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A. HISTORY OF BATTERIES
Although Alessandro Volta in Italy is usually credited with being the inventor of
the modern battery (Silver-Zinc), ancient cells have been discovered in Sumerian ruins,
origin around 250 BC. The first evidence of batteries comes from archaeological digs in
Baghdad, Iraq. This first "battery" was dated to around 250 B.C. and was used in simple
operations to electroplate objects with a thin layer of metal, much like the process used
now to plate inexpensive gold and silver jewelry, one of the first uses for batteries.
Batteries were rediscovered much later by a man named Alessandro Volta after which the
unit of electrical potential was named, the volt. The jar was found in Khujut Rabu just
outside Baghdad and is composed of a clay jar with a stopper made of asphalt. Sticking
through the asphalt is an iron rod surrounded by a copper cylinder. When filled with
vinegar - or any other electrolytic solution- the jar produces about 1.1 volts.
In 1859, Gaston Planté invented the lead acid batteries and first demonstrated it to
the French Academy of Sciences in 1860. The Lead Acid is the oldest rechargeable
battery.
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B. BATTERY CONSTRUCTION
The lead-acid battery is one of the most common batteries in use today. Figure 7
shows the makeup of a lead-acid battery. The container houses the separate cells. Most
containers are hard rubber, plastic, or some other material that is resistant to the
electrolyte and mechanical shock and will withstand extreme temperatures. The container
(battery case) is vented through vent plugs to allow the gases that form within the cells to
escape. The plates in the battery are the cathodes and anodes. In figure 8, the negative
plate group is the cathode of the individual cells and the positive plate group is the anode.
As shown in the figure, the plates are interlaced with a terminal attached to each plate
group. The terminals of the individual cells are connected together by link connectors as
shown in figure 7. The cells are connected in series in the battery and the positive
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terminal of one end cell becomes the positive terminal of the battery. The negative
terminal of the opposite end cell becomes the negative terminal of the battery.
The terminals of a lead-acid battery are usually identified from one another by
their size and markings. The positive terminal marked (+) is sometimes colored red and is
A battery provides electrical power by converting its stored chemical energy into
battery that releases electrons. The process is reversible in a stationary battery. If a load is
placed across the battery terminals, the chemical reaction produces electrical power. If
electrical energy is directed into the battery (charging the battery), the chemical reaction
The lead acid battery, in the charged state, is made up of electrodes of lead metal
(Pb) and lead dioxide (PbO2) in an electrolyte of 35% sulphuric acid and 65% water
C.1 ELECTROLYTE
Sulfuric acid, H2SO4, is a very active compound of hydrogen, sulfur, and oxygen. When
added to water, the sulfuric acid does not stay intact as individual H2SO4, molecules.
Instead, the sulfuric acid molecules split into two ions, hydrogen and sulfate. Each
hydrogen ion carries one positive electrical charge and each sulfate ion carries two
Sulfuric acid is highly reactive and ionizes almost completely in water. The ions
are in constant motion, attracted or repelled by one another. This constant random motion
tends to cause the ions to diffuse throughout the electrolyte. This diffusion process is not
immediate and can take a relatively long time to reach equilibrium throughout the
electrolyte.
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Specific gravity is a measure of the density of a liquid. Pure water has a specific
gravity of 1.0. The specific gravity of other liquids is usually expressed in relation to that
of water. The lead-acid cell electrolyte specific gravity typically varies from 1.210 to
The specific gravity range of 1.210 to 1.240 is usually adequate for vented cells.
The capacity of a vented cell is often limited by the quantity of active material in the
positive or negative plates. A higher specific gravity electrolyte would generally be used
electrochemical potential between two compounds inside the cell that are not in direct
contact, but are electrically connected by a conducting medium. The two compounds are
installed in the cell as positive and negative plates, and the conducting medium between
As the plate materials chemically react with the electrolyte, a potential difference
is created between the plates and the electrolyte. The positive plates have a positive
potential in relation to the electrolyte; the negative plates have a negative potential in
relation to the electrolyte. The electrochemical process between the plates and electrolyte
creates a voltage between the positive and negative plates of the cell. This voltage
between the plates constitutes an electromotive force that causes electrons to flow from
the negative plates to the positive plates if the plates are connected together by an
equilibrium between the plates and the electrolyte, which initiates further chemical
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chemical reaction continues to generate electrical current until the materials involved in
the reaction are depleted or the external connection (the load) is removed.
In a lead-acid battery, the positive plate material is lead dioxide (PbO 2) and the
negative plate material is lead (Pb). The plate material is often referred to as the active
material. The electrolyte is a sulfuric acid solution (H 2SO4). The chemical reaction in a
lead-acid cell can be described in terms of the reaction occurring at each plate:
The above half-cell reactions offer greater insight into the actual processes
occurring at each plate and within the electrolyte. From left to right, these equations
represent the discharge process, and from right to left, the charging process. The sum of
the plus and minus charges on the left side of each equation equals the total charge on the
right side.
The negative plate reaction during discharge is depicted in Figure 9. When lead
from the negative plate comes into contact with the electrolyte, the chemical interaction
between the two compounds casts lead ions into solution; the ions carry a charge of plus
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2 (Pb+2). Each positively charged lead ion entering solution leaves behind two negative
charges (electrons). Hence, the chemical reaction gives the negative plate an excess of
Once in solution, the lead ions combine with sulfate ions (SO4-2), which have
charges of equal magnitude but opposite sign, to form lead sulfate, which has a neutral
charge. The sulfate ions are created when the dilute sulfuric acid disassociates into
positively charged hydrogen ions (H+) and negatively charged sulfate ions (SO4-2). The
lead sulfate is highly insoluble in the electrolyte and is immediately deposited as a solid
substance on the negative plate. This reaction occurs within molecular distances from the
plate.
If an external conduction path exists, the excess electrons at the negative plate
migrate toward the positive plate, creating a flow of electrical current. During recharge,
electrons are forced toward the negative plate and the reaction is reversed.
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The positive plate reaction during discharge is depicted in Figure 10. As shown,
the positive plate reaction is more complicated than the negative plate reaction. When
lead dioxide from the positive plate comes into contact with the electrolyte, the lead
dioxide combines with water to form lead ions with a charge of plus 4 (Pb+4) and
hydroxyl ions with a charge of minus 1 (OH -1). The chemical reaction causes the positive
When current is allowed to flow through an external circuit, the lead ions (Pb+4)
combine with electrons that are migrating to the positive plate via the external circuit.
After combining with the electrons, the lead ions now carry a charge of plus 2 (Pb+2) and
combine with sulfate ions to form lead sulfate as described above for the negative plate
reaction. The hydroxyl ions combine with the positively charged hydrogen ions from the
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sulfuric acid to form water. The net effect, as shown by the positive plate half-cell
reaction, is that lead dioxide combines with the sulfuric acid to form lead sulfate and
water.
The overall chemical reaction within a lead-acid battery is best described in one
equation by combining the two half-cell reactions. The single equation, referred to as the
Positive Plate Electrolyte Negative Plate Positive Plate Electrolyte Negative Plate
D. CHARGING SYSTEM
One of the most common charge methods, the IU characteristic charges the
battery at a constant current until a set cell voltage is reached. The charger then switches
to a constant voltage charge, where the charge current decreases until the trickle charge
level is reached. This type of charger is often used in standby applications and can be
Figure 11 shows the charge stages of lead acid batteries following the IU
characteristic charging. Stage 1 takes about 5 hours and the battery is charged to 70%.
During the topping charge in Stage 2 that follows, the charge current is gradually reduced
as the cell is being saturated. The topping charge takes another 5 hours and is essential
for the well being of the battery. If omitted, the battery would eventually lose the ability
to accept a full charge. Full charge is attained after the voltage has reached the threshold
and the current has dropped to 3% of the rated current or has leveled off. The final Stage
Correct settings of the voltage limits are critical and range from 2.30V to 2.45V.
Setting the voltage limit is a compromise. On one end, the battery wants to be fully
charged to get maximum capacity and avoid sulfation on the negative plate. A continually
oversaturated condition at the other end, however, would cause grid corrosion on the
positive plate. It also promotes gassing, which results in venting and loss of electrolyte.
If properly designed, built, and maintained, a battery can provide several years of
reliable service. The ideal profile of capacity during a lead-acid battery's operational life
is shown in Figure 12. A new battery might not initially provide 100% capacity. The
capacity typically improves over the first few years of service, reaches a peak, and
declines until the battery reaches its end of life. A reduction to 80% of the rated capacity
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is usually defined as the end of life for a lead-acid battery. Below 80%, the rate of battery
mechanical shock (such as a seismic event) or a high discharge rate. Note that even under
F. PREDICTIVE MAINTENANCE
battery will vary considerably with how it is used, charged and how it is maintained.
approach offers cost savings over routine or time-based preventive maintenance, because
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time when the maintenance activity is most cost-effective and before the equipment loses
predicting the future trend of the equipment's condition. This approach uses principles of
statistical process control to determine at what point in the future maintenance activities
will be appropriate. Most PdM inspections are performed while equipment is in service,
thereby minimizing disruption of normal system operations. Adoption of PdM can result
Since the battery system is the primarily used to ensure that the normal system
G. BATTERY PARAMETERS
All Lead-Acid batteries supply about 2.15 volts per cell when fully charged.
Batteries that are stored for long periods will eventually lose all their charge. This
"leakage" or self discharge varies considerably with battery type, age, & temperature. It
can range from about 1% to 15% per month. In systems that are continually connected to
some type charging source, whether it is solar, wind, or an AC powered charger this is
seldom a problem. However, one of the biggest killers of batteries is sitting stored in a
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partly discharged state for a few months. A "float" charge should be maintained on the
The purpose of the float voltage check is to verify that the battery is maintained
within the manufacturer’s recommended limits for optimum performance; either too high
When a cell discharges, the sulfuric acid combines with lead dioxide from the positive
plates and lead from the negative plates to form lead sulfate in the plates and water in the
electrolyte. During discharge, the electrolyte sulfuric acid concentration and specific
gravity decrease. Conversely, during recharge, the sulfuric acid concentration and
specific gravity increase. Based on the interaction between cell plates and electrolyte, a
low specific gravity measurement typically indicates a cell is not fully charged, which
may require corrective action (e.g., recharge) to restore specific gravity to the expected
range.
If the specific gravity of a cell’s electrolyte is low, the cell is not fully charged.
The interpretation of a low specific gravity is that the cell might not have the capacity
needed to perform its design basis discharge because it is not fully charged. In this case,
corrective action is needed to restore the cell to a fully charged condition. But, a perfectly
normal specific gravity does not alone mean that a cell has its full capacity; it only means
that it is fully charged. This is an important distinction; fully charged does not mean full-
rated capacity.
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Specific gravity is measured with a hydrometer. Simply draw the battery acid into
the hydrometer so that the float is not touching the sides, top or bottom of the barrel.
Take the reading with your eyes level with the surface of the drawn up liquid, and then
subtract 0.004 for each 5°C above or below 25°C. A table of the specific gravity
G.3 TEMPERATURE
A lead-acid battery is an electrochemical device whose characteristics vary with
temperature; heat accelerates chemical activity and cold slows it down. A change in the
electrolyte temperature from the reference temperature has two significant effects on
At temperatures lower than 77°F (25°C), the battery cannot provide its rated
capacity. In general, a lower temperature increases the viscosity of the electrolyte, and
thus restricts its ability to circulate into the plates. Also, the efficiency of the chemical
reaction decreases as temperature decreases. Table 2 provides typical capacity factors for
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performance at temperatures other than the reference temperature of 77°F (25°C). For
example, at 45°F (7.2°C) a battery can provide only 80% of its rated capacity. The data
1.215.
and the electrochemical reaction rates increase requiring the charging current to increase
temperature than the other cells will require higher current. The voltage of the warmer
cells will be lower than the average. Also, the increased temperature causes faster
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Keeping the battery fully charged during normal float operation means that there
is always a slight amount of charging current flow in excess of that required to offset the
self-discharge of the cells. The excess charging current through a fully charged cell
causes electrolysis of water into hydrogen and oxygen gas. These gases are often referred
to as charge gases. This dissociation of water into gas results in a gradual and predictable
decline in the electrolyte level. Evaporation also contributes to a loss of electrolyte water.
If the plates are exposed because of a low electrolyte level, the exposed portion can
damage to the plates can also occur if a low level is allowed to persist. Too high
when the cell is gassing vigorously. Overflowing electrolyte can result in shock and short
Since only the water in the electrolyte is lost to the atmosphere by the electrolysis
process, the sulfuric acid concentration and the electrolyte specific gravity increase as the
level drops.
The Amp-hour (Ah) Capacity of a battery tries to quantify the amount of usable
energy it can store at a nominal voltage. All things equal, the greater the physical volume
of a battery, the larger its total storage capacity. Storage capacity is additive when
batteries are wired in parallel but not if they are wired in series.
G.6 C-RATE
The charge and discharge current of a battery is measured in C-rate. Most portable
batteries, with the exception of the lead acid, are rated at 1C. A discharge of 1C draws a
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current equal to the rated capacity. For example, a battery rated at 1000mAh provides
1000mA for one hour if discharged at 1C rate. The same battery discharged at 0.5C
provides 500mA for two hours. At 2C, the same battery delivers 2000mA for 30 minutes.
10 hour discharge.
analyzer’s capacity readout is displayed in percentage of the nominal rating, 100 percent
is shown if 1000mA can be drawn for one hour from a battery that is rated at 1000mAh.
If the battery only lasts for 30 minutes before cut-off, 50 percent is indicated. A new
battery sometimes provides more than 100 percent capacity. In such a case, the battery is
conservatively rated and can endure a longer discharge time than specified by the
manufacturer.
discharged. When a battery is 100% full, then the DOD is 0%. Conversely, when a
battery is 100% empty, the DOD is 100%. The deeper batteries are discharged on
H. TYPES OF BATTERIES
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H.1 FLOODED-TYPE
This is the traditional engine start and traction style battery. The liquid electrolyte
is free to move in the cell compartment. The user has access to the individual cells and
H.2 SEALED-TYPE
This term can refer to a number of different constructions, including only a slight
modification to the flooded style. In that case, even though the user does not have access
to the cell compartments, the internal structure is still basically the same as a flooded
battery. The only difference is that the manufacturer has ensured that a sufficient amount
of acid is the battery to sustain the chemical reaction under normal use throughout the
H.3 VRLA
This stands for Valve Regulated Lead Acid battery. This is also a sealed battery.
The valve regulating mechanism allows for a safe escape of hydrogen and oxygen gasses
during charging.
H.4 AGM
As stated earlier, the Absorbed Glass Matte construction allows the electrolyte to
be suspended in close proximity with the plate’s active material. In theory, this enhances
both the discharge and recharge efficiency. This particular style has recently become very
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This term is very generic and refers to basically all of the battery types except
flooded batteries that have accessible individual cells so that the end user can add water.
Since any sealed construction prevents the user from adding water to the individual cells,
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