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Consider for instance the function f(x) = e^{1/x^2} with f(0) = 0. As a real fu
nction, it is infinitely differentiable everywhere; as a complex function howeve
r it is not differentiable at x = 0. By replacing x by 1/x2 in the power series f
or the exponential function, we obtain its Laurent series which converges and is
equal to (x) for all complex numbers x except at the singularity x = 0. The grap
h opposite shows e1/x2 in black and its Laurent approximations
\sum_{n=0}^N(1)^n\,{x^{2n}\over n!}
for N = 1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6, 7 and 50. As N , the approximation becomes exact for al
l (complex) numbers x except at the singularity x = 0.
More generally, Laurent series can be used to express holomorphic functions defi
ned on an annulus, much as power series are used to express holomorphic function
s defined on a disc.
Suppose
\sum_{n=\infty}^\infty a_n ( z c )^n
is a given Laurent series with complex coefficients an and a complex center c. T
hen there exists a unique inner radius r and outer radius R such that:
The Laurent series converges on the open annulus A {z : r < |z c| < R}. To s
ay that the Laurent series converges, we mean that both the positive degree powe
r series and the negative degree power series converge. Furthermore, this conver
gence will be uniform on compact sets. Finally, the convergent series defines a
holomorphic function (z) on the open annulus.
Outside the annulus, the Laurent series diverges. That is, at each point of
the exterior of A, the positive degree power series or the negative degree power
series diverges.
On the boundary of the annulus, one cannot make a general statement, except
to say that there is at least one point on the inner boundary and one point on t
he outer boundary such that (z) cannot be holomorphically continued to those poin
ts.
It is possible that r may be zero or R may be infinite; at the other extreme, it
's not necessarily true that r is less than R. These radii can be computed as fo
llows:
\begin{align} r &= \limsup_{n\rightarrow\infty} |a_{n}|^\frac{1}{n} \\ {1 \
over R} &= \limsup_{n\rightarrow\infty} |a_n|^\frac{1}{n}. \end{align}
We take R to be infinite when this latter lim sup is zero.
Conversely, if we start with an annulus of the form A {z : r < |z c| < R} and a
holomorphic function (z) defined on A, then there always exists a unique Laurent
series with center c which converges (at least) on A and represents the function
(z).
As an example, let
f(z) = {1 \over (z1)(z2i)}.
This function has singularities at z = 1 and z = 2i, where the denominator of th
e expression is zero and the expression is therefore undefined. A Taylor series
about z = 0 (which yields a power series) will only converge in a disc of radius
1, since it "hits" the singularity at 1.
However, there are three possible Laurent expansions about 0, depending on the r
egion z is in:
One is defined on the disc where |z| < 1; it is the same as the Taylor serie
s,
f(z) = \frac{1 + 2i}{5} \sum_{k=0}^\infty \left(\frac{1}{(2i)^{k + 1}}
1\right)z^k.
(The technique involves using partial fractions to split the original expression
for f(z) into two simpler fractions and then exploiting the fact that 1/(1z) i
s the formula for the sum of a geometric series with first term 1 and constant m
ultiplier z.)
Another one is defined on the annulus where 1 < |z| < 2, caught between the
two singularities,
f(z) = \frac{1 + 2i}{5} \left(\sum_{k=1}^\infty \frac{1}{z^k} + \sum
_{k=0}^\infty \frac{1}{(2i)^{k + 1}}z^k\right).
The third one is defined on the infinite annulus where 2 < |z| < ,
k}.
(The terms above can be derived through polynomial long division or usin
g the sum of a geometric series trick again, this time using \frac{1}{z} and \fr
ac{2i}{z} as the common ratios.)
The case r = 0; i.e., a holomorphic function (z) which may be undefined at a sing
le point c, is especially important.
The coefficient a1 of the Laurent expansion of such a function is called the resi
due of (z) at the singularity c; it plays a prominent role in the residue theorem
.
For an example of this, consider
f(z) = {e^z \over z} + e^\frac{1}{z}.
This function is holomorphic everywhere except at z = 0. To determine the Lauren
t expansion about c = 0, we use our knowledge of the Taylor series of the expone
ntial function:
f(z) = \cdots + \left( {1 \over 3!} \right) z^{3} + \left( {1 \over 2!} \ri
ght) z^{2} + 2z^{1} + 2 + \left( {1 \over 2!} \right) z + \left( {1 \over 3!}
\right) z^2 + \left( {1 \over 4!} \right) z^3 + \cdots
and we find that the residue is 2.
Uniqueness
Suppose a function (z) holomorphic on the annulus r < |z c| < R has two Laurent s
eries:
f(z)=\sum_{n=\infty}^{\infty}a_{n}\left(zc\right)^{n}=\sum_{n=\infty}^{\i
nfty}b_{n}\left(zc\right)^{n}.
Multiply both sides with \left(zc\right)^{k1}, where k is an arbitrary intege
r, and integrate on a path inside the annulus,
Similarly, the sum of two conver ent Laurent series need not conver e, thou h it
is always defined formally, but the sum of two bounded below Laurent series (or
any Laurent series on a punctured disk) has a non-empty annulus of conver ence.
See also
Puiseux series
Mitta -Leffler's theorem
Formal Laurent series Laurent series considered formally, with coefficients
from an arbitrary commutative rin , without re ard for conver ence, and with onl
y finitely many ne ative terms, so that multiplication is always defined.
Z-transform the special case where the Laurent series is taken about zero ha
s much use in time series analysis.
Fourier series the substitution z=e^{\pi i w} transforms a Laurent series in
to a Fourier series, or conversely. This is used in the q-series expansion of th
e j-invariant.
References
Rodri uez, Rubi; Kra, Irwin; Gilman, Jane P. (2012), Complex Analysis: In th
e Spirit of Lipman Bers, Graduate Texts in Mathematics 245, Sprin er, p. 12, ISB
N 9781441973238.
External links
Hazewinkel, Michiel, ed. (2001), "Laurent series", Encyclopedia of Mathemati
cs, Sprin er, ISBN 978-1-55608-010-4
O'Connor, John J.; Robertson, Edmund F., "Laurent series", MacTutor History
of Mathematics archive, University of St Andrews.
Weisstein, Eric W., "Laurent Series", MathWorld.
Laurent Series Module by John H. Mathews
Laurent Series and Mandelbrot set by Robert Munafo
Cate ories:
Complex analysisMathematical series
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