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Identifying morphemes.
Words are made up of meaningful word parts: morphemes. Morphemes can be identied through the process of comparing words and word parts in one word with the words and
word parts in other words. These words have been divided into morphemes:
photo
photo
photo
photo
photo
photo
graph
graph
graph
graph
graph
ic
ic
ic
y
al
al
ly
Notice that by comparing the rst word photo with the other words in the list, it is possible to
isolate the morpheme photo in all the words. By comparing photograph with the other
words, it is possible to isolate the morpheme graph in all the remaining words, and so on.
A note on spelling. With frequent but fortunately often principled exceptions, an individual morpheme is usually spelled the same way. The spelling of morphemes is usually
invariant despite variation in the actual pronunciation of the morpheme; notice the word-toword variation in the pronunciation of the underlined vowels:
photo
photograph
photography
photographically
\ow\
\\
\a\
\\
--\\
\\
\\
In the morpheme photo light, there is an alternation in the pronunciation of the second vowel
(and, as some of you may already have noticed, in the pronunciation of the consonant -t-);
also, in the morpheme graph write, there is an alternation in the pronunciation of the vowel.
Despite this alternation in pronunciation, these morphemes have a single spelling. Although
in one sense these spellings are related to sound, in another sense these spellings are morphemic (that is, related to word parts).
EXERCISE 3.1: PRACTICE IDENTIFYING SOME MORPHEMES: COMMON ROOTS.
This exercise is to give you some practice identifying morphemes you run into every day.
Divide off the morpheme with the core of the word's meaning using slashes (/). This
morpheme, by the way, is often called the root or base. Sample answers are given at the end
of the chapter.
Aqua-lung
aquarium
aqueduct3
hydrant
hydrate1
dehydration
biology
biopsy
biography
Kodachrome
chromides2
chromatin4
corpulent
corps
corporation
synchronize
chronological
chronometer
pedal5
podiatrist
pedometer
urban
suburbs
urbane
1. Compound or complex ion formed by the union of water with another substance.
2. Small brightly-colored African sh.
3. The spelling of the rst morpheme is unexpected.
4. The part of the cell nucleus that stains well with dyes.
5. In this group, one of the variants is from Latin, the other from Greek.
34
bilateral
bisexual
bicycle
triangle
tripod
tricycle
tetragram
tetralogy1
tetragon3
uniform
unison
unicycle
dual
duplex
duo duet
quadrant
quadrangle
quad
pentagon
pentagram
Pentateuch4
sextet
sextuplet
September
septivalent5
octopus
October
November
hexagon
hexagram
hexachord6
heptameter
heptagon
heptachord
quintuplet
quintet2
quints
decade
December
35
Having divided the words into morphemes, nd which of them go with the meanings
given below. The meanings of some of the words are given in footnotes; these meanings give
clues to the meanings of the morphemes. The letters provide obvious clues as to which are the
Greek and which are the Latin roots. Sample answers are given at the end of the chapter.
Greek
Latin
morpheme
morpheme
Example(s)
one
m______ ______
____________; ______________
two
-------
____________; ______________
_____, ______
three
_______
___________________________
four
t______ _______
___________________________
ve
p______ _______
____________; ______________
six
h______ _______
____________; ______________
seven
h______ _______
____________; ______________
eight
-------
_______
___________________________
nine
-------
_______
___________________________
ten
_______
___________________________
In the above exercise, were there some morphemes that were unclear? If so, exactly what
parts were unclear? What made them unclear to you?
36
root
example:
undone
sufx
un-
done
words
__________
__________
__________
kitchen
__________
__________
__________
Arizona
__________
__________
__________
faster
__________
__________
__________
__________
__________
__________
cucumbers
__________
__________
__________
policeman
__________
__________
__________
1. Roots may be further classied as free or bound, depending on whether they can occur by themselves or
whether they can only occur attached to another morpheme.
37
roots
sufxes
encircle
__________
__________
__________
artichoke
__________
__________
__________
dogs
__________
__________
__________
untie
__________
__________
__________
colder
__________
__________
__________
laziness
__________
__________
__________
roommate
__________
__________
__________
-ing
-ed
-en/-ed
-s
verbs:
nouns:
PROGRESSIVE
PAST TENSE
PAST PARTICIPLE
3rd person singular1
-s
-'s
adjectives:
PLURAL
-er
POSSESSIVE -est
COMPARATIVE
"SUPERLATIVE
1. The 3rd person singular (present tense) -s, is the -s added to verbs in the present tense after he, she, it, or a singular noun, for examples, I walk but He walks.
38
Unless it is a root (or, base), the rest of the morphemes are derivational (the word-forming
afxes).
Notice that the inectional sufxeslike all morphemeshave both a form and a
meaning. For a morpheme to be one of inectional morphemes, it must have not only the
right form but also the right meaning:
bigger (cf. big, bigger, biggest )
Thus, to use an obvious example, not all instances of -er at the end of a word are
examples of the inectional sufx -er; instead, only those -er sufxes which indicate comparison (COMPARATIVE) are inectional. For example, in the word bigger the -er indicates that two or more things are being compared in terms of size; this is, thus, an instance of
the inectional -er.
worker
In the word worker, however, the -er indicates not a comparison but rather the general
meaning of one who _____, in this case, one who works. This sufx, then, is derivational.
linger
And, in the word linger, the -er at the end is not even a sufx. The word just happens
to end in the letters -er.
Note to students: A great strategy for learning to distinguish between inectional and
derivational afxes is to memorize the eight inectional sufxesnot just the spellings but the
meanings as well! Obviously, all the rest of the afxes will be derivational.
This division between inectional and derivational correlates directly with a difference
in how the two types of afxes are taught. Inectional sufxes, not surprisingly, end up being
learned as part of the acquisition of the basic grammar or syntax of the language.
The word-forming afxesthe derivational afxesbeing far less general end up
being learned (if they are ever really learned) much as new vocabulary words are learned; that
39
is, they are learned more one at a time as the learner runs across individual words than as a
productive general rule.
EXERCISE 3.5: DERIVATIONAL VERSUS INFLECTIONAL.
The following words are made up of either one, two, or more morphemes: isolate the morphemes and decide for each morpheme if it is a (R) root, a (D) derivational afx, or and (I)
inectional sufx.
Examples:
photographically
photo-graph-ic-al-ly
R-R-D-D-D
reections
re-ect-ion-s
D-R-D-I
derivational
prex(es)
derivational
sufx(es)
example:
re-play-ed (verb)
40
re-
root(s)
play
inectional
sufx
-ed
reconnections
__________
__________
__________
__________
triliteral
__________
__________
__________
__________
reformations
__________
__________
__________
__________
bookkeepers
__________
__________
__________
__________
informality
__________
__________
__________
__________
reaction
__________
__________
__________
__________
graphically
__________
__________
__________
__________
photographically
photo-graph-ic-al-ly
R-R-D-D-D
unhappily1
misleadingly
Massachusetts
ngers
endangered (verb)
reectively
restlessness
reections
re-ect-ion-s
D-R-D-I
derivational
prex(es)
root(s)
derivational
sufx(es)
inectional
sufx
__________
__________
__________
__________
__________
__________
__________
__________
__________
__________
__________
__________
__________
__________
__________
__________
__________
__________
__________
__________
__________
__________
__________
__________
__________
__________
__________
__________
Determining the meaning of derivational afxes. English has a large number of derivational afxes, many of which change one part of speech into another part of speech. Examine the ve words to determine the function of the -ly,2 that is, (a) to determine what part of
speech were the roots before the -ly was added and (b) what part of speech are the words now.3
man/ly
friend/ly
world/ly
woman/ly
love/ly
1. You should not let yourself be confused by the spelling of the root in this word as happi- rather than happy.
2.
3.
This -ly should not be mistaken for the -ly that occurs on some adverbs.
Determining the meaning of derivational afxes in this way serves at least two purposes. The rst is obvious; it is useful to be able to determine what the particular afxes do. Another less obvious benet is the dual benets from going
through the processes: not only is understanding of the parts of speech increased but also an increased familiarity with a
wide range of morphemes is gained.
41
(a) To nd out what part of speech these words were before the sufx -ly was added,
we examine man, friend, world, woman, and love to see if there is a single part of speech
which they can all function as. We nd that they all can function as nouns,1 as can be
checked by putting the word the in front of each of them:
the man, the friend, the world, the woman, the love 2
So it appears that all the words were nouns before the addition of -ly. At this point, we know
these roots were nouns before -ly was added.
(b) To nd out what part of speech these words are after the addition of the -ly, we
examine manly, friendly, worldly, womanly, and lovely to see if there is a single part of speech
which they function as. They are not nouns; we cannot say, as the asterisk indicates, *the
manly, *the friendly, and so on, unless we consider them to have a following understood
noun. They are not verbs; we cannot say *to manly, *to friendly, and so on However, they
are adjectives; we can say things like the manly actor, the friendly dog, the worldly sophomore, and so on in which our -ly words function as adjectives.
nouns? no!
verbs? no!
adjectives? yes!
not
not
not
not
not
not
not
not
not
not
but
but
but
but
but
*the manly
*the friendly
*the worldly
*the womanly
*the lovely
*to manly
*to friendly
*to worldly
*to womanly
*to lovely
1.
While any individual word might function as more than one part of speech, it would be most unusual for more than one
part of speech to functions for all ve examples.
2. The word love is of little help to us, as it can be a noun as in the love or a verb as in to love. We assume that it is functioning as a noun here because the other four are functioning as nouns.
The roots were not verbs because only two of them can function as verbs. We test this by trying each of them with the
word to in front of the root:
to man, *to friend, *to world, *to woman, to love
Two of the roots can act as verbs, man and love, but the other three, as the asterisk shows, cannot.
42
To put it all together, (a) the nouns man, friend, world, woman, and love (b) become
adjectives when -ly is added to them. Or, to say the same thing, formulaically:
noun
-ly
====>
adjective
__________
2. -ion:
__________
-ion
====>
__________
-ity
====>
___________
__________
5. -ive:
====>
__________
4. -ize:
less
__________
3. -ity:
-ize
====>
__________
__________
-ive
====>
__________
43
2.
ness
re-:
-al
un-:
__________
====>
__________
====>
__________
un- + ____________
6.
====>
5.
__________
4.
====>
-al:
__________
3.
====>
__________
====>
__________
1. If you have tried working with this word, you might have already realized that mort- does not really have a part of speech.
Because it is a bound not a free root, it does not occur by itself.
2. This un- is not the same as the un- of number 5. In 5, the un- means approximately 'do in reverse'; in 6, the un- means
'not'.
44
Mixed morphology exercises. These exercises require sorting out various types of
morphemes. Some look alike but are actually different; some look different but are actually
the same.
EXERCISE 3.9: MIXED MORPHEMES
In each group, one word has no sufx whatsoever; after this word, write 'none'. One has a
sufx that is different from the other two remaining sufxes; after this sufx, write different.
The remaining two have sufxes that are the same in meaning, if not spelling; after these,
write 'same'.
a.
rider
colder
silver
actor1
___________________
___________________
___________________
___________________
b.
tresses
melodies
Bess's
guess
___________________
___________________
___________________
___________________
rider
colder
silver
actor
______same________
_____different______
______none________
______same________
The word silver has no sufx. The word colder has the sufx -er, an inectional sufx
meaning more. The words rider and actor both have the same sufx (sometimes spelled -er
1. The sufx meaning 'one who does X' has two spellings in modern English, -er and -or. The -er words (from Old English)
tend to be the more common and less prestigious occupations, reecting the less prestigious position of English; the -or
words tend to be the less common but more prestigious borrowings from French, reecting the French rule in England
after the Norman invasion, and from Latin, in church matters and in business and legal matters. Among the -or words are
emperor, professor (vs. teacher), assessor, senator, contractor, creditor, governor, author, moderator, investor, conciliator,
supervisor, confessor, and sailor (vs. seafarer). Note: this is a general tendency, not an exceptionless rule: cf. lawyer.
45
and sometimes-or), a derivational sufx meaning one who... Thus, rider is one who rides
and actor is one who acts.
EXERCISE 3.10: MIXED MORPHEMES
In each group, one word has no sufx whatsoever; after this word, write 'none'. One has a
sufx that is different from the other two remaining sufxes; after this sufx, write different.
The remaining two have sufxes that are the same in meaning, if not spelling; after these,
write 'same'.
c.
running
foundling
handling
ing
___________________
___________________
___________________
___________________
d.
tables
lens
witches
calculates
___________________
___________________
___________________
___________________
46
intra/state
intra/mural
submarine
submerge
subcontract
project
progress
promote
export
expel
express
extend
interstate
intermixed
intercollegiate
intermarriage
transport
transfer
ultrasonic
ultraviolet
antedate
antecedent
prescribe
prevent
antiseptic
antitank
transmit
recover
regain
rework
prex
postwar
postgraduate
postpone
ambidextrous miscalculate
ambisexual mistrust
ambivalent
misspell
incapable
injustice
indecent
uncertain
unjust
unhappy
atheist
amoral
atypical
retrorocket
retrograde
retroex
miniature1
miniskirt
Part 2: Having divided the above words into morphemes, nd which of the above prexes go
with the meanings given below. The rst one is done.
morpheme
example
morpheme
example
within
_intra-___
__________
between
_________
__________
forward
_________
__________
wrongly
_________
__________
under
_________
__________
across
_________
__________
beyond
_________
__________
backward _________
__________
again
_________
__________
after
_________
__________
against
_________
__________
small
_________
__________
both
_________
__________
not
_________
__________
not
_________
__________
not
_________
__________
before
_________
__________
before
_________
__________
out, outside_________
__________
1. Historically, the mini- in this word is the root, not a prex. Thus, it is divided into mini- -at(e)- -ure.
47
Chapter 3: Collocations
Collocations
Collocations are what an analysis of the term would imply: words that occur together
(col- from con- with + location ) as set, relatively invariable phrases. Although there is considerable variation not only from speaker to speaker but also from region to region, for each
native speaker of English, for the majority of these there is only one way that they sound
right. Also for the majority of these, switching the order makes the collocation sound
"wrong". For the learner of English, these must be learned one-by-one just as new words must
be learned.
Pairs with and:
1.
2.
3.
4.
5.
6.
7.
8.
9.
10.
11.
12.
13.
14.
15.
16.
17.
18.
19.
20.
48
21.
22.
23.
24.
25.
26.
27.
28.
29.
30.
31.
32.
33.
34.
35.
36.
37.
38.
39.
40.
Chapter 3: Collocations
41.
42.
43.
44.
45.
more or ______________________
trick or ______________________
win or _______________________
rain or _______________________
double or _____________________
46.
47.
48.
49.
50.
better or ____________________
this or ______________________
heaven or ___________________
friend or ____________________
truth or _____________________
58.
59.
60.
61.
62.
63.
64.
Triplets:
51.
52.
53.
54.
55.
56.
57.
as straight as ___________________
as stiff as ______________________
as sober as _____________________
as old as _______________________
as scarce as _____________________
as naked as _____________________
as easy as ______________________
as hard as ______________________
as sharp as _____________________
as heavy as _____________________
49
Chapter 3: Terms
89.
90.
91.
92.
97.
98.
99.
100.
[No answers are given for this exercise. The original list was attributed to Charles Fillmore.]
Terms
To check yourself, see if you can briey describe each of the following terms and illustrate it in a phrase or sentence (underlining the relevant part).
morpheme
root (or base)
afx
prex
sufx
inectional
verbs:
-ing
-ed
-en/-ed
-s
nouns:
PROGRESSIVE
-s PLURAL
-er
PAST TENSE
-'s POSSESSIVE -est
PAST PARTICIPLE
3rd person singular
derivational
50
adjectives:
COMPARATIVE
SUPERLATIVE
Chapter 3: Terms
hydr- water
chron- time
bio- life
ped-, pod- foot"
chrom- color
urb- city
bi- two
du- two
september
hepta seven
Greek
morpheme
one
two
three
four
ve
six
seven
eight
nine
ten
mono
-------
tri- three
tetr- four
quadr-, quad- four
octo- eight
nov- nine
Latin
morpheme
du-,
tri-
tetrpentahexahepta-------------
unibiquadrquint
sextseptaoctonov-
dec-
quint- ve
penta- ve
dec- ten
Example(s)
__copy from examples given____
____________; ______________
___________________________
___________________________
____________; ______________
____________; ______________
____________; ______________
___________________________
___________________________
___________________________
In the above exercise, were there some morphemes that were unclear? If so, exactly what
parts were unclear? What made them unclear to you?
For morphemes like quad-/quadr-, there are two variants, one used in combinations
and the other used when the morpheme is the whole word. For the morphemes like those in
the month November, it is not clear where the number part ends and where the next morpheme
begins; it is clear that nov- is at least part of the number, but it is not clear if the following -egoes with the nov- or with the -mber that follows.
51
Chapter 3: Terms
words
kitchen
Arizona
faster
reworking
cucumbers
policeman
prexes
roots
sufxes
--------re-----
word
kitchen
Arizona
fast
work
cucumber
police; man
-s
-----er
-ing
-s
---
encircle
artichoke
dogs
untie
colder
laziness
roommate
prexes
roots
en-
circle
artichoke
dog
tie
cold
laziroom, mate
un-
sufxes
-s
-er
-ness
52
re-, contrireinre-
root(s)
derivational
sufx(es)
inectional
sufx
-nect-literform
book, keep
form
act
graph
-ion
-al
-at-, ion
-er
-al, -ity
-ion
-ic, -al, -ly
-s
-s
-s
Chapter 3: Terms
unmis-
derivational
sufx(es)
root(s)
happy
lead
Massachusetts
nger
danger
ectrest
enre-
inectional
sufx
-ly
-ing, -ly
-ive, -ly
-less, -ness
-s
-ed
-s
noun
verb
adjective
noun
verb
+
+
+
+
+
-less
-ion
-ity
-ize
-ive
===>
===>
===>
===>
===>
adjective
noun
noun
verb
adjective
+
+
+
+
+
+
-ness
-al
verb
verb
verb
adjective
====>
====>
====>
====>
====>
====>
noun
adjective
verb
verb
verb
adjective
adjective
noun
remisunun-
rider
colder
silver
actor
same:
different:
none
same:
53
Chapter 3: Terms
b.
tresses
melodies
Bess's
guess
same:
same:
different:
none
-s meaning plural
-es meaning plural
-s indicating possessive
running
foundling
handling
ing
same:
different:
same:
none
d.
tables
lens
witches
calculates
same:
none
same:
different:
inectional: -s plural
inectional: -es plural
inectional: -es third person singular
sub/marine
sub/merge
sub/contract
pro/ject
pro/gress
pro/mote
ex/port
ex/pel
ex/press
ex/tend
inter/state
inter/mixed
inter/collegiate
inter/marriage
trans/port
trans/fer
trans/mit
ultra/sonic
ultra/violet
ante/date
ante/cedent
pre/scribe
pre/vent
pre/x
anti/septic
anti/tank
re/cover
re/gain
re/work
post/war
post/graduate
post/pone
in/capable
in/justice
in/decent
un/certain
un/just
un/happy
a/theist
a/moral
a/typical
retro/rocket
mini/ature
ambi/dextrous mis/calculate
54
Chapter 3: Terms
ambi/sexual
ambi/valent
mis/trust
mis/spell
retro/grade
retro/ex
mini/skirt
Part 2: Having divided the above words into morphemes, nd which of the above prexes go
with the meanings given below. The rst one is done.
morpheme
within
forward
under
beyond
again
against
both
not
before
out, outside
morpheme
between
wrongly
across
backward
after
small
not
not
before
55