xii Introduction

This book briefly describes the 100 greatest science discoveries of all time, the discoveries that have had the greatest impact on the development of human science and thinking.
Let me be clear about exactly what that means:
Greatest: Of highest importance; much higher in some quality or degree of understanding (Websters New College Dictionary).
Science: Any of the specific branches of scientific knowledge (physical sciences, earth
sciences, and life sciences) that derive knowledge from systematic observation, study,
and experimentation.
Discovery: The first time something is seen, found out about, realized, or known.
All time: The recorded (written) history of human civilizations.
This book, then, describes the process of finding out, of realizing key scientific information for the 100 science discoveries of the highest importance over the course of recorded human history. These are the biggest and most important of all of the thousands of
science discoveries. These are the science discoveries that represent the greatest efforts by
the best and brightest in the world of science.
There are many areas of human development and many kinds of important discoveries
not included herefor example, discoveries in art, culture, exploration, philosophy, society, history, or religion. I also excluded science discoveries that cannot be attributed to the
work of one individual or to a small group of collaborators. Global warming, as an example,
is a major research focus of our time. Its discovery may be critical to millionsif not billionsof human lives. However, no one individual can be credited with the discovery of
global warming. At a minimum, 30 researchers spread over 25 years each had a hand in
making this global discovery. So it is not included in my list of 100.
You will meet many of the giants of science in this book. Manybut certainly not all.
There are many who have made major contributions to the history and thought of science
without making one specific discovery that qualifies as one of the 100 greatest. Many of the
worlds greatest thinkers and discoverers are not here because their discoveries do not qualify as science discoveries.
Discoveries are not normally sought or made in response to existing practical needs, as
are inventions. Discoveries expand human knowledge and understanding. Often, it takes
decades (or even centuries) for scientists to understand and appreciate discoveries that turn
out to be critical. Gregor Mendels discovery of the concept of heredity is a good example.
No one recognized the importance of this discovery for more than 50 yearseven though
we now regard it as the founding point for the science of genetics. Einsteins theory of relativity was instantly recognized as a major discovery. However, a century later, scientists
still struggle to understand what it means and how to use it as we inch farther into space.
That would not be the case with a great invention. The process of invention focuses on
the creation of practical devices and products. Inventors apply knowledge and understanding to solve existing, pressing problems. Great inventions have an immediate and practical
use.

Introduction xiii

Not so with discoveries. Einsteins theory of relativity produced no new products,

practices, or concepts that affect our daily life. Neither did Keplers discovery of the elliptical orbits of the planets around the sun. The same is true of Alfred Wegeners discovery that
the continents drift. Yet each represents a great and irreplaceably important advance in our
understanding of our world and of the universe.
I had three main purposes in shaping and writing this book:
1.

To present key scientific discoveries and show their impact on our thinking and
understanding.

2.

To present each discovery within the continuum of scientific progress and development.

3.

To show the process of conducting scientific exploration through the context of

these discoveries.

It is interesting to note that the scientists who are associated with these 100 greatest
science discoveries have more traits and characteristics in common than do those associated with the 100 greatest science inventions (see my book by that title, Libraries Unlimited, 2005). The scientists listed in this bookthose who have made major science
discoveriesin general excelled at math as students and received advanced degrees in
science or engineering.
As a group they were fascinated by nature and the world around them. They felt a
strong passion for their fields of science and for their work. They were often already established professionals in their fields when they made their grand discoveries. Their discoveries tend to be the result of dedicated effort and creative initiative. They got excited about
some aspect of their scientific field and worked hard, long hours with dedication and inspiration. These are impressive men and women we can hold up as model scientists, both fortunate in their opportunities and to be emulated in how they took advantage of those
opportunities and applied both diligence and honesty in their pursuit of their chosen fields.
It is also amazing to consider how recent many of these discoveries are that we take for
granted and consider to be common knowledge. Seafloor spreading was only discovered 50
years ago, the existence of other galaxies only 80 years ago, the existence of neutrons only
70 years ago. Science only discovered the true nature and behavior of dinosaurs 30 years
ago and of nuclear fusion only 50 years ago. The concept of an ecosystem is only 70 years
old, That of metabolism is also only 70 years old. Yet already each of these concepts has
woven itself into the tapestry of common knowledge for all Americans.
I had to devise some criteria to compare and rank the many important science discoveries since I had literally thousands of discoveries to choose from. Here are the seven criteria I
used:
1.

Does this discovery represent truly new thinking, or just a refinement and improvement of some existing concept?

2.

What is the extent to which this discovery has altered and reshaped scientific direction and research? Has this discovery changed the way science views the
world in a fundamental way? Has it radically altered or redirected the way scientists think and act?