Runninghead:KOHLBERG:THEORY&IMP

LawrenceKohlberg:
TheoryandImplicationsofKohlberg'sStagesofMoralDevelopment
LarkinOdell
TheGeorgeWashingtonUniversity

KOHLBERG:THEORY&IMP

BiographicalIntroduction
JeanPiaget,anillustriousepistemologistforhisstagesofcognitivedevelopmentlaidthe
foundationforpsychologist,LawrenceKohlberg.AnaccomplishedresearcherinthePiagetian
tradition,KohlbergexpandedPiaget'sinitialthoughtsonmoraldevelopment,proposingatheory
ofsixstagesofmoraldevelopment,comparedtoPiaget'stwotieredpremise.
Bornin1927,inBronxville,NewYork,Kohlbergattendedaprivatehighschoolfor
brightandunusuallywealthystudents.KohlbergdeferredgoingtocollegeandwenttoIsrael,
wherehewasmadeaSecondEngineeronafreightercarryingrefugeesfrompartsofEuropeto
Israel.Afterthewarhadended,KohlbergenrolledattheUniversityofChicago.Hefinishedhis
undergraduatedegreewithinayearandstayedonasagraduatestudentofpsychology,wherehe
discoveredPiaget.
Piagethaddevelopedatwostagetheoryofmoraldevelopment.YoungerchildrenPiaget
observed,regardedrulesasfixedandabsolute.However,byage10or11,asignificantshift
occurredinchildren'smoralthinking.Kohlbergrecognizedthealterationbutrecognizedthat
intellectualdevelopmentdidnotstopinouradolescence,andthereforebelievedmoral
developmentmustcontinuetomatureaswell(Crain,2014,p.118).In1958,Kohlberg
completedhisdoctoraldissertation.Workingwithagroupof5575boys,ages10,13,and16,
Kohlbergaskedaseriesofquestionsaboutninedifferentmoraldilemmas.Kohlbergdiscovered
themoralinterpretationsgivenbytheyoungmencouldbeclassifiedintosixdifferent
touchstones,layingthedevelopmentalfoundationofhumanmorality(Power,Higgins,&
Kohlberg,1989).
TheoreticalIssuesofMoralDevelopment

KOHLBERG:THEORY&IMP

Kohlberg,aclosefollowerofPiagetbelievedhisstageswerenotachievedmerely
throughmaturation,norweretheyanaturalgeneticmakeup.Thestatesexpandfromindividual
thoughtsaboutmoralproblems.Socialexperiencesaremerelyastimulantforthought.Themore
dialogueanddebateapersonengagesin,themoretheirpersonalviewswouldbequestionedand
challenged,instigatingmoreprofoundandcomplexthoughts(Power,Higgins,&Kohlberg,
1989).Piagetoriginallylaiddownfivecriteriathatatruementalstagemustmeet.Kohlberg
addresseseachcriterioninrelationtohisstudy.
StageConcept&Criteria
QualitativeDifferences
Stagesarequalitativelydifferent;anindividualcannotaddcharacteristicsfromonelevel
togettoanother.
StructuredWholes
Kohlbergemphasizesthatthesixstagesarenotindividualizedorisolatedbutarea
progression.Theresponsestotheninemoraldilemmaswereconsistentillustratingacommon
thoughtprocessfromeachsubject(Colby,Kohlberg,Gibbs,&Lieberman,1983).
InvariantSequence
Kohlbergbelievedthathisstagesremainedinthesamepattern;childrendidnotskip
stagesormovethroughtheminmixedorder.Althoughnotallchildrenmayreachthehigher
stagesofmorality,theyproceedinorder.
HierarchicIntegration

KOHLBERG:THEORY&IMP

Althoughpeoplemovethroughthestagesofdevelopment,theydonotforgettheinsights
gainedatearlierstages.Earlierreasoningbuildstodevelophigherstagesofunderstanding
(Crain,2014).
UniversalSequence
Thesixstagesofmoraldevelopment,Kohlbergasserted,areuniversal.Although
differentculturesfosterdifferentbeliefs,Kohlberg'sstagesreferrednottothebeliefsthemselves,
buttheunderlyingreasoning.Thespecificbeliefmaybedifferentfromlocationtolocation,but
thethoughtprocessfollowsthesamesequence.Kohlbergandanumberofotherscientists
traveledtheworlddeliveringhismoraldilemmastochildrenandadultsinMexico,Taiwan,
Turkey,Israel,KenyaandtheIndia.Althoughmostofthestudieshavebeencrosssectional,they
havesupportedKohlberg'ssequence(Crain,2014).
Kohlberg'sSixStagesofMoralDevelopment
LevelI:PreconventionalLevel

Atthefirstlevelchildrenareresponsivetoculturalrulesandlabels,likegoodandbador

rightandwrong.Childrenunderstandtheserulesinthecontextofwhoisinpowerandthe
potentialconsequencesofanaction,suchasapunishmentorreward(Porter,N.,Porter,T.,1972,
p.2).
Stage1:HeteronomousMoralityorPunishmentObedienceOrientation
Achild'sdesiretofollowtherulescentersinthedesiretoavoidpunishment.Children
areobedientforobediencesake,mainlybecausethereisasuperiorauthority.Kohlbergargues
stageonecomesfromanegocentricpointofview,inwhichchildrendonotconsiderothersin

KOHLBERG:THEORY&IMP

thedecisionmakingnoristherearecognitionthatthereismorethanonesidetoastory.Actions
areconsideredfromapurelyphysicalperspective(Power,Higgins,&Kohlberg,1989).
Stage2:IndividualismorInstrumentalRelativistOrientation
"Right"iswhatisfairandsatisfiesone'sneeds.Childrenareawarethateachpersonhastheir
interests,therefore,whatis"right"isrelative,exemplifying,"ifyouscratchmyback,I'llscratch
yours."Childreninstage2arestillcategorizedinthepreconventionallevelastheirperspective
isstillindividualizedandhasnotshiftedtorecognizethevaluesofthegreatercommunity
(Power,Higgins,&Kohlberg,1989).
LevelII:ConventionalLevel
Theconventionallevelischaracterizedbyloyaltyandconformity.Childrenareawareof
expectationsanddevelopadesiretoconformtotheirmicrosocialcircles,especiallyconcerning
family.
Stage3:MutualInterpersonalExpectations
Thenotionof"beinggood"isimportant.Concernforothersandadesiretobe
trustworthyandloyalbegintodevelop.Thereisaninclinationtowanttoliveuptoothers
expectationsandfulfillyoursocietalroleasson,daughter,brother,sister,etc.Thereisagreater
senseofsharedfeelingsandanextensionofperspectivebeyondtheself,puttingyourselfinthe
other'sshoes(Power,Higgins,&Kohlberg,1989).
Stage4:SocialSystem&Conscience
Admissionthatlawsshouldbeupheldexceptinextremecases.Thenotionofwhatis
"right"hasshiftedtowardcontributingtosocietyandagreatercommunity.Stagefourisfused
withstagethreeregardingbeliefinrulesandauthority,butindividualswhohavereachedstage

KOHLBERG:THEORY&IMP

fourconsiderthepointofviewfromthesystemthatdefinestherules.Someoneinstagefourcan
discriminatebetweentheirmotivesandbeliefsandsocietalideas(Power,Higgins,&Kohlberg,
1989).
LevelIII:PostConventionalorPrincipledLevel
LevelIIIfeaturesadistinct"efforttodefinemoralvaluesandprinciplesapartfromthe
authorityofthegroupsorpersonandapartfromtheindividual'sidentificationwiththese
groups"(Porter,&Taylor,1972,p.3).
Stage5:SocialContract&IndividualRights
Stage5highlightsthenotionofthe"greatestgoodforthegreatestnumber."Children
understandvaluesandopinionsarerelativetodifferentgroups.Therulesestablishedshouldbe
upheld,unlesstheyinflictuponrightssuchaslifeandliberty;thesemustbeupheldinany
societyregardlessofthemajorityrules.Anindividualwhohasreachedstage5"considersmoral
andlegalpointsofview;recognizesthattheysometimesconflictandfindsitdifficulttointegrate
them"(Power,Higgins,&Kohlberg,1989).
Stage6:UniversalEthicalPrinciples
Principlesareuniversalinstage6withagreatemphasisonvirtue.Particularlawsand
valuesareconsideredvalidiftheyarebasedinethicalprinciples.Ifthelawisinviolationwith
theprinciple,theindividualwillfollowtheprincipleandnotthelaw.Principlesincludejustice,
equality,andrespectforthehumanperson(Power,Higgins,&Kohlberg,1989).
Summary
Kohlberg'sattempttodescribeapatternedsequenceofstagesimpliesthatthemoral
developmentofhumansiscenteredaroundanindividual'sresponseandlogictospecific

KOHLBERG:THEORY&IMP

situations."Aswegrowupwereasonindifferentways,passingfromonestagetothenext,since
itgivesusamoreflexiblewayofhandlingmoralissues"(Porter,N.,Porter,T.,1972,p.2).As
anindividualjourneysthroughthestagesofmoralreasoning,theirfocusturnsincreasinglyaway
fromindividualismandmoretowardjusticeandfairnessforthegreaterwhole.Kohlberg
believedamoralsocietywasfoundedinthemoralstandardsofindividuals.Therefore,theway
toaidsocietyistoaidindividualprogressinmorality(Kohlberg,1958).
ApplicationinEducation
MosheBlatt,astudentofKohlberg'sreasonedtheonlywaytosystematicallypromote
moraldevelopmentwastoexposeindividualstootherswithmoralreasoningonestageabove
theirown.Hetrustedindividualsatthelowerlevelsofreasoningwouldbestimulatedbythose
moreadvancedtomaturetowardthenextlevel.BlattdevelopedapilotprojectinaJewish
SundaySchoolforagroupofsixthgraders.Blattindividuallytestedforeachstudentsmoral
stageandthenbroughtthegrouptogetheronceaweekfortwelveweekstodiscussamoral
dilemma.Attheendofthetwelveweek,Blattretestedthestudentsandfound64%ofthe
studentshaddevelopedonefullstagefurtherintheirmoralreasoning(Power,Higgins,&
Kohlberg,1989).
JustCommunity:ClusterSchool.AlthoughKohlberghadwrittenabouteducationpriorto
Blatt,theSundaySchoolfindingsbroughtanewfoundfocustoKohlberg'swritingsand
attentiontoeducation.In1974Kohlbergreceivedtwolargegrantstoundertakethetrainingof
highschoolteachersindevelopmentalmoraleducation.Thegrantsrequiredtwoprograms:one
wouldtrainteachersinmoral,discussionbasedcurricula,andanotherwouldcreateajust
communityschoolwithinaschool.Kohlbergandacommitteeofparentsandteachersdeveloped

KOHLBERG:THEORY&IMP

theClusterSchool.TheClusterSchoolwouldbegovernedbyfourprinciples:(1)Direct
democracy.Allmajorissueswouldbediscussedandvotedonaweeklymeeting,onevoteper
studentandfaculty.(2)Standingcommitteescomprisedofparents,teachersandstudents.(3)A
contractwouldbedrawndelineatingtherolesandrightsofeachmemberoftheschool.(4)Each
personintheschoolhadexactlythesamerights.
Clusterhadnoprincipleordirector.Theschoolwentthroughanumberofchallengesthe
firstfewyearsbutwaseventuallyabletoselfregulate.TheClusterSchooldoorswereopened
forfouryearsintotal,butitsmodelandcultureextendedintootherclassroomsandschools
(Power,Higgins,&Kohlberg,1989).
PracticalApplication&EarlyChildhoodDevelopment
Kohlberg'stheorycanbeappliedintheclassroomandacrossschooldistrictsinavariety
ofways.Mostnotablycurriculumcanincorporatestimulatingmoraldevelopmentwithclass
discussions,testproblems,roleplayingandlessonplansdirectedatapplication,analysisand
evaluation.SimilarlytotheClusterSchool,teacherscanprovidestudentswithanopportunityto
participateindefiningclassroompoliciesandrules.Ifaruleisbroken,ratherthandetentionor
suspension,offerthestudentachancetoworkthroughandreflectuponhis/herbehavior.
Offeringstudentsachancetohelpdeveloptherulesorenhancethepoliciesoftheschoolis
anotheropportunityforchildrenandadolescentstorecognizeandunderstandjusticeandright
fromadifferentperspective.Servicelearningprogramsareanexcellentchanceforstudentsto
developadeeperunderstandingofempathyandrespectforothers,afoundation,Kohlberg
(1958)argues,onemusthavetoreachthehigherlevelsofmoralreasoning.

KOHLBERG:THEORY&IMP

Developmentalists,suchasKohlbergviewmoraldevelopmentassomethingweevolve
internally.Neitherourparentsnorteacherscanfoistcertainbeliefsuponusalthoughthereare
manyexamplesofthisinourcurrentsocietyandschools.Thealternativeistoengagechildrenin
activelychoosingandassessingcertainbehaviors.Althoughmoralfunctioningcannotbegiven
tochildren,itcanbefostered.Moralityisnotaboutmerelyteachingthedo'sanddon'tsofsociety
butinaddressingthereasoningbehindtherulesandlawsandhowtheyaffectotherindividuals.
RuthWilson,Ph.D(2008)hasfocusedagreatdealofherresearchonearlychildhood
environmentaleducationandidentifiedsixactionstobringintoanearlychildclassroomto
promotemoraldevelopment.
Helpchildrenunderstandthereasonbehindtherules.
Matchyourresponsetoconflictsituationstothechildren'slevelofcognitiveandsocial
development.
Attendtothevictimfirstwhenonechildhurtsanother.
Usechildren'sliteraturetoshareexamplesofcaring.
Includeanimalsintheclassroomandinvolvechildreninthecareofanimals.
Model,encourageandrewardactsofcaring.
ThefoundationofKohlberg'sstagesandBlatt'ssuccessfulresearchontheimpactof
educationbasedmoraldevelopmentprovidesastrongframeworktoworkfromasearly
childhoodspecialeducationpractitioners.Thereisaninherentresponsibilityamongspecial
educationpractitionerstodevelopasmanyopportunitiestoexpandunderstandingandskillsof
moralityandempathywithinourstudents,aswellasourselves.Wehaveamissiontoeducatethe

KOHLBERG:THEORY&IMP
wholepersonandempowerstudentstoengagetheworldfromaframeworkofjusticeand
humanity.

10

KOHLBERG:THEORY&IMP

11
References

Colby,A.,Kohlberg,L.,Gibbs,J.,Lieberman,M.,Fischer,K.,&Saltzstein,H.D.(1983).A
longitudinalstudyofmoraljudgment.MonographsoftheSocietyforResearchin
Child

Development,48(1/2),1124.http://dx.doi.org/10.2307/1165935

Crain,W.(2014).Theoriesofdevelopment:Conceptsandapplications(6thed.).London:Pear
sonEducation.
Higgins,A.,Kohlberg,L.,andPower,F.C.(1989).LawrenceKohlbergsApproachto
MoralEducation.NewYork:ColumbiaUniversityPress.
Kohlberg,L.(1958).Thedevelopmentofmodesofmoralthinkingandchoiceinthe
years10to16.(Doctoraldissertation,TheUniversityofChicago,1958).Thesis
No.4397.
Kohlberg,L.(1981).Themeaningandmeasurementofmoraldevelopment.
Worcester,MS:ClarkUniversityPress.
Letch,N.,&Ricci,E.(2009).Chapter16:AGE&CRIMINALRESPONSIBILITY.In
PsychologyinAction(2nded.).SouthYarra,Vic.:MacmillanEducation
Australia.
Porter,N.,&Taylor,N.(1972).Howtoassessthemoralreasoningofstudents;Ateachers'
guidetotheuseoflawrencekohlberg'sstagedevelopmentalmethod.Toronto:
Ontario:InstituteforStudiesinEducation.
Wilson,R.(2008).FosteringGoodness&Caring:PromotingMoralDevelopmentof
YoungChildren.RetrievedSeptember23,2014from

KOHLBERG:THEORY&IMP
http://www.earlychildhoodnews.

12
com/earlychildhood/article_view.aspx?

ArticleID=565

APPENDIXA
TheHeinzDilemmaHandout
InEurope,awomanwasneardeathfromcancer.Onedrugmightsaveher,aformof
radiumthatadruggistinthesametownhadrecentlydiscovered.Thedruggistwascharging
$2,000,tentimeswhatthedrugcosthimtomake.Thesickwomanshusband,Heinz,wentto
everyoneheknewtoborrowthemoney,buthecouldonlygettogetherabouthalfofwhatitcost.
Hetoldthedruggistthathiswifewasdyingandaskedhimtosellitcheaperorlethimtosellit
cheaperorlethimpaylater.Butthedruggistsaid,No. Thehusbandgotdesperateandbroke
intothemansstoretostealthedrugforhiswife.Shouldthehusbandhavedonethat?Why?
PRECONVENTIONAL
Stage1:Punishmentorientation.
Obediencetoauthorityisconsidered.
Example:Heshouldntstealthedrugbecausehemightgetcaughtandbe
punished (avoidingpunishment)
Stage2:Pleasureseekingorientation.
Actionisdeterminedbyonesownneeds.
Example:Itwontdohimanygoodtostealthedrugbecausehiswifewillbedeadby
thetimehegetsoutofjail, (selfinterest.)
CONVENTIONAL
Stage3:Goodboy/goodgirlorientation.
Actiondeterminedbytheapprovaloftheirpeergroup.Example:Heshouldntstealthe
drugbecauseotherswillthinkheisathief.Hiswifewillnotwanttobesavedby
stealing (avoidingdisapproval.)
Stage4:Authorityorientation.
Shouldupholdthelawatallcosts.Followsocialrules.
Example:Althoughhiswifeneedsthedrug,heshouldnotbreakthelawtogetit.His
wifesconditiondoesntjustifystealing (traditionalmoralityofauthority.)

KOHLBERG:THEORY&IMP
POSTCONVENTIONAL
Stage5:Socialcontractorientation.
Rulesareopentoquestionbutareupheldforthegoodofthecommunity.
Example:Heshouldnotstealthedrug.Thedruggistresponseisunfairbutmutual
respectfortherightsofothersmustbemaintained, (socialcontract.)
Stage6:Moralityofindividualprinciples
Highvalueisplacedonjustice,dignity,andequality.
Example:Heshouldstealthedrugbutalertauthoritieshehasdoneit.Hewillhaveto
faceapenalty,buthewillsaveahumanlife. (selfchosenethicalprinciples)

13

KohlbergsSixStagesofMoralJudgment
Level&Stage

Whatisright

Reasonsfordoingright

KOHLBERG:THEORY&IMP
Avoidingbreakingrulesbackedby
Avoidanceofpunishment,andthesuperior
LevelI.Preconventional
Stage1:heteronomous punishment;obedienceforitsownsake;to powerofauthorities.
avoidphysicaldamagetopersonsand
morality
property.

Stage2:Individualism,
instrumental;purpose,
andexchange

Followingrulesonlywhenitisto
Toserveyourownneedsorinterestsina
someonesimmediateinterest;actingto worldwhereyouhavetorecognizethatother
meetyourowninterestsandneedsand
peoplehavetheirintereststoo.
lettingothersdothesame.Rightisalso
whatsfair,anequalexchange,adeal,an
agreement.

SocialPerspectiveofStage

14
Egocentricpointofview.Doesntconsider
theinterestsofothersorrecognizethatthey
differfromtheactors;doesntrelatetwo
pointsview.Actionsareconsidered
physicallyratherthanintermsof
psychologicalinterestsofothers.Confusion
ofauthoritysperspectivewithonesown.
Concreteindividualisticperspective.Aware
thateverybodyhashisowninterestto
pursueandtheseconflict,sothatrightis
relative(inconcreteindividualistsense).

LevelII.Conventional Livinguptowhatisexpectedbypeople TheneedtobeagoodpersoninyourowneyesPerspectiveoftheindividualinrelationships

closetoyouorwhatpeoplegenerally
andthoseofothers.Yourcaringforothers. withotherindividuals.Awareofshared
Stage3:Mutual
expectofpeopleinyourroleasson,
Desiretomaintainrulesandauthority,which feelings,agreements,andexpectations,
Interpersonal
brother,friend,etc.Beinggoodis
supportstereotypicallygoodbehavior.
whichtakeprimacyoverindividual
expectations,
importantandmeanshavinggoodmotives,
interests.Relatespointofviewthroughthe
relationships,and
showingconcernaboutothers.Italso
concreteGoldenRule,puttingyouinthe
interpersonalconformity
meanskeepingmutualrelationships,such
otherguysshoes.Doesnotyetconsider
astrust,loyalty,respect,andgratitude.
generalizedsystemperspective.
Stage4:Socialsystemand Fulfillingtheactualdutiestowhichyou
haveagreed.Lawsareupheldexceptin
conscience
extremecaseswheretheyconflictwith
otherfixedsocialduties.Rightisalso
contributingtosociety,thegroup,or
institution.

Tokeeptheinstitutiongoingasawhole,to
avoidthebreakdowninthesystemif
everyonedidit,ortheimperativeof
consciencetomeetyourdefinedobligations
(easilyconfusedwithstage3beliefinrules
andauthority).

Differentiationofsocietalpointsofview
frominterpersonalagreementormotives.
Takethepointofviewofthesystemthat
definesrolesandrules.Considersindividual
relationsintermsofplaceinthesystem.

Beingawarethatpeopleholdavarietyof Asenseofobligationtolawbecauseofyour Priortosocietyperspective.Perspectiveofa

LevelIII.Post
valuesandopinions,thatmostvaluesand socialcontracttomakeandabidebylawsfor rationalindividualawareofvaluesand
conventionalor
thewelfareofallandfortheprotectionofall rightspriortosocialattachmentsand
principled rulesarerelativetoyourgroup.These
relativerulesshouldusuallybeupheld
peoplesrights.Afeelingofcontractual
contracts.Integratesperspectivesbyformal
Stage5:Socialcontractor
however,intheinterestofimpartialityand
commitment,freelyenteredupon,tofamily,
mechanismsofagreements,contract,
utilityandindividual
becausetheyarethesocialcontract.Some friendship,trust,andworkobligation.Concern objectiveimpartiality,anddueprocess.
rights
nonelativevaluesandrightslikelifeand thatlawsanddutiesbebasedonrational
Considersmoralandlegalpointsofview;
liberty,however,mustbeupheldinany calculationofoverallutility,thegreatest
recognizesthattheysometimesconflictand
societyandregardlessofmajorityopinion. goodforthegreatestnumber.
findsitdifficulttointegratethem.
Stage6:Universalethical Followingselfchosenethicalprinciples. Thebeliefasarationalpersoninthevalidity Perspectiveofmoralpointofviewfrom
Particularlawsorsocialagreementsare ofuniversalmoralprinciples,andasenseof whichsocialarrangementsderive.
principles
usuallyvalidbecausetheyrestonsuch
personalcommitmenttothem.
Perspectiveisthatofnayrationalindividual
principles.Whenlawsviolatethese
recognizingthenatureofmoralityorthefact
principles,oneactsinaccordancewiththe
thatpersonsareendsinthemselvesandmust
principle.Principlesareuniversal
betreatedassuch.