Math 38 Mathematical Analysis III: I. F. Evidente

MATH 38
Mathematical Analysis III

I. F. Evidente
IMSP (UPLB)
Outline
Sequences
Graphs of Sequences
Convergence of a Sequence
Squeeze Theorem for Sequences
Recall:
Some limit forms (Not indeterminate!)
Recall:

(e ):
Recall:

(e ): limit is
Recall:

(e ): limit is
(e ):
Recall:

(e ): limit is
(e ): limit is 0
Recall:

(e ): limit is
(e ): limit is 0
(ln()):
Recall:

(e ): limit is
(e ): limit is 0
(ln()): limit is
Recall:

(e ): limit is
(e ): limit is 0
(ln()): limit is
(ln(0+ )):
Recall:

(e ): limit is
(e ): limit is 0
(ln()): limit is
(ln(0+ )): limit is
Recall:

(e ): limit is
(e ): limit is 0
(ln()): limit is
(ln(0+ )): limit is
(Arctan()):
Recall:

(e ): limit is
(e ): limit is 0
(ln()): limit is
(ln(0+ )): limit is
(Arctan()): limit is
Recall:

(e ): limit is
(e ): limit is 0
(ln()): limit is
(ln(0+ )): limit is
(Arctan()):
Recall:

(e ): limit is
(e ): limit is 0
(ln()): limit is
(ln(0+ )): limit is
(Arctan()): limit is 2
Examples
x2 + 1
lim ln
=
x
2x 1
Examples
x2 + 1
lim ln
=
x
2x 1
Examples
x2 + 1
lim ln
=
x
2x 1

1
lim ln
=
x
x
Examples
x2 + 1
lim ln
=
x
2x 1

1
lim ln
=
x
x
Examples
x2 + 1
lim ln
=
x
2x 1

1
lim ln
=
x
x
lim Arctan(ln x) =
x0+
Examples
x2 + 1
lim ln
=
x
2x 1

1
lim ln
=
x
x
lim+ Arctan(ln x) =
x0
Outline
Sequences
Graphs of Sequences
Sequences
What is a sequence?
Sequences
What is a sequence?
A sequence is a succession of numbers whose order is determined by
a rule.
What is the rule for the following sequences?

1
{5, 2, 1, 4, 7, ...}

1
2
{5, 2, 1, 4, 7, ...}
1 1 1 1
2 , 4 , 8 , 16 , ...

1
2
3
{5, 2, 1, 4, 7, ...}
1 1 1 1
2 , 4 , 8 , 16 , ...
{1, 0, 1, 0, ...}

1
2
{5, 2, 1, 4, 7, ...}
1 1 1 1
2 , 4 , 8 , 16 , ...
{1, 0, 1, 0, ...}
{1, 12 , 31 , 14 , ...}

1
2
{5, 2, 1, 4, 7, ...}
1 1 1 1
2 , 4 , 8 , 16 , ...
{1, 0, 1, 0, ...}
{1, 12 , 31 , 14 , ...}
{1, 21 , 13 , 14 , ...}

1
2
{5, 2, 1, 4, 7, ...}
1 1 1 1
2 , 4 , 8 , 16 , ...
{1, 0, 1, 0, ...}
{1, 12 , 31 , 14 , ...}
{1, 21 , 13 , 14 , ...}
{ 21 , 23 , 43 , 45 , ...}

1
2
{5, 2, 1, 4, 7, ...}
1 1 1 1
2 , 4 , 8 , 16 , ...
{1, 0, 1, 0, ...}
{1, 12 , 31 , 14 , ...}
{1, 21 , 13 , 14 , ...}
{ 21 , 23 , 43 , 45 , ...}
{0, 1, 1, 2, 3, 5, ...}
Sequences
Focus: sequences with infinite terms, rule is defined by a function.
Definition
A sequence of real numbers is the ordered range of some function f (n)
whose domain I is an ordered set of the form {k, k +1, k +2, ...}, where k .
Definition
Example
N R, where f (n) = pn. What is the sequence arising from
Consider f :
this function?
Definition
Definition
Terminologies and Notations:

Indexing Set: I = {k, k + 1, k + 2, ...},
Definition

Indexing Set: I = {k, k + 1, k + 2, ...}, index,
Definition

Indexing Set: I = {k, k + 1, k + 2, ...}, index, lower or starting index,
Definition

usual lower index: 0, 1, 2
Definition

Rule: f (n)
Definition

Rule: f (n)
Notation: {an }
, where an = f (n)
n=k
Definition

Rule: f (n)
Notation: {an }
, where an = f (n)
n=k
If there is no ambiguity, we simply write {an }
What is the function defining the rule for the following sequences?
1
{5, 2, 1, 4, 7, ...} =
1
{5, 2, 1, 4, 7, ...} =
{3n 8}
n=1
1
{5, 2, 1, 4, 7, ...} =
{3n 8}
n=1
1
21 , 14 , 81 , 16
, ... =
1
{5, 2, 1, 4, 7, ...} =
{3n 8}
n=1
1
21 , 14 , 81 , 16
, ... =
(1)n
2n
n=1
1
{5, 2, 1, 4, 7, ...} =
{3n 8}
n=1
1
21 , 14 , 81 , 16
, ... =
{1, 0, 1, 0, ...}
(1)n
2n
n=1
1
{5, 2, 1, 4, 7, ...} =
{3n 8}
n=1
1
21 , 14 , 81 , 16
, ... =
(1)n
2n
n=1
{1, 0, 1, 0, ...}
{a n }
n=1
where an =
(
1
if n is even
if n is odd
1
{1, 12 , 31 , 14 , ...} =
1
{1, 12 , 31 , 14 , ...} =

1
n n=1
1
{1, 12 , 31 , 14 , ...} =
{1, 12 , 13 , 14 , ...} =

1
n n=1
1
{1, 12 , 31 , 14 , ...} =

1
n n=1
{1, 12 , 13 , 14 , ...} =
(1)n+1
n
n=1
1
{1, 12 , 31 , 14 , ...} =

1
n n=1
{1, 12 , 13 , 14 , ...} =
{ 12 , 23 , 34 , 45 , ...} =
(1)n+1
n
n=1
1
{1, 12 , 31 , 14 , ...} =

1
n n=1
{1, 12 , 13 , 14 , ...} =
{ 12 , 23 , 34 , 45 , ...} =
(1)n+1
n
n=1
n n o
n +1
Outline
Sequences
Graphs of Sequences
Graph of a Sequence
The graph of a sequence {an } is the geometric representation on the
Cartesian plane of the the set
{(n, a n ) | n I }
Example
{3n 8}
n=1
Example
{3n 8}
n=1
Example
n
o
(1)n
2n
n=1
Example
n
o
(1)n
2n
n=1
Example
{1, 0, 1, 0, ...}
Example
{1, 0, 1, 0, ...}
Example
1
n n=1
Example
1
n n=1
Example
n
o
(1)n+1
n
n=1
Example
n
o
(1)n+1
n
n=1
Example
n
n+1 n=1
Example
n
n+1 n=1
Outline
Sequences
Graphs of Sequences
Question
What is the behavior of a sequence at the tail end, when n is very, very
large?
Question
What is the behavior of a sequence at the tail end, when n is very, very
large?
(Mathematicians say: for all values of n greater than some fixed index N .)
Definition (Convergence of a Sequence)

A sequence {an } is said to converge to the limit L if

A sequence {an } is said to converge to the limit L if given any > 0,

A sequence {an } is said to converge to the limit L if given any > 0, there
exists a positive integer N such that

|a n L| < for all n N .

A sequence that does not converge is said to diverge.

A sequence that does not converge is said to diverge.

Notation:
lim a n = L , or a n L as n .
Remark
Intuitively, the limit of {an } is the unique value L that an approaches
as n .
Remark
Intuitively, the limit of {an } is the unique value L that an approaches
as n .
For a sequence to converge, L must be a real number (and cannot be
).
Example
1
{3n 8}
n=1
Example
1
{3n 8}
n=1 is divergent.
Example
1
2
{3n 8}
is divergent.
n
o n=1
n
(1)
2n
n=1
Example
1
2
{3n 8}
is divergent.
n
o n=1
n
(1)
2n
n=1
converges to 0.
Example
1
2
3
{3n 8}
is divergent.
n
o n=1
n
(1)
2n
n=1
converges to 0.
{1, 0, 1, 0, ...}
Example
1
2
3
{3n 8}
is divergent.
n
o n=1
n
(1)
2n
n=1
converges to 0.
{1, 0, 1, 0, ...} is divergent.
Example
1
2
3
4
{3n 8}
is divergent.
n
o n=1
n
(1)
2n
n=1
converges to 0.
{1, 0, 1, 0, ...} is divergent.

1
n n=1
Example
1
2
3
4
{3n 8}
is divergent.
n
o n=1
n
(1)
2n
n=1
converges to 0.
{1, 0, 1, 0, ...} is divergent.

1
n n=1 converges to 0.
Example
1
2
3
4
5
{3n 8}
is divergent.
n
o n=1
n
(1)
2n
n=1
converges to 0.
{1, 0, 1, 0, ...} is divergent.

1
converges to 0.
n
n n=1
o
n+1
(1)
n
n=1
Example
1
2
3
4
5
{3n 8}
is divergent.
n
o n=1
n
(1)
2n
n=1
converges to 0.
{1, 0, 1, 0, ...} is divergent.

1
converges to 0.
n
n n=1
o
n+1
(1)
n
n=1
converges to 0.
Example
1
2
3
4
5
6
{3n 8}
is divergent.
n
o n=1
n
(1)
2n
n=1
converges to 0.
{1, 0, 1, 0, ...} is divergent.

1
converges to 0.
n
n n=1
o
n+1
(1)
n
n=1
n
n+1 n=1
converges to 0.
Example
1
2
3
4
5
6
{3n 8}
is divergent.
n
o n=1
n
(1)
2n
n=1
converges to 0.
{1, 0, 1, 0, ...} is divergent.

1
converges to 0.
n
n n=1
o
n+1
(1)
n
n=1
n
n+1 n=1
converges to 0.
converges to 1.
Consider the behavior of
1
n
, where f (n) = n1
1
n
, where f (n) = n1
Consider the behavior of function f :
R \ {0} R \ {0}, where f (x) = x1 .
1
n
, where f (n) = n1
Consider the behavior of function f :
R \ {0} R \ {0}, where f (x) = x1 .
Remark
Let {an } be a sequence, where an = f (n).
Remark
Let {an } be a sequence, where an = f (n). Consider f (x), f :
R R.
Remark
R R
Let {an } be a sequence, where an = f (n). Consider f (x), f : . Then

the behavior of f (n) as n "follows" the behavior of f (x) as x .
Theorem
Let {an }
n=1 , where a n = f (n). Consider f (x), f :
(or ), then lim f (n) = L (or ).
n
R R. If x
lim f (x) = L
If as x , f (x) L, or , then
If as x , f (x) L, or , then f (n) will "follow" the behavior of

f (x).

f (x).
But not the other way around!

f (x).
Consider {sin n} and the function f (x) = sin x .

f (x).

f (x).

f (x).
Theorem
Let {an }
n
R R. If x
lim f (x) = L
Theorem
Let {an }
n
Usefulness of theorem:
R R. If x
lim f (x) = L
Theorem
Let {an }
R R. If x
lim f (x) = L
Usefulness of theorem:
To compute lim f (n), we can use limit theorems for function f :
n
(thms from Math 36 and 37!)
RR
Example
1
{3n 8}
n=1
Example
1
{3n 8}
n=1
lim 3n 8 =
Example
1
{3n 8}
n=1
lim 3n 8 =
Example
1
{3n 8}
n=1
lim 3n 8 =
1
n n=1
Example
1
{3n 8}
n=1
lim 3n 8 =
1
n n=1
lim
n n
Example
1
{3n 8}
n=1
lim 3n 8 =
1
n n=1
lim
n n
=0
Example
1
{3n 8}
n=1
lim 3n 8 =
1
n n=1
lim
n n
n
n+1
=0
Example
1
{3n 8}
n=1
lim 3n 8 =
1
n n=1
lim
n n
n
n+1
=0
lim
n n + 1
Example
1
{3n 8}
n=1
lim 3n 8 =
1
n n=1
lim
n n
n
n+1
=0
lim
n n + 1
=1
Example
Determine whether the following sequences converge or diverge.
Example
n 3 + n 2 + 2n + 1
3n 3 + n + 5
Example
n 3 + n 2 + 2n + 1
3n 3 + n + 5
{n n 2 }
Example
n 3 + n 2 + 2n + 1
3n 3 + n + 5
{n n 2 }

1
ln
n 1 n=2
2
3
Example
n 3 + n 2 + 2n + 1
3n 3 + n + 5
{n n 2 }

1
ln
n 1 n=2
1
tan1 n
n
2
3
Example
n 3 + n 2 + 2n + 1
3n 3 + n + 5
{n n 2 }

1
ln
n 1 n=2
1
tan1 n
n
n
2
1 + 2n
2
3
Example
n 3 + n 2 + 2n + 1
3n 3 + n + 5
{n n 2 }

1
ln
n 1 n=2
1
tan1 n
n
n
2
1 + 2n
n n n o
n +1
2
3
Example
n 3 + n 2 + 2n + 1
3n 3 + n + 5
{n n 2 }

1
ln
n 1 n=2
1
tan1 n
n
n
2
1 + 2n
n n n o
+1
n
1
n!
2
3
Outline
Sequences
Graphs of Sequences
Theorem (Squeeze Theorem for Sequences)

Let {an }, {bn }, {c n } be sequences such that

Let {an }, {bn }, {c n } be sequences such that an bn c n (for all values of n
beyond some fixed index N ).

beyond some fixed index N ). If the sequences {an } and {c n } converge to L ,
then

beyond some fixed index N ). If the sequences {an } and {c n } converge to L ,
then {bn } also converges to L .
Example
Determine whether the following sequences converge or diverge. Assume
the starting index is 1, unless otherwise specified.
Example
cos n
n +1
Example
cos n
n +1
sin n
n
Example
n +1
sin n
n
3n + sin n
3 4n
cos n
Example
n +1
sin n
n
3n + sin n
3 4n
cos n
In Summary
Sequences
Graphs of Sequences
Announcements
Regarding SW
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MATH 38

Mathematical Analysis III

Squeeze Theorem for Sequences

Some limit forms (Not indeterminate!)

Some limit forms (Not indeterminate!)

Some limit forms (Not indeterminate!)

Some limit forms (Not indeterminate!)

Some limit forms (Not indeterminate!)

Some limit forms (Not indeterminate!)

Some limit forms (Not indeterminate!)

Some limit forms (Not indeterminate!)

Some limit forms (Not indeterminate!)

Some limit forms (Not indeterminate!)

Some limit forms (Not indeterminate!)

Some limit forms (Not indeterminate!)

Some limit forms (Not indeterminate!)

Squeeze Theorem for Sequences

What is the rule for the following sequences?

What is the rule for the following sequences?

What is the rule for the following sequences?

What is the rule for the following sequences?

What is the rule for the following sequences?

What is the rule for the following sequences?

What is the rule for the following sequences?

What is the rule for the following sequences?

Focus: sequences with infinite terms, rule is defined by a function.

N R, where f (n) = pn. What is the sequence arising from

Terminologies and Notations:

Terminologies and Notations:

Terminologies and Notations:

Terminologies and Notations:

Terminologies and Notations:

Terminologies and Notations:

Terminologies and Notations:

Squeeze Theorem for Sequences

Squeeze Theorem for Sequences

Definition (Convergence of a Sequence)

Definition (Convergence of a Sequence)

Definition (Convergence of a Sequence)

Definition (Convergence of a Sequence)

Definition (Convergence of a Sequence)

A sequence that does not converge is said to diverge.

Definition (Convergence of a Sequence)

A sequence that does not converge is said to diverge.

{1, 0, 1, 0, ...} is divergent.

{1, 0, 1, 0, ...} is divergent.

{1, 0, 1, 0, ...} is divergent.

{1, 0, 1, 0, ...} is divergent.

{1, 0, 1, 0, ...} is divergent.

{1, 0, 1, 0, ...} is divergent.

{1, 0, 1, 0, ...} is divergent.

Consider the behavior of

Consider the behavior of

Consider the behavior of function f :

R \ {0} R \ {0}, where f (x) = x1 .

Consider the behavior of

Consider the behavior of function f :

R \ {0} R \ {0}, where f (x) = x1 .

Let {an } be a sequence, where an = f (n). Consider f (x), f : . Then

If as x , f (x) L, or , then f (n) will "follow" the behavior of

If as x , f (x) L, or , then f (n) will "follow" the behavior of

If as x , f (x) L, or , then f (n) will "follow" the behavior of

If as x , f (x) L, or , then f (n) will "follow" the behavior of