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1)WhatisanImpulse?
An Impulse is defined as a unidirectional time varying voltage that rapidly rises to a peak value and drops considerably
slowly to 0 magnitude with respect to time. It simulates an over voltage. Overvoltage is by definition a time varying
voltagewhosepeakismorethanthepeakofthesystemhighestratedvoltage.ThemaindifferencebetweenanOvervoltage
andanImpulseisthat,theformerisanoutcomeofanaturalphenomenonandthelatterisamanmadepulseusuallyfor
simulatinganaturalevent.
2)DefineaLightningImpulse.
Lightningisanaturalphenomenonwhichisoneofthemajorcontributorsforfaults/disturbancesontransmissionlines.A
lightning stroke on the transmission line produces travelling waves at near the speed of light, which superimpose on the
already travelling line voltage on the transmission line. Thus, the insulation of the equipments connected to the line are
vulnerablefordamage.Lightningimpulsesimulatesalightningovervoltage.Astandardnotationforspecifyingalightning
impulseisawavecharacterizedbya1.2/50spulse.ThissimulatesLightningorAtmosphericovervoltages.
Note:
1.2sdenotesthetimetakenbythewavetoreachitspeak(0.9p.u)
50sdenotesthetimetakenbythewavetoreachto50%ofitspeakvalue(0.5p.u)
3)Whylightningovervoltageisdangerous?
Alightningstrokeisfollowedbyoneormoretravellingwaves,whoseamplitudeisoftenlimitedbythemaximuminsulation
strengthoftheconcernedoverheadtransmissionline.Therateofvoltageriseduetothesestrokesisdirectlyproportionalto
thetransmissionlinecircuitparameters.Travellingwaveswithsteepwavefrontmaystresstheinsulationofthehighvoltage
equipments.Ifthelightningovervoltageexceedsthecriticalwithstandovervoltageoftheinsulation(s),itmaypuncturethe
same.
4)WhatcomprisesoftheLightningimpulsevoltageprotectionsystem?
Basically a lightning pulse is characterized by a s pulse. So, the foremost consideration should be a protection system
whichoperatesinthenanosecond(ns)scaleoftimeorfaster.
MetalOxideVaristor(MOV)operatesonafewhundrednanosecondscale.Itsapproximateresponsetimeiscloseto50100
ns.
5)WhatisSwitchingImpulse?
AstandardSwitchingImpulseischaracterizedbya250/2500spulse.Thenotationsforthefronttimeandtailtimearethe
sameasmentionedinthecaseofalightningimpulse.Itsimulatesaswitchingovervoltage.
6)Whatarethemajordifferencesbetweenabovetwopulses?
Aswitchingovervoltageisinitiatedbymeansofchangingsystemtopologies.Thebestexamplecanbeasuddenswitching
of a charged capacitor in and out of a transmission line which is charged. This gives rise to a switching pulse as the
impedanceofthenetworkchangesinafairlylessamountoftimespan.Switchingovervoltageisnotanaturalphenomenon.
The peak voltage of the disturbance is dependent on the system voltage. A Switching surge is initiated from within the
system.Itdoesnotdependonatmosphericconditions.

On the other hand, a lightning overvoltage is a natural phenomenon and it depends on atmospheric conditions. The
probabilityoflightningataspecifiedpointonthegroundcannotbepredicted.Themagnitudesofcurrentandthevoltage
that are induced into the system after a lightning strike are considerably very high ( voltages can be as high as several
millionvolts,andthecurrentshavepeakamplitudesexceedingseveralkiloamperes,typicallyprobablepeakcurrentis40
kA). The magnitude of peak voltage or the peak current does not depend upon the system voltage or the current. The
disturbanceisinitiatedbyanexternalsource.
Above all, both the impulse wave discussed above superimpose a high energy, high frequency pulse on the already
propagatingtravellingwavethroughthetransmission/distributionsystem.
7)WhatarethefactorsthatmakeImpulseVoltageGenerationanecessity?
Transmission and distribution lines stretch to several thousand kms, housing some very costly equipments like power
transformers,relays,circuitbreakers.Alltheseequipmentsareunderaconstantthreatofbeingstruckbynaturalforcesof
naturelikethunderstorms,lightningetc.Foremostconsiderationistoprovidecontinuouspowersupplyforindustries/homes
andprotectionofseveralcostlyequipments.Impulsevoltagegenerationisveryessentialtosimulatealightningpulsetouse
itfortestingofequipmentsforthesame.
8)Whatdoyoumeanbyflashover?
When a self restoring insulation breaks down through its weakest line of force, it is called a flashover. In other words, a
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spontaneousshortcircuitofaconductingairgapiscalledaflashover.Itisduetothesimultaneoustransferofallthevalence
bandelectronstotheconductionband.Inviewofanimpulsevoltagetest,aflashoverisaphenomenonwhichdischargesall
theenergyacquiredbymeansofashortcircuitbetweenthe2conductingtestspheres.
9)WhatisthedifferencebetweenaFlashoverandaPuncture?
Usually, a self restoring insulation, recovers its insulating properties after a brief period of time, then its termed as a
flashoveroratemporarydischarge.
Ontheotherhand,apunctureiswhenasolidinsulationfailstorecoverbacktoitsoriginalinsulatingproperties.Thisis
because the magnitude of the disturbance might have been high enough to cause a permanent damage through the
insulation.
10)Whatiscriticalflashovervoltage?
Theimpulsebreakdownofairdoesnotresultinasinglevalueforaparticulartemperatureandpressure.Thisfluctuationin
breakdownstrengthscanbebetterexpressesintermsofastatisticaldistribution.Insimpleterms,thebreakdownofanair
gapispurelyprobabilisticinnature.Thebestfittothiscanbeobtainedusingastatistical(Gaussian)distribution.
CriticalFlashovervoltage(CFO),inviewofphysics,isdefinedastheminimumvoltageabovewhichalltheelectronsinthe
enclosed gap acquire enough energy to cross the valence band into the conduction band. Gaussian distribution is
characterized by mean and standard deviation. Mean value of 50 % value is termed Critical Flashover Voltage.
Determinationofbothmeanandstandarddeviationistermedasdeterminationofwithstandstrength.
11)Whatissurgeimpedance?Whatisitssignificance?
Surgeimpedanceorcharacteristicimpedance,generallyexpressedasZL.Itistheratioofvoltageandcurrentpropagating
alongthelineintheabsenceofelectricalreflections.Inotherwords,whenthetransmissionlineisterminatedbyaresistor
equaltothesurgeimpedanceoftheline,itappearsasaninfinitelylongtransmissionlinetothesource.Essentially,thesurge
impedanceresistancephysicallybringsdownthereflectivecoefficientsmagnitudetonear0.ItsSIunitisohms.
Thelineisterminatedwitharesistancewhosevalueisequaltothevalueofthesurgeimpedanceofthetransmissionline,so
astogettheexactImpulsevoltagewavetappedintotheCRO.If,forinstance,thelineisnotterminated,apartofthewave
whichpropagatedtotheloadwillbelostduetoreflectionsbecauseofthedifferenceincoefficientsofreflectiveindices.
12)WhatarethevariousapplicationsofIVG?
Impulsevoltagegenerationfindsitsplaceinavarietyoffields.Someofthemanyapplicationsarestatedbelow:
1.Generationofhighpowermicrowaveusingvirtualcathodeoscillatordevices
2.Lightningtestingoncablesandinsulatorsat1.2/50sand8/20s.
3.Materialanddielectrictesting.
4.Breakingofrawdiamondsinmineralogy.
5.Flashxraygeneration.
6.Kiloamplinearaccelerators.
7.Generationofplasmafocusing.
8.TosimulateNuclearExplosions.

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