Classical Ethical

Theories

Note:
Ethical Theories show us that
morality exists
Distinguish Good from Evil
These Theories are normative.
Thus create moral
disagreements among people.

 Each classical ethical theory has

its view about the reality of
morality.
Each theory gives important
truths a bout moral life.
None of the theories can claim to
possess the whole truth

 Each theory checks the excesses of

the other,
Thereby showing the limits of each
theory .
Some theories are consequential in
Nature,
While others are non-consequential.

Moral Absolutism
Claims that there are absolute
standards against which
morality can be judged.
We can strive to attain higher
norms that apply to all human
beings.

Moral absolutism contd

Certain actions are right or
wrong irrespective of the
context of the act.
Nothing is relative; a crime is a
crime regardless of the
circumstances.

Moral Absolutism Contd

Therefore right and wrong are

universal truths ( ethical
standards are applicable to
every body everywhere.

Analysis:
From an egoistic view, moral
absolutism condones
fundamentalism. This can break
down society.
This would imply that all people
should have the same ethical
codes.

Contd

positively:, it allows us to
judge the actions of others.

Moral Relativism
There are no universal moral
standards; Nothing is good or bad
absolutely.
Therefore the truth/ moral
principles vary from time to time,
group to group place to place

Moral Relativism Contd

Every one should be contented
with the morality of their time
and place

Two Forms of Relativism

1.Subjectivism: Each individual
must act according to what
he/she considers appropriate
for each situation

Forms of Relativism Contd

2. Cultural

Relativism: Good and

Bad depends on the ethical
values prevailing in the given
culture/community.

Analysis
No responsibility, No blame
every body/groups have their
own moral standards.
Can not Judge others
Laws become impossible to
implement

Consequentialism
Actions are judged according
to the end / completion /
effect.
Sum total good in actions must
exceed the evil

Forms of Consequentialism
1.Ethical Egoism
2.Utilitarianism/altruism
3.Pragmatism
4. Feminist Consequentialism

Forms Contd
Ethical Egoism:
What is ethical is that which
produces good consequences
to the actor.( hedonists/
Thomas Hobbes)

Analysis
Is it possible to avoid pain?
Foregoing sensual pleasure to
enjoy higher pleasure; postpone
the enjoyment of pleasure
Pleasure generalized; sacrifice,
duty, generosity.. Etc

Utilitarianism; Jeremy
Bentham & Stuart Mill
Using the principle of
utility,(Maximizing the Good)
Bentham found pain and
pleasure to be the only
intrinsic values in the world.

Utilitarianism Contd
Man is governed naturally by pain
and pleasure.
Actions and policies should be
evaluated on the basis of the
benefits and costs they have on
society.

Utilitarianism Contd
Correct actions produce
greatest net benefits or
lowest net costs.
Greatest happiness/good
for the greatest number.

Utilitarianism Contd
People affected by actions are
stakeholders of the action;
therefore businesses should
consider all people affected by
their businesses as
stakeholders in the business.

Utilitarianism Contd
Essentials of Utility
Maximizing good
Theory of value: standard of goodness:
intrinsic values- satisfaction of desiresattainment of autonomy-achievement of deep
personal relationships
Consequentialism; produce the best utilitarian
outcome

Utilitarianism Contd
Impartiality/ Universalism

Analysis
Is it possible to determine
pleasure for others?
Is morality for the majority
always right?

Analysis contd
Can lead to radical actions,
infanticide, exterminate
sufferers .. Assisted suicide(
euthanasia)

Pragmatism

There is no room for

absolutism; ethical standards
change according to their
usefulness or practicability and
their ability to produce good
effect.

Pragmatism Contd
Good actions are those that
work, profitable, or have
practical consequences, help
solve a problem, and produce
positive results.

Analysis
No common Morality
One can not be certain of the
consequences.

Feminist Consequentilism
Caro Gilligan/ Ethics of Care
Men use logic and rules/ laws
to arrive at moral decisions.
They generalize morality while
Women see morality as being
entailed in communication and
relationships. Morality is
particular

Ethics of Care Contd

Men see themselves as guilty
for doing something wrong
while women hold themselves
responsible for not doing
something to prevent the hurt.

Ethics of Care Contd

Women change rules in order
to preserve relationships
while men abide by rules and
see relationships as
replaceable.

Ethics of Care Contd

Therefore actions that are
right are those that do not
break up relationships, hurt
other peoples feelings; and
vise versa.

Non-Consequential Theories
Kantian Ethics
Deontology
Virtue Ethics

Deontological Theories
Greek word Deon and logos meaning
duty or obligation.
Acting in accordance to ones duty is right.
What are duties?
Hugo Grotius ( 1583-1635) and Samuel
Pufendorf ( 1632-1694)
Duties towards God
Towards ones self

Duties Contd
Duty towards others. Family, friends, general
social obligations etc
W.D ROSS DUTIES ( 1817-1971)
Fidelity
Gratitude
Justice
Beneficence
Self improvement and Non- maleficence.

Kantian Ethics/Theory
Immanuel Kant : 1724-1804
He is a critique of the Utilitarian's, hedonists,
pragmatists, who never care a bout the motives
of actors/agents.
Actions are duty based ( motive)
Right actions are those that are done when the
agent possesses good will( a person recognizes
that they ought to do these actions)
Categorical Imperative ( unconditional/
command- / essential)

Kant Contd
Act only to that maxim by which you can at
the same time will that it should become a
universal law Universalism
Key Issues:
Duty and Good will
Universalism
Treating Human Beings as an End not
Means

Virtue ethics
Virtue is a habitual and firm disposition to do
the good.
Virtues allow a person not only to perform
good acts to give the best of himself/herself in
every thing.
A good person
directs his/herself towards the good with all
his/her sensory and spiritual powers.

Virtues contd
A virtuous person stands firm in trying
moments
The choice of good acts produces virtue and
virtues itself is the source of choosing to do
good acts.
Good habits make virtues and bad habits
make the vices. ( Virtues= good; Vice= bad)

Virtues Contd
Virtues are therefore necessary for a moral
life.
Virtues govern actions, give one a firm and
good attitude, perfect the intellect, control
passions, and generally make it easy for one to
enjoy leading a morally good life.
Virtues are acquired by human effort ( they
are the seed and fruit of morally good acts)

Virtues Contd
Classifications of Virtues.
1. Cardinal Virtues/ moral virtues: Main/Major
all other virtues originate from them.
Prudence: Right reason-ability to discern true
good from every circumstance.
Justice: Fairness; promote equity.
Fortitude: Firmness in difficulty-constant
pursuit of good

Virtues Contd
Resistance to temptations
Ability to overcome obstacles.
Temperance: Moderates attraction of pleasures.
2. Super natural : Charity, Hope and Faith
3. Intellectual: wisdom, science, art

Natural Law Tradition

Laws of nature govern the activities of the
universe, instruct emotions common to man, like
love of offspring, self preservation etc ; Therefore
All rational persons know what kind of actions
morality prohibits, requires, discourages and
encourages. It is reason which makes us act
morally.
What is natural is right/good and vice versa.[

Divine Command Theory

Good actions commanded by God

Communitarianism

Common good
Social Goals
Co-operative Virtues
Community Values
Solidarity: community makes the individual
and Vice versa
Society assigns roles. Therefore what is in line
with the common good is right and vice versa.

Elements to evaluate an ethical act

Object /act
End/intention
Circumstances
Evaluation of acts with a double effect
Responsibility for other peoples actions
Responsibility for cooperating in other peoples
actions
Restrictions to proper use of the intellect.

Ethics
Deontological Right Action Duty Rights
Teleological/conquentialism