontally below the spheres.
Note the initial positions of the spheres on the meter scale when at rest.
Now displace the sphere P towards the left through a distance of 4 to
5cmto the position P & then release it. The sphere P will strike against the
sphere Q. As their masses are equal, the sphere P will come to rest after
collision (which is elastic for all purposes) while, the sphere Q would move
towards the right Note the position Q upto which the sphere Q moves to the
right before retracing its path. If the two spheres are of exactly the same
mass, then the sphere q will travel through exactly the same distance as
travelled by the sphere P from the point of release to the position of sphere Q
while at rest.
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EXPERIMENT NO. 9:
Experriment : To determine the Youngs modulus of the material of a rectangular bar by beam
bending using Travelling microscope.
Apparatus required : A beam of rectangular cross section (meter scale), two knife-edge
supports, a stirrup with a hook ,a hook to carry the load, slotted weights, spherometer, vernier
calipers and screw gauge, Travelling microscope.
Learning objectives :
To learn to find the Youngs modulus of the material.
To understand the limitations of the experiment set-up and devise a method to overcome
those limitations.
Theory :
Consider a bar supported on two knife edges in a horizontal plane so that equal lengths of the bar
project beyond the knife edges. If a weight mg is suspended at the middle point, a depression y is
produced.
For a rectangular bar of breadth b and thickness d the depression, Youngs modulus Y is
Y = (mgl3 ) / (4ybd3 )
Diagram :
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Image of speherometer
Procedure :
Find the center of gravity of the given bar and draw a sharp transverse line at the position
of C.G.
Place the bar on the two knife edges as shown in figure so that it rests on the two marked
lines equidistant from C.G. Make the bar horizontal and test with a spirit level.
Slip the stirrup on the bar and adjust its position so that the tip of the needle lies vertically
above the line marked at C.G. Suspend the hanger from the hook.
Find least count of spherometer and note its reading for no load on the hook.
Slip a half kg weight on the hanger gently. Work the micrometer screw and again note the
reading on spherometer.
Gradually increase the load in steps of half kg and take such eight observations.
Now decrease the load in steps of half kg and take the readings as before.
Remove the bar carefully without disturbing the position of knife edges. Measure the
distance between the two knife edges accurately using meter-scale.
Measure the breadth of the bar with a vernier callipers and thickness with a screw gauge at
5 points.
Plot a graph between the load and the mean of corresponding microscope readings on
loading and unloading. Find from the graph mean depression for two kg.
Observations : Least count of the spherometer = .. mm
Observation table :
Mean depression for 2 kg by calculations from graph
y = .. mm = m
Length of the bar between two knife edges
Mean l = .. m
Using vernier calipers : least count = 0.01 cm
Breadth of the bar
Mean b = . m
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EXPERIMENT NO. 10
Experiment: To Study the induced e.m.f. as function velocity of the magnet.
Equipment Required: A small permanent magnet mounted at the middle of a semi-circular arc, a
coil consisting of number of turns, two weights, stopwatch, capacitor, diode, resistance, voltmeter
Material Required: A small strong permanent magnet, a stopwatch
Learning Objectives:
Electromagnetic induction
Induced e.m.f
Mount the magnet at the middle point of the semi-circular arc and suspend the rigid
aluminium frame from its centre so that whole frame can oscillate freely through the coil.
Adjust the position of two weights on the diameter arm of the arc to have minimum time
period.
Connect the terminals of the coil to the diode circuit for measuring the peak value of
induced e.m.f.
Note time for about 20 oscillations with an amplitude of about say 20cm and respective
peak voltage.
Repeat thrice keeping the amplitude same and find the time period. Also note the peak
voltage each time.
Repeat the experiment after changing the amplitude and take 8-10 readings.
Now change the time period by adjusting the position of the weights on the diameter arm.
Take about three readings at this position.
Repeat the experiment after changing the time-period and take 8-10 readings.
Scope of the results expected: This experiment will help in understanding the nature and polarity
of induced e.m.f. One can apply the acquired knowledge to see the dependence of induced e.m.f. on
velocity of magnet w.r.t. the pickup coil.
Parameters and Plots:
(A) Time period constant, amplitude variable:
Mean position of the centre of the magnet= cm.
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Sr.No. Amplitude
Time for 20
Mean time
a = R00
Oscillations
period(T)
eo
v = (2/T) R00
(i)
(ii)
(iii)
.
.
Mean
Time for 20
Mean time
a = R00
Oscillations
period(T)
(i)
(ii)
(iii)
Mean
Model Plot:
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eo
eoT
Linear velocity
v = (2/T) R00
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