Building Services III

Building Services III
V Semester
BUILDING SERVICES - III
MSAJ Academy of Architecture
V Semester
CONTENT:
UNIT I AIR CONDITIONING: BASIC REFRIGERATION PRINCIPLES 9

Thermodynamics Heat Temperature Latent heat of fusion evaporation, saturation
temperature, pressure temperature relationship for liquid refrigerants, refrigeration cycle
components vapour compression cycle compressors evaporators Refrigerant control
devices electric motors Air handling Units cooling towers
UNIT II AIR CONDITIONING: SYSTEMS AND APPLICATIONS 12
Air conditioning system for small buildings window types, evaporative cooler, packaged
terminal units and through the wall units split system b) Systems for large building Chilled
water plant All Air system, variable air volume, and all water
System Configuring/ sizing of mechanical equipment, equipment spaces and sizes for chiller
plant, cooling tower, Fan room, Circulation Pumps, Pipes, ducts
UNIT III AIR CONDITIONING: DESIGN ISSUES AND HORIZONTAL
DISTRIBUTION OF SYSTEMS 6
Design criteria for selecting the Air conditioning system for large building and energy
conservation measures - Typical choices for cooling systems for small and large buildings Horizontal distribution of services for large buildings - Grouped horizontal distribution over
central corridors, Above ceiling, In floor, Raised access floor, Horizontal distribution of
mechanical services
UNIT IV FIRE SAFETY: DESIGN AND GENERAL
GUIDELINES OF EGRESS DESIGN 10
Principles of fire behaviour, Fire safety design principles _ NBC Planning considerations in
buildings Non- Combustible materials, egress systems, Exit Access Distance between
exits, exterior corridors Maximum travel distance, Doors, Smoke proof enclosures General
guidelines for egress design for Auditoriums, concert halls, theatres, other building types,
window egress, accessibility for disabled- NBC guidelines lifts lobbies, stairways, ramp
design, fire escapes and A/C, electrical systems.
UNIT V FIRE SAFETY: FIRE DETECTION AND FIRE FIGHTING INSTALLATION 8
Heat smoke detectors sprinkler systems
Fire fighting pump and water requirements, storage wet risers, Dry rises
Fire extinguishers & cabinets
Fire protection system CO2 & Halon system
Fire alarm system, snorkel ladder
Configuring, sizing and space requirements for fire fighting equipments
V Semester
UNIT I
Control Devices
To maintain correct operating conditions, control devices are needed in a refrigeration system.
Metering Devices Metering devices, such as expansion valves and float valves, control the
flow of liquid refrigerant between the high side and the low side of the system. It is at the end
of the line between the condenser and the evaporator. These devices are of five different
types: an automatic expansion valve (also known as a constant-pressure expansion valve), a
thermostatic expansion valve, low-side and high-side float valves, and a capillary tube.
Automatic Expansion ValveAn automatic expansion valve (fig. maintains a constant
pressure in the evaporator. Normally this valve is used only with direct expansion, dry type of
evaporators. In operation, the valve feeds enough liquid refrigerants to the evaporator to
maintain a constant pressure in the coils. This type of valve is generally used in a system
where constant loads are expected. When a large variable load occurs, the valve will not feed
enough refrigerant to the evaporator under high load and will over feed the evaporator at low
load. Compressor damage can result when slugs of liquid enter the compressor.
Thermostatic Expansion Valve.before discussing the thermostatic expansion valve, lets
explain the term SUPERHEAT. A vapor gas is superheated when its temperature is higher
than the boiling point corresponding to its pressure. When the boiling point begins, both the
liquid and the vapor are at the same temperature. But in an evaporator, as the gas vapor moves
along the coils toward the suction line, the gas may absorb additional heat and its temperature
rises. The difference in degrees between the saturation temperature and the increased
temperature of the gas is called superheat.
A thermostatic expansion valve (fig. 6-22)
keeps a constant superheat in the refrigerant
vapor leaving the coil. The valve controls the
liquid refrigerant, so the evaporator coils
maintain the correct amount of refrigerant at all
times. The valve has a power element that is
activated by a remote bulb located at the end of
the evaporator coils. The bulb senses the
superheat at the suction line and adjusts the
flow of refrigerant into the evaporator. As the
superheat increases (suction line), the
temperature, and therefore the pressure, in the
remote bulb also increases. This increased
pressure, applied to the top of the diaphragm,
forces it down along with the pin, which, in
turn, opens the valve, admitting replacement
refrigerant from the receiver to flow into the
evaporator. This replacement has three effects. First, it provides additional liquid refrigerant
to absorb heat from the evaporator.
V Semester
Second, it applies higher pressure to the bottom of the diaphragm, forcing it upward, tending
to close the valve. And third, it reduces the degree of superheat by forcing more refrigerant
through the suction line
Low-Side Float Expansion Valve. The low-side float expansion valve (fig. 6-23) controls
the liquid refrigerant flow where a flooded evaporator is used. It consists of a ball float in
either a chamber or the evaporator on the low-pressure side of the svstem. The float actuates a
needle valve through a lever mechanism. As the float lowers, refrigerant enters through the
open valve; when it rises, the valve closes.
High-Side Float Expansion Valve.In a high-side float expansion valve (fig. 6-24), the
valve float is in a liquid receiver or in an auxiliary container on the high-pressure side of the
system. Refrigerant from the condenser flows into the valve and immediately opens it,
allowing refrigerant to expand and pass into the evaporator. Refrigerant charge is critical. An
overcharge of the system floods back and damages the compressor. An undercharge results in
a capacity drop.
Capillary Tube.The capillary tube consists of a long tube of small diameter. It acts as a
constant throttle on the refrigerant. The
length and diameter of the tube are
important; any restrictions cause trouble in
the system. It feeds refrigerant to the
evaporator as fast as it is produced by the
condenser. When the quantity of
refrigerant in the system is correct or the
charge is balanced, the flow of refrigerant
from the condenser to the evaporator stops
when the compressor unit stops. When the
condensing unit is running, the operating
characteristics of the capillary tube equipped evaporator are the same as if it were equipped
with a high-side float.
The capillary tube is best suited for household boxes, such as freezers and window airconditioners, where the refrigeration load is reasonably constant and small horsepower motors
are used.
V Semester
UNIT II
Factors Affecting Air- Conditioning
Outdoor Design Conditions Not in our control

Building Orientation
Indoor Design Temperature
External Glass & Skylights
External Walls
Exposed Roof
Internal Walls, Ceilings & Floors
Occupancy Not in our control - defined by the usage
Lighting
Equipment inside
Fresh Air
Air Conditioning:
It can be defined as the process of transferring heat from a low temperature region to a high
temperature region. In other words it is the process of cooling a substance. This can be
achieved only if the heat is removed from that substance.
Principle of refrigeration:
The principle of refrigeration is based on second law of thermodynamics. It sates that heat
does not flow from a low temperature body to a high temperature body without the help of an
external work. In refrigeration process, since the heat has to be transferred from a low
temperature body to a high temperature body some external work has to be done according to
the second law thermodynamics. This external work is done by means of compressor,
condenser etc.
Types of Cycle:
1. Vapor Compression Cycle
2. Vapor Absorption Cycle
Vapor-Compression Cycle:
The Vapor Compression Cycle uses energy input to drive a compressor that increases the
pressure and pressure of the refrigerant which is in the vapor state. The refrigerant is then
exposed to the hot section (termed the condenser) of the system, its temperature being higher
than the temperature of this section. As a result, heat is transferred from the refrigerant to the
hot section (i.e. heat is removed from the refrigerant) causing it to condense i.e. for its state to
change from the vapor phase
to the liquid phase (hence
the term condenser). The
refrigerant
then
passes
through the expansion valve
across which its pressure
and
temperature
drop
considerably.
The
refrigerant temperature is
now below that existing in
the cold or refrigerated
section
(termed
the
V Semester
evaporator) of the system, its temperature being lower than the temperature in this section. As
a result, heat is transferred from the refrigerated section to the refrigerant (i.e. heat is absorbed
by the refrigerant) causing it to pass from the liquid or near-liquid state to the vapor state
again (hence the term evaporator). The refrigerant then again passes to the compressor in
which its pressure is again increased and the whole cycle is repeated.
The four basic components of the vapour compression refrigeration system are thus:
1. Compressor:
The function of the compressor is to compress the input refrigerant of low pressure and low
temperature. As a result the pressure and the temperature of the refrigerant increases.
Generally reciprocating compressors are used in refrigeration system. An external
motor is used to drive the compressor.
2. Condenser:
The condenser is a coil of tubes, which are made of copper. This issued to
condense the refrigerant which is in the form of vapor. And convert into liquid.
3. Expansion Valve:
This
is
otherwise
called
throttle
valve.
This
valve
is
used
control the flow rate of refrigerant and also to reduce the pressure of the refrigerant.
to
4. Evaporator:
This is the part in which the cooling takes place. This is kept in the space where cooling is
required. It is a coil of tubes made up of copper.
Compressor
The purpose of the compressor is to circulate the refrigerant in the system under pressure; this
concentrates the heat it contains.
At the compressor, the low pressure gas is changed to high pressure gas.
This pressure build up can only be accomplished by having a restriction in the high
pressure side of the system. This is a small valve located in the expansion valve.
The compressor has reed valves to control the entrance and exit of refrigerant gas during the
pumping operation. These must be firmly seated.
An improperly seated intake reed valve can result in gas leaking back into the low side
during the compression stroke, raising the low side pressure and impairing the cooling
effect.
A badly seated discharge reed valve can allow condensing or head pressure to drop as
it leaks past the valve, lowering the efficiency of the compressor.
Two service valves are located near the compressor as an aid in servicing the system.
One services the high side, it is quickly identified by the smaller discharge hose routed
to the condenser.
V Semester
One is used for the low side, the low side comes from the evaporator, and is larger
than the discharge hose
The compressor is normally belt-driven from the engine crankshaft. Most manufacturers use a
magnetic-type clutch which provides a means of stopping the pumping of the compressor
when refrigeration is not desired.
Condenser
The purpose of the condenser is to receive the high-pressure gas from the compressor
and convert this gas to a liquid.
It does it by heat transfer, or the principle that heat will always move from a warmer
to a cooler substance.
Air passing over the condenser coils carries off the heat and the gas condenses.
The condenser often looks like an engine radiator.
Condensers used on R-12 and R-134a systems are not interchangeable. Refrigerant-134a has a
different molecular structure and requires a large capacity condenser.
As the compressor subjects the gas to increased pressure, the heat intensity of the refrigerant
is actually concentrated into a smaller area, thus raising the temperature of the refrigerant
higher than the ambient temperature of the air passing over the condenser coils. Clogged
condenser fins will result in poor condensing action and decreased efficiency.
A factor often overlooked is flooding of the condenser coils with refrigerant oil. Flooding
results from adding too much oil to the system. Oil flooding is indicated by poor condensing
action, causing increased head pressure and high pressure on the low side. This will always
cause poor cooling from the evaporator.
Expansion valve
The expansion valve removes pressure from the liquid refrigerant to allow expansion or
change of state from a liquid to a vapour in the evaporator.
The high-pressure liquid refrigerant entering the expansion valve is quite warm. This may be
verified by feeling the liquid line at its connection to the expansion valve. The liquid
refrigerant leaving the expansion valve is quite cold. The orifice within the valve does not
remove heat, but only reduces pressure. Heat molecules contained in the liquid refrigerant are
thus allowed to spread as the refrigerant moves out of the orifice. Under a greatly reduced
V Semester
pressure the liquid refrigerant is at its coldest as it leaves the expansion valve and enters the
evaporator.
Pressures at the inlet and outlet of the expansion valve will closely approximate gauge
pressures at the inlet and outlet of the compressor in most systems. The similarity of pressures
is caused by the closeness of the components to each other. The slight variation in pressure
readings of a very few pounds is due to resistance, causing a pressure drop in the lines and
coils of the evaporator and condenser.
Evaporator
The evaporator works the opposite of the condenser; here refrigerant liquid is converted to
gas, absorbing heat from the air in the compartment.
When the liquid refrigerant reaches the evaporator its pressure has been reduced, dissipating
its heat content and making it much cooler than the fan air flowing around it. This causes the
refrigerant to absorb heat from the warm air and reach its low boiling point rapidly. The
refrigerant then vaporizes, absorbing the maximum amount of heat.
This heat is then carried by the refrigerant from the evaporator as a low-pressure gas through
a hose or line to the low side of the compressor, where the whole refrigeration cycle is
repeated.
The evaporator removes heat from the area that is to be cooled. The desired temperature of
cooling of the area will determine if refrigeration or air conditioning is desired. For example,
food preservation generally requires low refrigeration temperatures, ranging from 40F (4C)
to below 0F (-18C).
A higher temperature is required for human comfort. A larger area is cooled, which requires
that large volumes of air be passed through the evaporator coil for heat exchange. A blower
becomes a necessary part of the evaporator in the air conditioning system. The blower fans
must not only draw heat-laden air into the evaporator, but must also force this air over the
evaporator fins and coils where it surrenders its heat to the refrigerant and then forces the
cooled air out of the evaporator into the space being cooled.
Vapor Absorption Refrigeration System:
The compressor in the vapor compression refrigeration system consumes lot
of energy. To avoid this, the vapor absorption refrigeration system has been developed. In
this system, the compression process of vapor compression cycle is eliminated. Instead of that
the three following process are introduced.
Ammonia vapour is absorbed into water
This mixture is pumped into a high pressure cycle
This solution is heated to produce ammonia vapor.

Construction:
The vapor absorption refrigeration system has the following components
Generator:
The generator receives the strong solution of aqua-ammonia from the absorber and heats it.
Because of this heating, the aqua-ammonia solution gets separated into ammonia Vapor at
high pressure and hot weak ammonia solution which contains mostly water.
V Semester
Condenser:
The condenser converts the high pressure ammonia vapor received from the generator into
high pressure ammonia liquid. This condensation is done by means of circulating cool water.
Expansion valve:
This valve is otherwise called the throttling valve since the expansion,
which takes place here, is throttling. While passing through this valve, the liquid
ammonia gets expanded and gets converted into low pressure and low temperature ammonia.
Evaporator:
The evaporator is otherwise known as cold chamber. Here the refrigerant absorbs the heat
from the material which is to be cooled and gets evaporated. It has many coils made
of copper.
Absorber:
The absorber receives the low pressure ammonia vapor from the evaporator and the weak
ammonia solution from the generator and mixes them well to form a strong solution of aquaammonia.
Working Principle:
The working fluid in vapor absorption refrigeration system is normally ammonia. The
ammonia vapor and water is mixed to form a strong solution of aqua-ammonia in the
absorber. This aqua-ammonia solution is then pumped into the generator. In the generator,
this solution is heated. Because of heating, ammonia gets evaporated at high pressure and
leaves behind the weak ammonia solution, which mostly contains water.The high pressure
ammonia vapor produced by the generator is condensed in the condenser and it becomes
ammonia liquid, which is at high pressure. This high pressure liquid ammonia is allowed to
pass through the expansion valve or throttling valve where it expands and becomes a low
pressure and low temperature ammonia which mostly contains liquid ammonia and a little
vapor ammonia.
Ammonia at low pressure
and low temperature then
passes
through
the
evaporator where it absorbs
the heat from the material
which is to be cooled and
gets
evaporated.
The
evaporator is where the real
cooling takes place. Because
of the heat absorbed by
ammonia, it gets evaporated
and becomes low pressure
ammonia vapor. The low
pressure ammonia vapour is then sent into the absorber and the cycle is repeated.
Comparison between VCRS and VARS:
V Semester
Vapor Compression Refrigeration System Vapor Absorption Refrigeration System

It is more noise and wear and tear because of The system is comparatively quieter.
more moving parts.
Mechanical energy is utilized by means of Heat energy is utilized
compressor
Refilling of refrigerant is easy
Refilling of refrigerant is difficult
During partial loading conditions the perform

ance is poor
The performance is not affected even at the

partial loading
The liquid refrigerant accumulated in

the Liquid refrigerants do not affect the performa
cylinder may damage the cylinder. So nce of the system. They do not produce any
preventive measures are needed.
bad effect.
Air Conditioning:
It is the process of controlling and maintaining the properties of air like temperature,
humidity, purity, direction of flow etc in a closed space. One can have the desired condition
around him using air conditioning.
Terms in Air Conditioning:
Psychrometry:
It is the study of the properties of moist air. The properties of the air and water vapor mixture
are called psychometric properties.
Dry Air:
Atmospheric air without presence of water vapor is called dry air. It is combination of 79% of
nitrogen and 21% of oxygen by weight.
Moist Air:
It is the mixture of dry air and water vapor. The amount of water vapor present varies
according to the temperature.
Dry Bulb Temperature (DBT):
It is the temperature of the air measured using an ordinary thermometer. This temperature is
not affected by the water vapor present in the air.
Wet Bulb Temperature (WBT):
It is the temperature measured by ordinary thermometer when its bulb is covered with wet
cloth and exposed to air. It is always less than DBT.
Wet Bulb Depression (WBD):
10
V Semester
It is the difference between the dry bulb temperature and the wet bulb temperature. If the air is
fully saturated then the wet bulb depression is zero.
Dew Point Temperature (DPT):
The temperature at which the water Vapor in the air begins to condense when the temperature
of the air is continuously reduced.
Humidity:
The quantity of water vapor present in the air is known as humidity. It depends on the
temperature of the air and is independent of the pressure of the air.
Relative Humidity:
It is defined as the ratio of mass of water vapor present in a given volume of air at a given
temperature to the mass of water vapor present in the same volume and temperature of the air
when it is fully saturated.
Air handling unit (AHU) a central unit consisting of a blower, heating and cooling
elements, filters, etc. that is in direct contact with the airflow.
To improve air quality circulating air is mixed with fresh air
Usually equipped with a heat recovery unit for energy saving purposes
Supply air temperature kept constant so that temperature can be adjusted locally
with thermostats.
Chillers a device that removes heat from a liquid. The cooled liquid flows through pipes
and passes through coils in air handling units, FCUs, etc
Damper a plate or gate placed in a duct to control airflow
Fan coil unit (FCU) a small terminal unit that is often composed of only a blower and a
cooling coil
Variable air volume (VAV) an HVAC system that has a stable supply air temperature and
varies the airflow rate with dampers and adjusting fan speeds to meet the temperature
requirements
Working of a Air conditioning system
It consists of dampers, air filter, cooling coil, spray type humidifier, heating coil and a fan.
Atmospheric air flows through the dampers. The quantity of air depends upon the load and
the dampers control it. Air then passes through the Air filter. The filter removes dirt, dust and
other impurities. The air now passes over a cooling coil. So when air is cooled below its dew
point temperature, the water vapour is removed from the air in the form of water droplets. The
surface temperature of the cooling coil has to be maintained below the dew-point temperature
of the atmospheric air to accomplish dehumidification. The quantity of water removed from
air is collected in the sump and is drained. The temperature of air leaving the cooling coil is
lower than the ambient temperature for comfort. During the dry weather the spray type
humidifier is used to increase the humidity of the conditioned air. During wet weather
condition the relative humidity of the air is high, is controlled by the heating coil. For the
comfort condition required is DBT around23 degree c and relative humidity 60%. So the air is
11
V Semester
to be cooled and humidified to the comfort condition. Now the conditioned air is supplied to
the conditioned space by a fan and ducts.
Working of a Window Air conditioning system
It is called a window air conditioner because it is usually fixed in a window. The Window or
Room air conditioner is used to cool a single room or a large space. This window room air
conditioner system has four main components. They are
An entire cooling system, which includes a condenser, compressor and an

evaporator.
A fan and adjustable grills to ensure proper circulation of air.
A filter, which is made of fibre, mesh or glass wool to remove the impurities in
the air.
Controlling equipments to regulate the properties of the air.

The working of the window air conditioner shown in Figure is described asunder: The
refrigerant vapour leaving the compressor is at high pressure and temperature. It then passes
through the condenser. Outside air is drawn in by the fan and it cools the refrigerant in the
condenser, the refrigerant then becomes liquid. The high pressure, low temperature liquid
refrigerant enters the expansion valve. The pressure and temperature of the refrigerant falls
when it leaves the valve. The cold refrigerant from the valve passes through the evaporator
(the evaporator side of the air conditioner faces the room to be cooled). The warm air from the
room is drawn in by blower. The evaporator cools this air and the liquid inside the evaporator
tube gets vaporized by absorbing the heat from the warm air. The cool air is again sent to the
room through the opening at the top of the air conditioning unit. The liquid and vapour
refrigerant from the evaporator passes to the compressor and is compressed to high-pressure,
high temperature liquid. The operation hereafter is carried out in cycle as the same manner as
explained.
The amount of air circulated into the room can be controlled by the dampers provided. When
air flows over the cooling coil or the evaporator coil, the moisture in the air gets condensed
and they are made to drip into the trays provided below the coils. This water evaporates to
12
V Semester
some extend and thus helps in cooling the compressor and condenser. For every cycle, the
temperature of the air keeps on reducing. The unit automatically stops with the help of
thermostat and control panel, when the required temperature is reached inside the room.
Split Air Conditioner:
A Streamlined and light-weight air handler is mounted on the inside wall. Refrigerant and
condensate lines run through a small hole in the wall to the outside unit. Initial power is to the
outside unit and then relayed to the air handler. Extremely quiet as the compressor and
condenser coil are outside. Full electronic and remote control. The compressor (6) in the
exterior unit compresses the refrigerant into a high-temperature, high-pressure gas. When this
gas flows along the cooling fins of the condenser (7), heat is exuded and the gas is led to the
evaporator (1) in the interior unit. The liquid expands into a gas at a low temperature and low
pressure. This gas absorbs the warmth of the air in the room, the cooled air is blown back into
the room and the heat is led to the compressor along with the gas.
A fan (3) draws the air (a) over the filter (2) and blows the cooled air (b) back into the room.
A fan (8) draws air over the condenser and blows warm air (d) away. As with cooling, the
moisture in the air condenses on the cold evaporator at room temperature.
Evaporative Cooling:
As the name indicates, evaporative cooling is the process of reducing the temperature of a
system by evaporation of water. Human beings perspire and dissipate their metabolic heat by
evaporative cooling if the ambient temperature is more than skin temperature. Animals such
as the hippopotamus and buffalo coat themselves with mud for evaporative cooling.
13
V Semester
Evaporative cooling has been used in India for centuries to obtain cold water in summer by
storing the water in earthen pots. The water permeates through the pores of earthen vessel to
its outer surface where it evaporates to the surrounding, absorbing its latent heat in part from
the vessel, which cools the water. It is said that Patliputra University situated on the bank of
river Ganges used to induce the evaporative-cooled air from the river. Suitably located
chimneys in the rooms augmented the upward flow of warm air, which was replaced by cool
air. Evaporative cooling by placing wet straw mats on the windows is also very common in
India. The straw mat made from khus adds its inherent perfume also to the air. Now-a-days
coolers are being used in hot and dry areas to provide cooling in summer.
Direct evaporative cooling (open circuit) is used to lower the temperature of air by using
latent heat of evaporation, changing liquid water to water vapor. In this process, the energy in
the air does not change. Warm dry air is changed to cool moist air. The heat of the outside air
is used to evaporate water.
Indirect evaporative cooling (closed circuit) is similar to direct evaporative cooling, but
uses some type of heat exchanger. The cooled moist air never comes in direct contact with the
conditioned environment.
Advantages and disadvantages of evaporative cooling systems:

Compared to the conventional refrigeration based air conditioning systems, the evaporative
cooling systems offer the following advantages:
1. Lower equipment and installation costs
2. Substantially lower operating and power costs. Energy savings can be as high as 75%
3. Ease of fabrication and installation
4. Lower maintenance costs
5. Ensures a very good ventilation due to the large air flow rates involved, hence, are very
good especially in 100 % outdoor air applications
6. Better air distribution in the conditioned space due to higher flow rates
7. The fans/blowers create positive pressures in the conditioned space, so that infiltration of
outside air is prevented
8. Very environment friendly as no harmful chemicals are used
14
V Semester
Compared to the conventional systems, the evaporative cooling systems suffer from the
following disadvantages:
1. The moisture level in the conditioned space could be higher, hence, direct evaporative
coolers are not good when low humidity levels in the conditioned space is required. However,
the indirect evaporative cooler can be used without increasing humidity
2. Since the required air flow rates are much larger, this may create draft and/or high noise
levels in the conditioned space
3. Precise control of temperature and humidity in the conditioned space is not possible
4. May lead to health problems due to micro-organisms if the water used is not clean or the
wetted surfaces are not maintained properly.
Depending upon the following factors the conditioning systems has its own advantages
and disadvantages:
Ducts
Portability
Aesthetics
Flexible Sizing
Affordability
Air conditioning systems for large buildings:

Selection criteria for air conditioning systems:
Selection of a suitable air conditioning system depends on:
Capacity, performance and spatial requirements

Initial and running costs
Required system reliability and flexibility
Maintainability
Architectural constraints
The relative importance of the above factors varies from building owner to owner and may
vary from project to project. The typical space requirement for large air conditioning systems
may vary from about 4 percent to about 9 percent of the gross building area, depending upon
the type of the system. Normally based on the selection criteria, the choice is narrowed down
to 2 to 3 systems, out of which one will be selected finally.
Classification of air conditioning systems:
Based on the fluid media used in the thermal distribution system, air conditioning systems can
be classified as:
1.
2.
3.
4.
All air systems

All water systems
Air- water systems
Unitary refrigerant based systems
All air systems:
15
V Semester
As the name implies, in an all air system air is used as the media that transports energy from
the conditioned space to the A/C plant. In these systems air is processed in the A/C plant and
this processed air is then conveyed to the conditioned space through insulated ducts using
blowers and fans. This air extracts (or supplies in case of winter) the required amount of
sensible and latent heat from the conditioned space. The return air from the conditioned space
is conveyed back to the plant, where it again undergoes the required processing thus
completing the cycle. No additional processing of air is required in the conditioned space. All
air systems can be further classified into:
1. Single duct systems, or
2. Dual duct systems
The single duct systems can provide either cooling or heating using the same duct, but not
both heating and cooling simultaneously. These systems can be further classified into:
1. Constant volume, single zone systems
2. Constant volume, multiple zone systems
3. Variable volume systems
The dual duct systems can provide both cooling and heating simultaneously.
These systems can be further classified into:
1. Dual duct, constant volume systems
2. Dual duct variable volume systems
Single duct, constant volume, single zone systems:
Figure 36.2 shows the classic, single duct, single zone, constant volume systems. As shown
in the figure, outdoor air (OD air) for ventilation and re circulated air (RC air) are mixed in
the required proportions using the dampers and the mixed air is made to flow through a
cooling and dehumidifying coil, a heating coil and a humidifier using a an insulated ducting
and a supply fan. As the air flows through these coils the temperature and moisture content of
the air are brought to the required values. Then this air is supplied to the conditioned space,
where it meets the building cooling or heating requirements. The return air leaves the
conditioned space, a part of it is re circulated and the remaining part is vented to the
atmosphere. A thermostat senses the temperature of air in the conditioned space and controls
the amount of cooling or heating provided in the coils so that the supply air temperature can
be controlled as per requirement. A humidistat measures the humidity ratio in the conditioned
space and controls the amount of water vapour added in the humidifier and hence the supply
air humidity ratio as per requirement.
16
V Semester
This system is called as a single duct system as there is only one supply duct, through which
either hot air or cold air flows, but not both simultaneously. It is called as a constant volume
system as the volumetric flow rate of supply air is always maintained constant. It is a single
zone system as the control is based on temperature and humidity ratio measured at a single
point. Here a zone refers to a space controlled by one thermostat. However, the single zone
may consist of a single room or one floor or whole of a building consisting of several rooms.
The cooling/ heating capacity in the single zone, constant volume systems is regulated by
regulating the supply air temperature and humidity ratio, while keeping the supply airflow
rate constant. A separate sub-system controls the amount of OD air supplied by controlling
the damper position.
Since a single zone system is controlled by a single thermostat and humidistat, it is important
to locate these sensors in a proper location, so that they are indicative of zone conditions.
The supply air conditions are controlled by either coil control or face-and-bypass control.
In coil control, supply air temperature is controlled by varying the flow rate of cold and hot
water in the cooling and heating coils, respectively. As the cooling season gradually changes
to heating season, the cooling coil valve is gradually closed and heating coil valve is opened.
Though coil control is simpler, using this type of control it is not possible to control the zone
humidity precisely as the dehumidification rate in the cooling coil decreases with cold water
flow rate. Thus at low cold water flow rates, the humidity ratio of the conditioned space is
likely to be higher than required.
In face-and-bypass control, the cold and hot water flow rates are maintained constant, but
the amount of air flowing over the coils are decreased or increased by opening or closing the
by-pass dampers, respectively. By this method it is possible to control the zone humidity
more precisely, however, this type of control occupies more space physically and is also
expensive compared to coil control.
Applications of single duct, single zone, constant volume systems:
1. Spaces with uniform loads, such as large open areas with small external loads e.g. theatres,
auditoria, departmental stores.
2. Spaces requiring precision control such as laboratories
17
V Semester
The Multiple, single zone systems can be used in large buildings such as factories, office
buildings etc.
Single duct, constant volume, multiple zone systems:
For very large buildings with several zones of different cooling/heating requirements, it is not
economically feasible to provide separate single zone systems for each zone. For such cases,
multiple zone systems are suitable. Figure 36.3 shows a single duct, multiple zone system
with terminal reheat coils. In these systems all the air is cooled and dehumidified (for
summer) or heated and humidified (for winter) to a given minimum or maximum temperature
and humidity ratio. A constant volume of this air is supplied to the reheat coil of each zone. In
the reheat coil the supply air temperature is increased further to a required level depending
upon the load on that particular zone. This is achieved by a zone thermostat, which controls
the amount of reheat, and hence the supply air temperature. The reheat coil may run on either
electricity or hot water.
Advantages of single duct, multiple zone, constant volume systems with reheat coils:
a) Relatively small space requirement
b) Excellent temperature and humidity control over a wide range of zone loads
c) Proper ventilation and air quality in each zone is maintained as the supply air amount is
kept constant under all conditions
Disadvantages of single duct, multiple zone, and constant volume systems with reheat
coils:
a) High energy consumption for cooling, as the air is first cooled to a very low temperature
and is then heated in the reheat coils. Thus energy is required first for cooling and then for
reheating. The energy consumption can partly be reduced by increasing the supply air
temperature, such that at least one reheat coil can be switched-off all the time. The energy
consumption can also be reduced by using waste heat (such as heat rejected in the condensers)
in the reheat coil.
b) Simultaneous cooling and heating is not possible.
Single duct, variable air volume (VAV) systems:
Figure 36.4 shows a single duct, multiple zone, and variable air volume system for summer
air conditioning applications. As shown, in these systems air is cooled and dehumidified to a
18
V Semester
required level in the cooling and dehumidifying coil (CC). A variable volume of this air is
supplied to each zone. The amount of air supplied to each zone is controlled by a zone
damper, which in turn is controlled by that zone thermostat as shown in the figure. Thus the
temperature of supply air to each zone remains constant, whereas its flow rate varies
depending upon the load on that particular zone.
Compared to constant volume systems, the variable air volume systems offer advantages such
as:
a) Lower energy consumption in the cooling system as air is not cooled to very low
temperatures and then reheated as in constant volume systems.
b) Lower energy consumption also results due to lower fan power input due to lower flow
rate, when the load is low. These systems lead to significantly lower power consumption,
especially in perimeter zones where variations in solar load and outside temperature allows
for reduced air flow rates.
However, since the flow rate is controlled, there could be problems with ventilation, IAQ and
room air distribution when the zone loads are very low. In addition it is difficult to control
humidity precisely using VAV systems. Balancing of dampers could be difficult if the airflow
rate varies widely. However, by combining VAV systems with terminal reheat it is possible to
maintain the air flow rate at a minimum required level to ensure proper ventilation and room
air distribution. Many other variations of VAV systems are available to cater to a wide variety
of applications.
Dual duct, constant volume systems:
Figure 36.5 shows the schematic of a dual duct, constant volume system. As shown in the
figure, in a dual duct system the supply air fan splits the flow into two streams. One stream
19
V Semester
flow through the cooling coil and gets cooled and dehumidified to about 13 C, while the other
o
stream flows the heating coil and is heated to about 3545 C. The cold and hot streams flow
through separate ducts. Before each conditioned space or zone, the cold and hot air streams
are mixed in required proportions using a mixing box arrangement, which is controlled by the
zone thermostat. The total volume of air supplied to each zone remains constant, however, the
supply air temperature varies depending upon load.
Advantages of dual duct systems:
1. Since total airflow rate to each zone is constant, it is possible to maintain proper IAQ and
room air distribution.
2. Cooling in some zones and heating in other zones can be achieved simultaneously
3. System is very responsive to variations in the zone load, thus it is possible to maintain
required conditions precisely.
Disadvantages of dual duct systems:
1. Occupies more space as both cold air and hot air ducts have to be sized to handle all air
flow rate, if required.
2. Not very energy efficient due to the need for simultaneous cooling and heating of the air
streams. However, the energy efficiency can be improved by completely shutting down the
cooling coil when the outside temperature is low and mixing supply air from fan with hot air
in the mixing box. Similarly, when the outside weather is hot, the heating coil can be
completely shut down, and the cold air from the cooling coil can be mixed with supply air
from the fan in the mixing box.
Dual duct, variable air volume systems:
These systems are similar to dual duct, constant volume systems with the only difference that
instead of maintaining constant flow rates to each zone, the mixing boxes reduce the air flow
rate as the load on the zone drops.
Outdoor air control in all air systems:
Outdoor air is required for ventilation purposes. In all air systems, a sub-system controls the
amount of outdoor air by controlling the position of exhaust, re-circulated and outdoor air
dampers. From mass balance, since the outdoor airflow rate should normally be equal to the
exhaust airflow rate (unless building pressurization or de-pressurization is required), both the
exhaust and outdoor air dampers open or close in unison. Again from mass balance, when the
outdoor air damper opens the re-circulated air damper closes, and vice versa. The control
system maintains a minimum amount of outdoor air (about 10 to 20% of supply air flow rate
as required for ventilation) when the outdoor is too cold (30oC) or too warm ( 24oC). For
energy conservation, the amount of outdoor air can be increased gradually as the outdoor air
temperature increases from 30oC to about 13oC. A 100 percent outdoor air can be used
when the outdoor air temperature is between 13oC to about 24oC. By this method it is
possible to reduce the annual energy consumption of the air conditioning system significantly,
while maintaining the required conditions in the conditioned space.
Advantages of all air systems:
1. All air systems offer the greatest potential for energy conservation by utilizing the outdoor
air effectively.
2. By using high-quality controls it is possible to maintain the temperature and relative
o
humidity of the conditioned space within 0.15 C (DBT) and 0.5%, respectively.
20
V Semester
3. Using dual duct systems, it is possible to provide simultaneous cooling and heating.
Changeover from summer to winter and vice versa is relatively simple in all air systems.
4. It is possible to provide good room air distribution and ventilation under all conditions of
load.
5. Building pressurization can be achieved easily.
6. The complete air conditioning plant including the supply and return air fans can be located
away from the conditioned space. Due to this it is possible to use a wide variety of air filters
and avoid noise in the conditioned space.
Disadvantages of all air systems:
1. They occupy more space and thus reduce the available floor space in the buildings. It could
be difficult to provide air conditioning in high-rise buildings with the plant on the ground
floor or basement due to space constraints.
2. Retrofitting may not always be possible due to the space requirement.
3. Balancing of air in large and particularly with variable air volume systems could be
difficult.
Applications of all air systems:
All air systems can be used in both comfort as well as industrial air conditioning
applications. They are especially suited to buildings that require individual control of multiple
zones, such as office buildings, classrooms, laboratories, hospitals, hotels, ships etc. They
are also used extensively in applications that require very close control of the conditions in the
conditioned space such as clean rooms, computer rooms, operation theatres, research
facilities etc.
All water systems:
In all water systems the fluid used in the thermal distribution system is water, i.e., water
transports energy between the conditioned space and the air conditioning plant. When cooling
is required in the conditioned space then cold water is circulated between the conditioned
space and the plant, while hot water is circulated through the distribution system when
heating is required. Since only water is transported to the conditioned space, provision must
be there for supplying required amount of treated, outdoor air to the conditioned space for
ventilation purposes. Depending upon the number of pipes used, the all water systems can be
classified into a 2-pipe system or a 4-pipe system.
A 2-pipe system is used for either cooling only or heating only application, but cannot be used
for simultaneous cooling and heating. Figure 36.6 shows the schematic of a 2-pipe, all water
system. As shown in the figure and as the name implies, a 2-pipe system consists of two pipes
one for supply of cold/hot water to the conditioned space and the other for the return water.
A cooling or heating coil provides the required cold or hot water. As the supply water flows
through the conditioned space, required heat transfer between the water and conditioned space
takes place, and the return water flows back to the cooling or heating coil. A flow control
valve controls the flow rate of hot or cold water to the conditioned space and thereby meets
the required building heating or cooling load. The flow control valve is controlled by the zone
thermostat. As already mentioned, a separate arrangement must be made for providing the
required amount of ventilation air to the conditioned space. A pressure relief valve (PRV) is
installed in the water line for maintaining balanced flow rate.
A 4-pipe system consists of two supply pipelines one for cold water and one for hot water;
and two return water pipelines. The cold and hot water are mixed in a required proportion
depending upon the zone load, and the mixed water is supplied to the conditioned space. The
return water is split into two streams, one stream flows to the heating coil while the other
flows to the cooling coil.
21
V Semester
Heat transfer between the cold/hot water and the conditioned space takes place either by
convection, conduction or radiation or a combination of these. The cold/hot water may flow
through bare pipes located in the conditioned space or one of the following equipment can be
used for transferring heat:
1. Fan coil units
2. Convectors
3. Radiators etc.
A fan coil unit is located inside the conditioned space and consists of a heating and/or cooling
coil, a fan, air filter, drain tray and controls. Figure 36.7 shows the schematic of a fan coil unit
used
for
cooling applications. As shown in the figure, the basic components of a fan coil unit are:
finned tube cooling coil, fan, air filter, insulated drain tray with provision for draining
condensate water and connections for cold water lines. The cold water circulates through the
22
V Semester
finned tube coil while the blower draws warm air from the conditioned space and blows it
over the cooling coil. As the air flows through the cooling coil it is cooled and dehumidified.
The cold and dehumidified air is supplied to the conditioned space for providing required
conditions inside the conditioned space. The water condensed due to dehumidification of
room air has to be drained continuously. A cleanable or replaceable filter is located in the
upstream of the fan to prevent dust accumulation on the cooling coil and also to protect the
fan and motor from dust. Fan coil units for domestic air conditioning are available in the
airflow range of 100 to 600 l/s, with multi-speed, high efficiency fans. In some designs, the
fan coil unit also consists of a heating coil, which could be in the form of an electric heater or
steam or hot water coil. Electric heater is used with 2-pipe systems, while the hot water/steam
coils are used with 4-pipe systems. The fan coil units are floor mounted, window mounted or
ceiling mounted. The capacity of a fan coil unit can be controlled either by controlling the
cold water flow rate or by controlling air flow rate or both. The airflow rate can be controlled
either by a damper arrangement or by varying the fan speed. The control may be manual or
automatic, in which case, a room thermostat controls the capacity. Since in the fan coil unit
there is no provision for ventilation, a separate arrangement must be made to take care of
ventilation. A fan coil unit with a provision for introducing treated ventilation air to the
conditioned space is called as unit ventilator.
A convector consists of a finned tube coil through which hot or cold fluid flows. Heat
transfer between the coil and surrounding air takes place by natural convection only, hence no
fans are used for moving air. Convectors are very widely used for heating applications, and
very rarely are used for cooling applications.
In a radiator, the heat transfer between the coil and the surrounding air is primarily by
radiation. Some amount of heat is also transferred by natural convection. Radiators are widely
used for heating applications, however, in recent times they are also being used for cooling
applications.
Advantages of all water systems:
1. The thermal distribution system requires very less space compared to all air systems. Thus
there is no penalty in terms of conditioned floor space. Also the plant size will be small due to
the absence of large supply air fans.
2. Individual room control is possible, and at the same time the system offers all the benefits
of a large central system.
3. Since the temperature of hot water required for space heating is small, it is possible to use
solar or waste heat for winter heating.
4. It can be used for new as well existing buildings (retrofitting).
5. Simultaneous cooling and heating is possible with 4-pipe systems.
Disadvantages of all water systems:
1. Requires higher maintenance compared to all air systems, particularly in the conditioned
space.
2. Draining of condensate water can be messy and may also create health problems if water
stagnates in the drain tray. This problem can be eliminated, if dehumidification is provided by
a central ventilation system, and the cooling coil is used only for sensible cooling of room air.
3. If ventilation is provided by opening windows or wall apertures, then, it is difficult to
ensure positive ventilation under all circumstances, as this depends on wind and stack effects.
4. Control of humidity, particularly during summer is difficult using chilled water control
valves.
Applications of all water systems:
23
V Semester
All water systems using fan coil units are most suitable in buildings requiring individual room
control, such as hotels, apartment buildings and office buildings.
Air-water systems:
In air-water systems both air and water are used for providing required conditions in the
conditioned space. The air and water are cooled or heated in a central plant. The air supplied
to the conditioned space from the central plant is called as primary air, while the water
supplied from the plant is called as secondary water. The complete system consists of a
central plant for cooling or heating of water and air, ducting system with fans for conveying
air, water pipelines and pumps for conveying water and a room terminal. The room terminal
may be in the form of a fan coil unit, an induction unit or a radiation panel. Figure 36.8 shows
the schematic of a basic air-water system. Even though only one conditioned space is shown
in the schematic, in actual systems, the air-water systems can simultaneously serve several
conditioned spaces.
Normally a constant volume of primary air is supplied to each zone depending upon the
ventilation requirement and the required sensible cooling capacity at maximum building load.
For summer air conditioning, the primary air is cooled and dehumidified in the central plant,
so that it can offset the entire building latent load. Chilled water is supplied to the conditioned
space to partly offset the building sensible cooling load only. Since the chilled water coil kept
in the conditioned space has to take care of only sensible load, condensation of room air
inside the conditioned space is avoided thereby avoiding the problems of condensate drainage
and related problems in the conditioned space. As mentioned, the primary takes care of the
ventilation requirement of the conditioned space, hence unlike in all water systems, there is no
need for separate ventilation systems. In winter, moisture can be added to the primary air in
the central plant and hot water is circulated through the coil kept in the conditioned space. The
secondary water lines can be of 2-pipe, 3-pipe or 4-pipe type similar to all water systems.
As mentioned the room unit may be in the form of a fan coil unit, an induction unit or in the
form of a radiant panel. In an induction unit the cooling/heating coil is an integral part of the
primary air system. The primary air supplied at medium to high pressure to the induction unit,
induces flow of secondary air from the conditioned space. The secondary air is sensibly
cooled or heated as it flows through the cooling/heating coil. The primary and secondary air
24
V Semester
are mixed and supplied to the conditioned space. The fan coil units are similar to the ones
used in all water systems.
Advantages of air-water systems:
1. Individual zone control is possible in an economic manner using room thermostats, which
control either the secondary water flow rate or the secondary air (in fan coil units) or both.
2. It is possible to provide simultaneous cooling and heating using primary air and secondary
water.
3. Space requirement is reduced, as the amount of primary supplied is less than that of an all
air systems.
4. Positive ventilation can be ensured under all conditions.
5. Since no latent heat transfer is required in the cooling coil kept in the conditioned space, the
coil operates dry and its life thereby increases and problems related to odours or fungal
growth in conditioned space is avoided.
6. The conditioned space can sometimes be heated with the help of the heating coil and
secondary air, thus avoiding supply of primary air during winter.
7. Service of indoor units is relatively simpler compared to all water systems.
Disadvantages of air-water systems:
1. Operation and control are complicated due to the need for handling and controlling both
primary air and secondary water.
2. In general these systems are limited to perimeter zones.
3. The secondary water coils in the conditioned space can become dirty if the quality of filters
used in the room units is not good.
4. Since a constant amount of primary air is supplied to conditioned space, and room control
is only through the control of room cooling/heating coils, shutting down the supply of primary
air to unoccupied spaces is not possible.
5. If there is abnormally high latent load on the building, then condensation may take place on
the cooling coil of secondary water.
6. Initial cost could be high compared to all air systems.
Applications of air-water systems:
These systems are mainly used in exterior buildings with large sensible loads and where
close control of humidity in the conditioned space is not required. These systems are thus
suitable for office buildings, hospitals, schools, hotels, apartments etc.
Unitary refrigerant based systems:
Unitary refrigerant based systems
consist of several separate air
conditioning units with individual
refrigeration systems. These systems
are factory assembled and tested as per
standard specifications, and are
available in the form of package units
of varying capacity and type. Each
package consists of refrigeration
and/or heating units with fans, filters,
controls etc. Depending upon the
requirement these are available in the
form of window air conditioners, split
air conditioners, heat pumps, ductable systems with air cooled or water cooled condensing
25
V Semester
units etc. The capacities may range from fraction of TR to about 100 TR for cooling.
Depending upon the capacity, unitary refrigerant based systems are available as single units
which cater to a single conditioned space, or multiple units for several conditioned spaces.
Figure 36.9 shows the schematic of a typical window type, room air conditioner, which is
available in cooling capacities varying from about 0.3 TR to about 3.0 TR. As the name
implies, these units are normally mounted either in the window sill or through the wall. As
shown in the figure, this type of unit consists of single package which includes the cooling
and
dehumidification coil, condenser coil, a hermetic compressor, expansion device (capillary
tube), condenser fan, evaporator fan, room air filter and controls. A drain tray is provided at
the bottom to take care of the condensate water. Both evaporator and condensers are plate finand-tube, forced convection type coils. For rooms that do not have external windows or walls,
a split type room air conditioner can be used. In these air conditioners, the condensing unit
comprising of the condenser, compressor and condenser fan with motor are located outside,
while the indoor unit consisting of the evaporator, evaporator fan with motor, expansion valve
and air filter is located inside the conditioned room. The indoor and outdoor units are
connected by refrigerant piping. In split type air conditioners, the condensed water has to be
taken away from the conditioned space using separate drain pipes. In the room air
conditioners (both window mounted and split type), the cooling capacity is controlled by
switching the compressor on-and-off. Sometimes, in addition to the on-and-off, the fan speed
can also be regulated to have a modular control of capacity. It is also possible to switch off the
refrigeration system completely and run only the blower for air circulation. Figure 36.10
shows a typical package unit with a remote condensing unit. As shown, in a typical package
unit, the remote condensing unit consists of the compressor and a condenser, while the indoor
unit consists of the plate fin-and-tube type, evaporator, a blower, air filter, drain tray and an
arrangement for connecting supply air and return air ducts. These units are available in
capacities ranging from about 5 TR to up to about 100 TR. The condenser used in these
systems could be either air cooled or water cooled. This type of system can be used for
providing air conditioning in a large room or it can cater to several small rooms with suitable
supply and return ducts. It is also possible to house the entire refrigeration in a single package
with connections for water lines to the water cooled condenser and supply and return air
ducts. Larger systems are either constant air volume type or variable air volume type. They
may also include heating coils along with the evaporator.
26
V Semester
Condensing unit Cold air

Most of the unitary systems have a provision for supplying outdoor air for ventilation
purposes. The type of control depends generally on the capacity of the unit. The control
system could be as simple as a simple thermostat based on-off control as in room air
conditioners to sophisticated microprocessor based control with multiple compressors or
variable air volume control or a combination of both.
Advantages of unitary refrigerant based systems:
1. Individual room control is simple and inexpensive.
2. Each conditioned space has individual air distribution with simple adjustment by the
occupants.
3. Performance of the system is guaranteed by the manufacturer.
4. System installation is simple and takes very less time.
5. Operation of the system is simple and there is no need for a trained operator.
6. Initial cost is normally low compared to central systems.
7. Retrofitting is easy as the required floor space is small.
Disadvantages of unitary refrigerant based systems:
1. As the components are selected and matched by the manufacturer, the system is less
flexible in terms of air flow rate, condenser and evaporator sizes.
2. Power consumption per TR could be higher compared to central systems.
3. Close control of space humidity is generally difficult.
4. Noise level in the conditioned space could be higher.
5. Limited ventilation capabilities.
6. Systems are generally designed to meet the appliance standards, rather than the building
standards.
7. May not be appealing aesthetically.
8. The space temperature may experience a swing if on-off control is used as in room air
conditioners.
9. Limited options for controlling room air distribution.
10. Equipment life is relatively short.
Applications of unitary refrigerant based systems:
Unitary refrigerant based systems are used where stringent control of conditioned space
temperature and humidity is not required and where the initial cost should be low with a small
lead time. These systems can be used for air conditioning individual rooms to large office
buildings, classrooms, hotels, shopping centers, nursing homes etc. These systems are
especially suited for existing building with a limitation on available floor space for air
conditioning systems.
Chilled water system:
The supply air, which is approximately 20 F cooler than the air in the conditioned space,
leaves the cooling coil through the supply air fan, down to the ductwork and into the
conditioned space. The cool supply air picks up heat in the conditioned space and the warmer
air makes its way into the return air duct back to the air handling unit. The return air mixes
with outside air in a mixing chamber and goes through the filters and cooling coil. The mixed
air gives up its heat into the chilled water tubes in the cooling coil, which has fins attached to
the tubes to facilitate heat transfer. The cooled supply air leaves the cooling coil and the air
cycle repeats.
27
V Semester
The chilled water circulating through the cooling coil tubes, after picking up heat from the
mixed air, leaves the cooling coil and goes through the chilled water return (CHWR) pipe to
the chiller's evaporator. Here it gives up the heat into the refrigeration system. The newly
"chilled" water leaves the evaporator and is pumped through the chilled water supply
(CHWS) piping into the cooling coil continuously and the water cycle repeats.
The evaporator is a heat exchanger that allows heat from the CHWR to flow by conduction
into the refrigerant tubes. The liquid refrigerant in the tubes "boils off" to a vapor removing
heat from the water and conveying the heat to the compressor and then to the condenser. The
heat from the condenser is conveyed to the cooling tower by the condenser water. Finally,
outside air is drawn across the cooling tower, removing the heat from the water through the
process of evaporation.
The figure above provides a conceptual view of chilled water air-conditioning system with
water cooled condenser.
The main equipment used in the chilled water system is a chillers package that includes
1) A refrigeration compressor (reciprocating, scroll, screw or centrifugal type),
2) Shell and tube heat exchanger (evaporator) for chilled water production
3) Shell and tube heat exchanger (condenser) for heat rejection in water cooled configuration
(alternatively, air cooled condenser can be used, where water is scarce or its use is prohibited)
4) A cooling tower to reject the heat of condenser water
5) An expansion valve between condenser and the evaporator
The chilled water system is also called central air conditioning system. This is because the
chilled water system can be networked to have multiple cooling coils distributed through out a
large or distributed buildings with the refrigeration equipment (chillers) placed at one base
central location.
Central Systems Are Complex
Central Systems comprise one or more large mechanical spaces

Sizable distribution trees are used.
Central Systems are generally Direct Expansion (DX) or Chilled Water systems.
Chilled water systems are marginally more efficient than DX systems.
Chilled water systems cool water, instead of air, and pass it through heat
exchangers to cool the air.
Water treatment may be required to control corrosion and scaling.
Chillers cool the building by removing heat from water which has passed through
the evaporators.
Cooling towers are installed in large systems to increase efficiency.
28
V Semester
Water cooled systems pass water over the condenser coils.

The water may be recycled after cooling in an atmospheric cooling tower.
Water cools as it falls through the air.
Large blowers may also be used to increase cooling by forcing air through the
falling water.
DX systems directly cool air and distribute it by air-handling units.
Air-handling units can be combined with the cooling equipment or separate.
When separate, air-handling units can be centrally located in a building or

distributed on each floor.
Central cooling and local air-distribution takes advantage of benefits attributed to

both the central and local systems
Distribution trees are large because air has low heat-capacity.

Chilled water systems use all-water or air-and-water
Chilled water systems are frequently used in the perimeter zones.
A two-pipe system is used for cooling alone
Chillers for 2-pipe systems occupy 0.2 - 1.0% of the gross floor area.
All-water fan-coil units can be located against an exterior wall.
Air-and-water induction systems use two coils.
Induction systems are well suited for multi-zone applications.

All-Air Systems Require More Space
o Single-duct Variable-Air-Volume systems require smaller distribution trees.
Air-handling units supply a cooled stream of air at normal velocity and
pre-determined temperature.
Automatic volume controls connected to a zones thermostat adjust the
volume of air admitted.
A zone needing more cooling received more air, and vice-versa.
o Size of Air-handling equipment and their rooms are smaller for lower rates of
air flow.
Fan speeds should be reduced so that temperature-sensitive thermostats
will permit sufficient de-humidification to take place.
EEBC-94 requirements different ventilation rates.
The ventilation rate for non-smoking occupants is 3.5 L/s.
The rate for smoking occupants is 11.8 L/s.
Low-pressure ductwork is larger.
o Cooling equipment for a low velocity single-zone system requires 0.2 - 1% of
the gross floor area.
o Air-handling units for a low velocity single-zone system require 2.2 - 3.5% of
the gross floor area.
Adequate space is required for maintenance.
Rooms should be centrally located to minimize ductwork.
o Air-handling room requires careful detailing.
Special acoustical treatment is required if rooms are adjacent to soundsensitive areas (eg. Conference Rooms).
29
V Semester
Air-intake and exhaust should be located on different walls, where

possible, or no closer than 3m apart when located on the same wall.
Baffles may be used to provide the separation required.
Configuring of Mechanical Equipment.
A method and system of managing a configuration of mechanical equipment provides a
structured procedure for managing information on parameters of the mechanical equipment to
facilitate the maintenance of safety, legal compliance, performance, and reliability of the
mechanical equipment. A desired configuration of the mechanical equipment is defined based
on a design objective, such as safety, reliability, performance, or any combination of the
foregoing objectives. An actual configuration of the mechanical equipment is determined
based on an evaluation of the mechanical equipment. Upgrade requirements are planned for
upgrading the actual configuration to the desired configuration if the actual configuration is
noncompliant with the desired configuration.
Chillers
Larger buildings and multiple building campuses usually use a chiller plant to provide cooling. In
such systems, chilled water is centrally generated and then piped throughout the building to air
handling units serving individual tenant spaces, single floors, or several floors. Ductwork then
runs from each air handler to the zones that are served. Chilled water-based systems result in far
less ductwork than all-air systems because chilled water piping is used to convey thermal energy
from the point of generation to each point of use. Whereas the all-air systems used to cool smaller
buildings usually contain all of their components packaged within a single cabinet (ergo the term
packaged cooling unit), a chiller plant is a collection of individual components that have been
selected to work together as a system. Though more costly to install and more complicated to
operate, a chiller plant offers a number of benefits over simple packaged cooling units, including
greater energy efficiency, better controllability, and longer life. Additionally, a chiller-based
system can be much more efficient in terms of space utilization within the building because
components need not be located within the same space.
Chiller plants are usually used to cool large buildings because their components require much less
space within the building than all-air systems. One reason that less space is needed is that the size
of pipes that convey chilled water throughout the building is much smaller than the size of air
ducts that would deliver cold air to provide the same cooling effect. Water is a more spaceefficient heat transfer medium than air, and therefore works
well in space-constrained applications such as high-rise buildings.
Characteristics of an Efficient Chiller Plant
There are three key characteristics of an efficient chiller plant. Severe shortcomings in any one of
these areas cannot necessarily be overcome by excellence in the others:
An efficient design concept. Selecting an appropriate design concept that is responsive

to the anticipated operating conditions is essential to achieving efficiency. Examples
include using a variable-flow pumping system for large campus applications, and
selecting the quantity, type, and configuration of chillers based upon the expected load
profile.
Efficient components.
Chillers, pumps, fans, and motors should all be selected for stand-alone as well as
systemic efficiency. Examples include premium efficiency motors, pumps that have
high efficiency at the anticipated operating conditions, chillers that are efficient at both
full and partial loads, and induced-draft cooling towers.
Proper installation, commissioning, and operation.
30
V Semester
A chiller plant that meets the first two criteria can still waste a lot of energyand
provide poor comfort to building occupantsif it is not installed or operated properly.
For this reason, following a formal commissioning process that functionally tests the
plant under all modes of operation can provide some assurance that the potential
efficiency of the system will be realized.
Air-Handling Components
The major components in an air-handling system are its fans, filters, ducts, and dampers. Each
component performs a task critical to the proper operation of the system: Fans circulate the air and
provide the pressure required to push it through filters, coils, ducts, transitions, fittings, dampers,
and diffusers. Filters clean the air, protecting occupant health, inhibiting bacteria and mold growth,
and keeping coil surfaces clean. Ducts convey the conditioned air throughout the building,
distributing the air to occupants and then returning it to be conditioned and circulated again.
Dampers control the flow and mix of returned and outside air through the ducts to the various parts
of the building. All of these components must function well both individually and together to
ensure efficient system operation and occupant comfort.
Fans
Fans are the heart of a buildings air-handling system. Like a heart that pumps blood
Figure 8.4: Centrifugal and axial fans

through a body, they distribute the conditioned (heated or cooled) air throughout the building.
There are two main types of fans: centrifugal and axial (Figure 8.4).
Centrifugal fans (A) are the most common fans used in HVAC applications. They are often
cheaper but usually less efficient than axial fans (B).
Centrifugal fans. Centrifugal fans are by far the most prevalent type of fan used in the HVAC
industry today. They are usually cheaper than axial fans and simpler in construction, but they
generally do not achieve the same efficiency. Centrifugal fans consist of a rotating wheel, or
impeller, mounted inside a round housing. The impeller is driven by a motor, which is usually
connected via a belt drive.
Axial fans. Axial fans consist of a cylindrical housing with the impeller mounted inside along the
axis of the housing. In an axial fan, the impeller consists of blades mounted around a central hub
similar to an airplane propeller. As with an airplane, the spinning blades force the air through the
fan. Axial fans are typically used for higher-pressure applications (over 5 inches total static
pressure) and are more efficient than centrifugal fans.
The motor of an axial fan can be mounted externally and connected to the fan by a belt. However,
axial fans are often driven by a motor that is directly coupled to the impeller that is mounted
31
V Semester
within the central hub. As a result, all heat due to motor electrical losses is added to the airstream
and must be removed by the cooling system.
Filters
Air filtration occupies an increasingly important role in the building environment.
Filters work by capturing particles through gravity or through centrifugal collection, screening,
adhesion, impingement, and/or adsorption. The efficiency of a filter refers not to energy efficiency,
but to how well it removes particles from the airstream.
Regular filter maintenance is essential to
keeping ductwork and coils clean. Dirt
accumulation in ductwork can facilitate the
growth of bacteria and mold, particularly if
condensation occurs within the ducts. Dirt
accumulation on coils impedes heat transfer,
reducing system efficiency and increasing
HVAC costs. Dirty filters will also reduce
airflow, and may therefore reduce occupant
comfort.
Visual inspection is not always an adequate
way to determine whether filters cleaning or
replacement is necessary. A sure-fire way to
determine when filter maintenance is
necessary is to install a device that measures
pressure drop across the filter bank. A signal
from such a device can be an input to a
building automation system to alert operators when filter maintenance is required.
Commonly found filter types in commercial buildings include dry filters, bag filters, highefficiency particulate air (HEPA) filters, electrostatic precipitators, and carbon filters.
Dampers
Dampers modulate the flow of air through the ducts to the various parts of the building, reducing
or increasing the airflow depending upon conditions. Dampers also regulate the quantity of outside
air that is allowed to enter the airhandling unit and mix with return air
for ventilation purposes. Dampers
can be difficult to maintain and can
affect occupant comfort as the space
requirements change and as the airhandling system ages.
A typical commercial HVAC system
has numerous dampers that alter the
flow of outside air, return air,
exhaust air, and supply air. An
efficient
air-handling
system
minimizes the number of dampers
necessary overall and eliminates dampers or uses low-loss dampers at branch takeoffs, reducing
the fan power needed to blow air past them but maintaining the capability for minor balancing
adjustments. Using variable-speed drives for fan regulation can eliminate the need for fan inlet or
discharge dampers.
32
V Semester
Circulator Pump
A circulator pump is used to circulate gases, liquids or slurries in a circuit. Most often, these
pumps are found circulating water in a hydronic heating or cooling system. The circulator's
job is to move hot water from the boiler to the radiators, and then return the cooled water for
another injection of heat.
Types of Circulator Pumps
While the function of circulator pumps is generally the same, there are many different kinds.
Among the designs are bronze sweat end pumps, stainless steel/bronze circulator pumps, cast
iron pumps, pre-wired models and in-line pumps. Circulator pumps also vary based on
horsepower, flow range (expressed in gallons per minute), head range (expressed in
submersible feet of depth), motor type, and the maximum and minimum liquid temperatures
they can be used in.
Design of piping systems:
Types of piping system: The piping systems are divided into two types:
Closed system: In a closed system chilled or hot water flowing through the coils, heater ,
chillers, boiler or other heat exchanger forms a closed re circulating loop as shown in the
figure below. In close system water is not exposed to the atmospheric during its flowing
process. The purpose of re circulating is to save water and energy.
Open system: In an open system the water ix expose to the atmosphere as shown in the
Figure below. For example, chilled water come directly into contact with the cooled and
dehumidified air in the air washer and condenser water is exposed to atmosphere in the
cooling tower. Recirculation of water is used to save water and energy.
33
V Semester
The close systems are consists of the following components:
Load unite which represents the terminal unite as cooling or heating coils or
radiators
Source unites which represent the chiller in cooling system or the boiler and
furnace in heating systems.
Distribution systems which represents the piping and fitting of the piping systems.
Pump that used to circulate the water in the cooling or heating systems. It is
usually of centrifugal types with constant flow rates (0.3 l/s with 20 kPa up to
hundreds of l/s and appropriate pressures.
Expansion tanks which are of two types.

Types of closed systems:
One pipe system: A single pipe connects all the system components i. e. the pipe started from
the source unit through the pump to the load units and then returns to the source. The
disadvantage of this system is that the efficiency of the last units are low because the return
cold or hot water of all units is added to the same pipe that supply the end units.
Two pipe system: This system has a two pipes one to the supply water and the other to the
return water. In this system the disadvantage of the one pipe system is overcome. This is the
most popular system in use because it is simple and cheep.
Three pipe system: This system can be use in central air conditioning units that used
for cooling and heating in the same time . It has one pipe to supply hot water, the other to
supply cold water and the third is a common return pipe i. e. the third pipe is used to return
cold and hot water to the chillers and boiler. The disadvantage of the system is the waste of
heat in the third common return pipe.
Four pipe system: The disadvantage of the three pipe system ( i. e. the common third return
pipe ) is overcome in this system by adding a fourth pipe . The four pipe system can be used
in central air conditioning plant with cold and hot circuits separated.
Ductwork Needs To Be Co-Coordinated
Ducts can be round, oval or rectangular.
34
V Semester
Round ducts are usually less expensive to fabricate and install, but require higher
ceiling heights.
Ducts are generally fabricated in galvanized steel.
Fiberglass ducts are lighter and competitively priced.
Ducts are available in rigid and flexible round profiles.
Fiberglass ductwork is generally unsuitable for hospitals because the breeding of
micro-organisms is more pronounced on them.
For better circulation of air when cooling, air supply should be through the ceiling
and return air through low wall or floor return-air grilles.
Ducts are hung from metal hangers, straps, lugs or brackets.
Supply ducts should have locking-type dampers in branch ducts for volume
control.
Dampers should be installed as far as possible from the outlet.
Distribution system needs to be balanced and adjusted for proper performance.
It is critical that pressure differentials between adjacent rooms of a hospital be
maintained to prevent cross-contamination.
Economizer cycle is an arrangement of dampers and controls that permits cooler
external air to replace return-air in the cooling cycle.
Air diffusers and grilles are common to central all-air systems.
Diffusers come in a wide variety of styles, shapes and sizes ranging from bar-type
grilles for walls, to round, rectangular and slot-shaped diffusers for ceilings.
The choice of air-diffusers is largely dependent on the desired architectural effect.
35
V Semester
Figure 1: Various Arrangements of Ductwork

Types of Supply Duct Systems
There are several basic types of supply and return duct systems. Any one of the system types,
or a combination of different types, can be utilized to fit the needs of a particular structure.
The general types of supply duct systems include:
radial system
extended plenum system
reducing plenum system
reducing trunk system
Perimeter loop system.
36
V Semester
37
V Semester
Types of air distribution devices:

Grilles and Registers:
A grille is an outlet for supply air or an
inlet for return air. A register is a grille with
a volume control damper. Figure shows the
front view of supply air grille with
horizontal and vertical vanes. The vanes,
either fixed or adjustable are used for
deflecting airflow. Grilles have a
comparatively lower entrainment ratio,
greater drop, longer throw and higher air
velocities in the occupied zone compared to
slot and ceiling diffusers. Manufacturers
specify the performance of the grill in terms
of core size or core area, volumetric flow rate of air, effective air velocity, total pressure drop,
throw and noise levels. They can be mounted either on the sidewalls or in the ceiling.
Ceiling diffusers:
A ceiling diffuser consists of
concentric rings or inner cones madeup of vanes arranged in fixed
directions. Ceiling diffusers can be
round, square or rectangular in shape.
Figure 39.6 (a) shows square and
rectangular ceiling diffuser, and Fig.
39.6(b) shows a perforated diffuser. A
square diffuser is widely used for
supply air. In the diffusers the supply
air is discharged through the
concentric air passages in all
directions. The air distribution pattern
can be changed by adjusting the
adjustable inner cones or the deflecting
vanes. Ceiling diffusers are normally
mounted at the centre of the
conditioned space. Ceiling diffusers
provide large entrainment ratio and
shorter throw, hence are suitable for
higher supply air temperatures and for
conditioned spaces with low head space. Ceiling diffusers can deliver more air compared to
grilles and slot diffusers.
Slot diffusers:
A slot diffuser consists of a plenum box with single or multiple slots and air deflecting vanes.
These are mounted either on the side walls or in the ceiling. Linear slot diffusers mounted on
the sidewalls can be as long as 30 meters. These are used for both supply air and return air.
Linear slot diffusers are particularly suitable for large open-spaces that require flexibility to
suit changing occupant distribution.
38
V Semester
Light Troffer-Diffuser:
A light troffer-diffuser combines a fluorescent light troffer and a slot diffuser. The slot can be
used either as supply air outlet or return air inlet. Light troffer-diffusers offer the following
advantages: a) The luminous efficiency of fluorescent lamps can be increased by maintaining
lower air temperature in the light troffer b) An integrated layout of light troffer, diffuser and
return slots can be formed on suspended ceilings) Improved aesthetics) A combination of
light troffer and return slot reduces the space cooling load as the return air absorbs a part of
the heat emitted by the
lights. However, they
should be designed such
that the return air does
not come in direct contact
with the tube so that
deposition of dust on the
fluorescent
tube
is
prevented Figure 39.8
shows a light trofferdiffuser
slot
that
combines the light troffer,
supply air diffuser and
return air slot.
In addition to the above air distribution devices, the floor mounted grilles and diffusers,
low-side wall diffusers, nozzle diffusers etc. are also used for room air distribution.
Configuring Of Equipment
A method and system of managing a configuration of mechanical equipment provides a
structured procedure.
It helps to manage various parameters of the mechanical equipment to facilitate the
Maintenance of safety,
Legal compliance,
Performance, and
Reliability of the mechanical equipment.

An actual configuration of the mechanical equipment is determined based on an evaluation of
the mechanical equipment.
Upgrade requirements are planned for upgrading the actual configuration to the desired
configuration if the actual configuration is noncompliant with the desired configuration.
39
V Semester
Sizing of equipment.
Correct sizing of mechanical equipment is important for several reasons. Extra money
need not be paid up front for an oversized system. This is the typical process for the
construction of new buildings.
Mechanical equipment that is larger than needed results in inefficiencies of the system.
Oversized furnaces and air conditioners cycle on and off more often than if they were
correctly sized.
They blast on and meet the required heating or cooling loads quickly, turning off before
maximum efficiency is reached. This is called short-cycling. Further, this also
results in a shorter service life for the equipment, and can also result in thermostat
and humidity problems.
40
V Semester
UNIT III
Criteria for Selecting Air Conditioning Systems:
As mentioned earlier, a sound knowledge of the classification, configuration, system
application criteria, advantages and disadvantages of the various systems and configurations
are essential in the selection of a suitable air conditioning system for a facility.
Basically, selecting an air conditioning system will require a careful consideration of the
following:
Architectural constraints (building application, occupancy, space constraints,

building form, flow, orientation, etc)
Cost constraints (initial and operating costs)
Ease of accessibility and maintenance
Capacity and performance requirements (indoor air quality, zoning and thermal
control, energy considerations, noise levels, fire safety and smoke control etc.)
Required system reliability and flexibility

It is worth mentioning that the weight of the above factors in the decision making process
varies according to project peculiarities (ownership, construction expertise, etc). Usually, the
engineer considers all the systems, and narrows his focus to about two or three from which he
selects the most appropriate according to the above criteria. Also to help in the selection, my
advice is to consider the air conditioning system as comprising subsystems, main components
and support equipment or accessories.
Architectural Constraints
Designing air conditioning for different building applications and occupancies requires a
consideration of different design criteria, operating hours, and different system characteristics.
Specific design criteria usually dictate the type of air conditioning system that should be
selected. A good example is the design of an air conditioning system for a class 10 clean room
for fabrication of semiconductor wafer. In this case a constant-volume central system is
always the preferred option. When the clean room is in operation, adequate clean air must be
provided to maintain unidirectional flow to prevent the contamination of semiconductor
wafers by sub-micrometer-size particulates. It should be noted that a constant-volume system
with electric terminal reheat is always preferable to a VAV system in places requiring highprecision constant temperature to be maintained in the conditioned space.
For guest rooms in luxury hotels, a four-pipe fan-coil system is the most widely used air
conditioning system as in addition to the systems ease of maintenance, the four-pipe fan-coil
system provides individual temperature and fan speed controls as well as a positive supply of
adequate outdoor ventilation air. When the room is not occupied, the fan coil unit (in the
room) can be turned off conveniently.
Space limitations specified by the architect or facility owner also influence the selection of the
air conditioning system. For example where the design for a high-rise building provides no
rooftop space for AHUs and other mechanical equipment, or if there is not enough space for
supply and return duct shafts, a floor-by-floor AHU central system may be the practical
choice.
Capacity and Performance Requirements
Another vital consideration for the selection of air conditioning system is the system
capacity. For a single-story small retail shop, a constant-volume packaged system is often
41
V Semester
chosen. If the conditioned space is a large indoor stadium with a seating capacity of up to
70,000 spectators, a single-zone VAV central system is often selected. This system also
guarantees the provision of minimum ventilation controls for required indoor air quality
regulation.
Maintenance Considerations
It is worth mentioning here that a central system with AHUs, a few water-cooled centrifugal
chillers, and cooling towers needs less maintenance work than a packaged system with many
rooftop air-cooled units. A VAV reheat central system needs less maintenance work in the fan
and plant rooms than fan-coil system, which often requires much maintenance work in the
ceiling space directly above the conditioned space.
Cost Considerations
Initial cost and operating costs (mainly energy cost) are always primary factors that affect the
selection of an air conditioning system. The initial cost of the air conditioning system in a
building, expressed in $ /m2, depends on the building occupancies, system configurations,
size of the building, and capabilities of specific systems. Generally, the more complex an air
conditioning system becomes and the more features it has, the higher will be the initial cost.
Energy Efficiency in Air- Conditioning Systems
Balance air and water systems that are out of balance

repair variable-air-volume boxes that are not working properly
tighten loose fan belts
repair leaking control valves
replace leaking damper seals
repair or replace malfunctioning variable-speed drives
seal ductwork to minimize leaks
Reduce excessive air-change rates.
Building Envelope
repair door and window seals to prevent excessive infiltration of unconditioned

outdoor air and excessive exfiltration of conditioned air
replace inefficient glazing or install solar-control film
provide internal or external shading devices to control solar-heat gain
Install additional thermal insulation where needed to reduce heat gain and loss.
Two-speed cooling tower fans and variable-speed drives on fans and pumps and
energy management systems (or direct digital control systems) will allow for the
modulating of HVAC equipment. This controls the system so that it works only to
meet the space conditioning and ventilation requirements of the building spaces,
and not just at full output capacity at all times. For example, demand-controlled
ventilation modulates ventilated air to keep CO2 levels below a set point (for
example, 1000 parts per million), thereby allowing ventilation rates to be adjusted
to the number of people occupying the space and other variables. This strategy for
reducing building ventilation saves energy without compromising indoor air
quality, and modern CO2 sensors are both reliable and inexpensive.
The cost-effectiveness of installing direct digital controls (DDCs) on an HVAC

system varies widely with the specific site and application. DDC systems save
energy if they are used to turn building systems off when they are not needed. In
office buildings, DDC systems can modulate HVAC and lighting equipment to
42
V Semester
achieve energy savings as well as to trim demand during peak periods, thereby
lowering energy bills for months to come.
Using occupancy sensors in conjunction with digital controls can limit energy
waste in unoccupied hotel and motel rooms and similar spaces, including offices.
Guest room occupancy sensors or central control systems can reduce energy
requirements without inconveniencing guests. For example, a central switching
system at the front desk can turn on heating or air conditioning as the guest checks
in or manually adjust thermostat settings if the room is unoccupied. Heat sensing
(infrared) detectors can activate HVAC and lighting systems based on human
presence in the room. Turn-off time delays of 10 to 30 minutes can accommodate
a guests departure from the room for short periods of time.
Variable air volume (VAV) air-handling systems with variable-speed
drives (VSDs) can save considerable fan energy over constant volume systems.
Incorporating a VSD on a VAV fan allows it to slow down as load decreases.
Because reducing fan speed by one-half will reduce power consumption by seveneighths, a VSD on a VAV fan system offers compound energy savings that can
provide a payback of three to five years. Typical VSD installation costs are $200
to $250 per horsepower of the motor driven. VAV can save energy costeffectively in systems whose fans are 20 hp or more.
Variable-speed drives are also useful in a number of other commercial and
industrial applications, from moving water from boilers or chillers to local heat
exchangers to adjusting patterns of irrigation to optimize crop growth while
minimizing water use. Motors used in pumping fluids like water or high-pressure
air can match pumping rates to instantaneous demands, thereby saving both
energy and demand costs.
VSDs are also useful in adjusting ventilation rates to ensure good indoor air
quality while controlling fan energy use. Instead of operating at fixed fan rates on
a predetermined schedule, ventilation rates can be varied to maintain CO2 levels
below a given threshold, for example, 1100 parts per million. Inserting a CO2
sensor in the return air stream to give feedback to a simple control algorithm can
optimize fan use while safeguarding air quality.
Horizontal distribution of services for large buildings

Under-floor distribution
Air-conditioning system distribution and terminal equipment is generally located overhead in
the ceiling void with the cool supply air entering the room from ceiling diffusers. However,
the supply of conditioned air from under the floor is a design option. In this case, the air or
water distribution and terminal devices are located in the floor void, and hence the overhead
services are reduced to only lighting and sprinklers.
By making the floor void deep enough, the power, telecommunications and computer wireways may be incorporated into the one plenum, all being easily accessible by merely opening
up the raised floor. Under-floor cooling is particularly beneficial for spaces such computer
rooms, as air velocities from floor grilles and resultant noise levels are both much higher for
cooling of equipment than those which would be acceptable for people.
43
V Semester
1. Raised floor
2. Fan-coil unit
3. Ducting and insulation
4. Lighting and Ceiling
Services located below composite beams
Under-floor systems can be beneficial when the floor slab is exposed, when it is used as part
of the thermal capacity of the building fabric. A good example of this design approach is
shown below in which the curved precast concrete floors are supported on deep asymmetric
steel beams which project above the concrete slabs to form the floor plenum.
Overhead (a) and under floor (b) air-conditioning
44
V Semester
Internal distribution of services

For many reasons, there is pressure to minimise the space allocated to the building services.
Therefore, it is necessary to ensure an efficient use of space for the service distribution system
in the vertical and horizontal directions and in the plant rooms. The following sections review
the spatial aspects of the vertical and horizontal service distribution.
Vertical distribution of services
The following recommendations apply to the
vertical distribution of services:
Provide continuous and uninterrupted vertical
service routes
Maintain a constant cross-section of the
service route
Position the plant room so that it is as close as
possible to the centre of the plan area it serves
Consider the connection between horizontal services and vertical services routes
Provide separate routes for different services. The minimum is two; one for electrics and
one for water pipes, etc., although most buildings require more service routes
Horizontal distribution should ideally not extend more than 25 m from a vertical service
route. Longer distances will impose penalties on the system design and increase the depth
of horizontal service ducts
Position plant rooms at no more than 10 storeys apart vertically.
The figure shows typical arrangements of vertical service routes. Vertical ducts which transfer
air from the roof-top plant to each floor can often be concentrated in a relatively small riser,
as shown below.
45
V Semester
Horizontal distribution of services
Conventionally, the horizontal distribution of services is arranged within a horizontal layer

which is generally located below the structure and above the suspended ceiling. This layer
accommodates the distribution system (ducts, pipes, etc), the terminal units and lighting units.
The raised floor is placed on the floor slab and accommodates the electrical and
communication cabling. The lighting units are often located within the ceiling depth.
To determine the spatial allowance for these elements, three design cases may be envisaged
corresponding to different structural configurations:
1. A flat slab with flexibility of service routing.
2. A slab and down stand beam arrangement.
3. A long span beam system with facility for service integration in the structural depth.
In case 1, the ducts pass below the floor within the depth allowed for the terminal units.
However, cross-overs of ducts must be avoided in order to minimize this depth. In cases 2 and
3, the terminal units may be located between the beams, which means that additional space
below the beams is required only for the major ducts, ceiling and lighting units. In case 3, the
ducts are located entirely within the structural zone as they pass through large openings in the
deep beams. Typically, the diameter of these openings is 400mm, and the duct size is 300 or
350mm allowing for insulation etc.
1. Power/communicatio
ns
/data outlet
2. Floor void
3. Ceiling void
4. Supply duct
5. Air outlet
Example of integrated services Case 1 - Flat slab
46
V Semester
1. Raised floor
3. Slim-line fan coil unit
Services located in the Flat Slab
1. Raised floor
2. Fan coil unit
Services located below composite beams
Example of integrated services Case 3 Long span beam with web openings
47
V Semester
1. Raised floor
Services located through web openings in the beams
Typical dimensional allowances for service
zones in typical modern air-conditioned
buildings are shown in the table for these
three cases. It can be seen that ceiling-floor
depths of 1,100 to 1,200 mm are commonly
required. The difference between the overall
ceiling-floor depths for the case of flat soffit
and the long-span systems with integrated
services is relatively small. Also, in modern
long
span
construction, intumescent
coatings are used for fire protection and so
the allowance for the thickness of fire protection can be neglected. A raised floor of 150 or
200mm depth is required in all systems.
It is possible to reduce these ceiling-floor depths, but the cost of the structure, and services
(due to inefficient duct shapes, or number of separate ducts) may increase.
48
V Semester
UNIT IV
Transmission of Heat
Heat is transferred from regions of higher temperature to
regions of lower temperature. This transmission or
transfer of heat is achieved through three methods
(i)
Conduction,
(ii)
Convection or
(iii)
Radiation.
Transfer of heat governs all aspects of fire, from ignition
through to extinguishment.
(a) Conduction
(i) Solids are better heat conductors than liquids or gases. Thermal conductivity, or the ability
to conduct heat, varies between materials. Most metals are
good conductors, the best conductors being silver and
copper. Generally, good conductors of electricity are good
conductors of heat also, and vice-versa.
(ii) In fires, thermal conductivity is relevant in terms of the
danger of fire spread. A steel beam passing through a wall
can be the cause of fire spread from one room to another. A
plain metal door can conduct heat from one side to another,
whereas a wooden door will not, since wood is a poor
conductor. The conductivity of building materials has an
important role in the fire resistance capability of elements
of structure.
(b) Convection
(i) Convection requires a circulating medium for
transmission of heat and occurs only in liquids and gases. It
transports the enormous amount of chemical energy
released during a fire to the surrounding environment by
the movement and circulation of hot gases. Convection is
used in domestic heating systems or radiators. Convection
also causes the up-draft in chimneys or the .stack effect..
(ii) In a multi-storey building fire, convection currents can
convey hot gases and smoke towards through stairwells and
open lift shafts, spreading the fire to the upper floors
through open doors and false ceilings.
c) Radiation
o Radiation is a form of energy that travels through a space without an intervening medium,
such as a solid or a fluid. It is through the same method by which heat from the sun passes
through the empty space to warm the earth. It travels as electromagnetic waves, similar to
light, radio waves, and x-rays. In a vacuum, all electro-magnetic waves travel at the speed of
49
V Semester
light (300,000 km/sec.). When it falls on a body, it can be

absorbed, reflected and / or transmitted.
o In a fire, the hot gases rise vertically upwards in a
plume that carries with it most of the heat (70% - 90%)
released in the combustion process, depending upon the
fuel. The rest of the heat is transmitted as radiation. Some
radiation also comes from the gaseous combustion
products, H2O and CO2. Roughly, about 10% of the heat
of combustion is lost upward travel of hot gases from the
flame by radiation in these cases. However, larger fires
involving ordinary fuels may release 30 to 50 percent of
the total amount of energy as radiation, exposing nearby
surfaces to high levels of radiant heat transfer. Water
vapour and CO2 in the atmosphere, which will generally
be present in fires, absorb appreciable amount of thermal
radiation emitted from large fires. This is the reason why
forest fires or large LNG fires are relatively less hazardous when humidity is high. Water
droplets are capable of absorbing almost all the incident infra-red radiation thereby cooling to
surroundings. This is the reason why fire fighters normally enter a burning building or room
with hose hand lines fitted with water spray/fog nozzles.
All forms of radiant energy travel in straight lines. But the intensity of radiation decreases
with distance. Twice the distance, intensity becomes one quarter; at three times the distance,
the intensity is one-ninth, and so on. This is known as the inverse square law of radiation.
Radiation has been the cause for many fires. A common cause of home fires is clothing
getting ignited by radiant heat when it is placed too close to a source of radiation. Similarly,
radiant heat from the sun passing through a glass window or a bottle, which acts as a lens, had
also been the cause of fires.
Constituents of Fire
Combustion Process
An understanding of the basic principles of combustion or fire, causes and sources of ignition,
fire growth and fire spread is necessary for understanding the principles of fire control and
extinguishment. Combustion usually involves an exothermic chemical reaction between a
substance or fuel and oxygen. Unlike slow oxidation, a
combustion reaction occurs so rapidly that heat is
generated faster than it is dissipated, causing a marked
increase of temperature, even upto a few hundreds of
degrees. Very often, the temperature reaches so high that
visible light or flame is generated.
Triangle of fire
One way of discussing fire or combustion is in terms of
the .triangle of fire. or combustion. It has been seen that
for combustion to occur three factors are essential; heat,
oxygen (or air) and a combustible substance (or fuel). Fire or combustion will continue as
long as these three factors are present. Removal of one of them leads to the collapse of the
triangle and the combustion process stops.
50
V Semester
Fire Extinction Methods

It has been shown from the triangle of fire that three factors are
essential for combustion, namely;
i) The presence of a fuel, or combustible substances;
ii) The presence of oxygen (usually as air) or other supporter of
combustion; and
iii) The attainment and maintenance of a certain minimum
temperature.
Fire extinction, in principle, consists in the limitation or
elimination of one ore more of these factors and the methods of
extinguishing fire may be classified conveniently under the
following headings:
(a) Starvation (or the limitation of fuel);
(b) Smothering / Blanketing (or the limitation of oxygen); and
(c) Cooling (or the limitation of temperature).
In practice, specific methods of fire extinction often embody
more than one of these principles, but it will be convenient to
consider them according to the main principle involved.
Starvation
The extinction of fire by starvation is applied in three ways:

By removing combustible material from the neighbourhood of the fire. Examples
of these are, the drainage of fuel from burning oil tanks; the working out of cargo
at a ship fire, the cutting of trenches in peat, heath, and forest fires; the demolition
of buildings to create a fire stop; counter-burning in forest fires;
By removing the fire from the neighbourhood of combustible material as, for
instance, pulling apart a burning haystack or a thatched roof;
By sub-dividing the burning material, when the smaller fires produced may be left
to burn out or to be extinguished more easily by other means. A typical example is
the emulsification of the surface of burning oil, whilst the beating out of a heath
fire owes much of its effectiveness to this.
Smothering
If the oxygen content of the atmosphere in the immediate neighbourhood of

burning material can be sufficiently reduced combustion will cease. The general
procedure in methods of this type is to prevent or impede the access of fresh air to
the seat of the fire, and allow the combustion to reduce the oxygen content in the
confined atmosphere until it extinguishes itself.
An important practical application of the smothering method is the use of foam.
This forms a viscous coating over the burning material and limits, in so far as it is
complete, the supply of air. It also tends to prevent the formation of flammable
vapour.
Another method of smothering is by the application of a cloud of finely divided
particles of dry powder, usually sodium bicarbonate, from a pressurised
extinguisher.
A further development in the smothering method has been the discovery of a
powdered compound for use on metal fires, such as uranium and plutonium,
thorium and magnesium. This powder (ternary eutectic chloride)is applied by
51
V Semester
means of a gas cartridge pressurised extinguisher. As the fusing temperature of

the powder is in the region of 580oC it forms a crust over the burning metal and
this excludes the oxygen of the air.
The vigorous discharge of an inert gas in the immediate vicinity of the fire may so
reduce the oxygen content of the atmosphere for the time being that combustion
cannot be maintained. Carbon-di-oxide and nitrogen are familiar examples of this.
A group of extinguish ants consisting of volatile liquids based on the halogenated
hydrocarbons are also in use. These evaporating liquids act partly as inverting
blankets similar to those mentioned in the preceding section, and partly by
chemical interference with the chain reaction of flame propagation.
Cooling
If the rate at which heat is generated by combustion is less than the rate at which it
is dissipated through various agencies, combustion cannot persist.
The application of a jet or spray of water to a fire is invariably based on this
simple but fundamental principle. There are many variations. Another example is
the emulsification of the surface of oil by means of the emulsifying type of spray
nozzle producing an oil-in-water-emulsion,
The cooling principle in fire extinction is the one most commonly employed,
forming as it does the basis of the application of water and other liquids to
burning materials.
The action of water depends predominantly on its thermal capacity and latent heat
of vaporisation, the latter being by far the more important. Thus it takes about six
times as much heat to convert a certain weight of water at its boiling point into
steam as is required to raise the temperatures of the same amount of water from
the usual atmospheric temperature to its boiling point. In fact, while changing
from liquid (water) to vapour state (steam) water expands about 1760 times which
also contributes to its smothering effect.
In the interests of efficiency, it is clearly desirable that water should be applied to
a fire in the liquid condition and in such a way that as much as possible is
converted to steam. The smothering effects of the steam produced at the seat of
the fire are thought to play a part in assisting in the extinguishing process.
On the basis of thermal capacity and latent heat of vaporisation, water is an
excellent fire extinguishing agent since both figures are high. This fact, combined
with its availability in large quantities, makes it by far the most useful fire
extinguishing agent for general purposes.
52
V Semester
Classification of fires
Internationally accepted classification of fires is as follows.
Class A.
These are fires involving solid materials normally of an organic nature (compounds of
carbon), in which combustion generally occurs with the formation of glowing embers. Class
.A. fires are the most common. Effective extinguishing agent is generally water in
the form of a jet or spray.
Class B.
These are fires involving liquids or liquefiable solids. For the purpose of choosing effective
extinguishing agents, flammable liquids may be divided into two groups:
i) Those that are miscible with water, and
ii) Those that is immiscible with water.
Depending on (i) and (ii), the extinguishing agents include water spray, foam, vaporising
liquids, and carbon dioxide and chemical powders.
Class C.
These are fires involving gases or liquefied gases in the form of a liquid spillage, or a liquid or
gas leak, and these include methane, propane, butane, etc. Foam or dry chemical powder can
be used to control fires involving shallow liquid spills. (Water in the form of spray is
generally used to cool the containers.)
Class D.
These are fires involving metals. Extinguishing agents containing water are ineffective, and
even dangerous. Carbon dioxide and the bicarbonate classes of dry chemical powders may
also be hazardous if applied to most metal fires. Powdered graphite,
powdered talc, soda ash, limestone and dry sand are normally suitable for class .D. fires.
Special fusing powders have been developed for fires involving some metals, especially the
radioactive ones. Presently special dry chemical powders have been developed for
extinguishing metal fires.
Electrical fires
It is not considered, according to present-day ideas, that electrical fires constitute a separate
class, since any fire involving, or started by, electrical equipment, must, in fact, be a fire of
class A, B or D. The normal procedure in such circumstances is to cut off the electricity and
use any extinguishing method appropriate to what is burning. Only when this cannot be done
with certainty will special extinguishing agents be required which are non-damaging to
equipment. These include vaporising liquids, dry powders carbon-di-oxide, and other gaseous
extinguishing agents.
FIRE PROTECTION
FIRE SAFETY MANAGEMENT FOR VARIOUS CLASSES OF OCCUPANCIES
Fire Protection Management
Experience has proved that it will be too ambitious and impractical to expect that prevention
of fires can be achieved 100% in all types of occupancies and situations, when several
unpredictable factors, including vagaries of nature and acts of human commission and
omission are bound to occur.
Nevertheless, all those concerned and responsible for enhancement of building fire safety
standards continue their untiring effects to mitigate losses of lives and property due to fires.
The best possible way to achieve this laudable objective is to develop an integrated system of
balanced fire protection that combines the best of different design features of both active and
passive fire protection systems for the buildings. This is what all framers and implementing
53
V Semester
agencies of national and local level Building Codes and Regulations, as well as the entire
building construction community should aspire for.
Classes of Occupancies
All buildings, whether existing or hereafter created shall be classified according to the use or
the character of occupancy in one of the following groups:
Group A
Residential
Group B
Educational
Group C
Institutional
Group D
Assembly
Group E
Business
Group F
Mercantile
Group G
Industrial
Group H
Storage
Group J
Hazardous
Multiplexes
In many of our major cities, multiple occupancies, or what are commonly known as
multiplexes are coming up, which are buildings having independent occupancies like
Shopping Centre, Cinemas, Restaurants etc., simultaneously in one building complex.
These multiple occupancies contain high fire and life hazard potential, and hence call for
stringent fire prevention and fire protection measures.
Occupancy or Use Group: In the case of mixed occupancy, the
actual occupancy classification of the building or premises will be on the basis of the principal
occupancy class. A building need not necessarily be inhabited. Temporary structures need not
be construed as buildings.
Change of Occupancies
Owner or the occupier shall apply in writing to the local authorities
concerned for any alteration, modification, extension etc, of the building along with necessary
drawings; specifications etc., and obtain necessary clearance for the same from the authorities
concerned.
Unsafe Buildings:
Unsafe Buildings are those which are:
Deficient in means of egress;
has a potential hazard from fire or natural or man-made threats;
Dangerous to human life or public welfare by reasons of illegal

or improper use, occupancy or maintenance;
Non-compliance with the provisions of the applicable Codes:
Significantly damaged by fire or explosion or other natural or man-made cause;
Incomplete buildings for which building permits have expired;
Buildings
having
deteriorated
structural
elements
or
partially
destroyed buildings;
Unsanitary buildings
General Guidelines for Good Fire Safety Management:
Good Fire Safety Management involves and implies Good Life

Safety Management also. Essentially Life Safety implies keeping the harmful
effects of fire away from the occupants of the building, or vice versa, by keeping
54
V Semester
the occupants segregated from the harmful effects of fire, by adopting methods
based on time, distance or shielding. Life Safety also depends to a large extent on
the physical and mental characteristics of the occupants, as individuals and as a
group.
Fire Prevention, wherever and whatever is possible can also, to a great extent,
make positive contributions to fire and life safety. However, it will be prudent to
bear in mind that no fire prevention strategy can be totally effective.
Good Fire Safety Management takes note of all these factors and adopts an
integrated systems approach so as to achieve optimum results.
Staircases/Means of Egress
In all cases the leading edges of all treads should be readily visible during both
descent and ascent;
Means of egress must permit unobstructed travel at all times;
Hand-rails: It is worth noting that handrails are one of the most important
components of a staircase, and therefore, its design should be such as to enable a
comfortable grip and also to
facilitate the hand to be slid along the rail
without encountering
obstructions while negotiating the stairs;
One or two steps at a doorway are considered to constitute an accident hazard in

emergency use, and hence should be avoided.
Smoke Control/Smoke Management
Smoke Management includes all methods which are resorted to, either singly or in
combination, to control smoke movement for assisting easier and speedier means of egress for
occupants, for assisting fire fighting operations, and for reducing property damage.
Compartmentation, dilution, airflow control pressurisation, and buoyancy of smoke can be
utilised alone or in combination for smoke management, to minimise the smoke hazard in
building fires; For ensuring that products of combustion in a fire do not enter a
smoke proof stair enclosure, the following guidance is provided;
the smoke control system should ensure on a 97 percent basis for the geographical location of
the building, that the atmosphere of the smoke proof enclosure will not, during a period of 2
hours, including a quantity of air emanating from the fire area that is more than
1 percent of the volume of the stair enclosure (NFPA 101)
Atrium Buildings:
Need special attention with regard to design, fire protection and smoke control.
Fire protections in such buildings are usually provided by combination of methods
like compartmentation, ventilation, automatic suppression and smoke control.
Products of combustion from a fire get diluted with air in large volume atria, and
with proper ventilation their flow can be safety directed to the outside.
Where vision panels and fire windows are provided, it has to be remembered that
they may transmit heat by both conduction and radiation.
Special Structures and High-Rise Buildings:
Special structures, including open structures, towers, underground and

windowless structures, high-rise buildings, multiplexes etc; pose special problems
with regard to fire and life safety requirements, and hence call for special
considerations in design, lay-out and construction aspects. Best results are
achieved by sound design and engineering judgement and common sense.
55
V Semester
Special attention needs to be given on component elements

such as concealed
combustible spaces, remoteness of exits, enclosure, illumination and marking of
exits, controlled interior finishes, automatic suppression systems, smoke control
systems, fire detection and alarm systems, containment of hazardous areas etc;
These complex occupancies call for a well thought out fire
engineering
approach to achieve a satisfactory standard of fire and life safety.
Means of Escape Requirements

Safe exit for the occupants in a building on fire, requires a safe path of escape from the
fire in the shortest possible time. This path, which should be as short as possible, and
easily negotiable, should be ready for use in case of emergency
For ensuring the life safety of occupants from a fire, the following are the
requirements in general:
Provision of adequate No. of properly designed, unobstructed means of exit of
adequate capacity which are available at all times;
Availability of alternative means of exit for use, if the already chosen one is
inaccessible due to fire, heat, smoke and toxic gases;
Protection of the entire rescue path against fire, heat, smoke and toxic gases during the
egress time based on occupant load, travel distance and exit capacity;
Adoption of compartmentation and other adequate passive fire protection measures to
ensure the safe egress/evacuation of the occupants in case of fire;
Provision of adequate and reliable fire alarm system in the building to alert the
occupants;
Provision of refuge areas where total evacuation of occupants is not contemplated;
Adequate illumination and marking of the means of egress;
Formulation organisation and practice of effective evacuation drill procedures.
Means of Escape Design:
The design of a building shall be such that in an emergency the occupants in any part
of the building should be able to escape safely without any external assistance, except
in the case of physically challenged (disabled) people who have to be rendered
assistance.
It is the responsibility of the management of the premises to ensure that necessary
facilities are provided in the building so that the occupants can evacuate the building
in reasonable time in case of fire or other emergency.
Provision of barrier free environment for physically challenged people (physically
disabled people) has been made mandatory in some of the Building Bye-laws and
Development Control Regulations in the country. Provision for movement of disabled
persons to areas of safety within the building (Refuge Areas) has also been included in
these Regulations.
Certification Scheme: Since the fire performance of a system, products, components or
structure is dependent on satisfactory site installation and maintenance, independent
schemes for certification/accreditation and registration of installers and maintenance
firms will have to be introduced in our country so as to ensure conformity with
approved standards and codes, as well as for elimination of use of sub-standard
products.
Fire Safety Management as applied to different occupancy groups are discussed below:
Residential Buildings (Group A)
56
V Semester
Good Fire Safety Management in homes call for strict and constant observance of
all the common home fire safety rules for kitchen fire safety, gas fire safety,
electrical fire safety etc;
Every Residential occupancy, including residential homes and flats, should
formulate a suitable fire escape plan so that every occupant in the building can
promptly and safely evacuate the premises in the event of a fire or any other
emergency. In the case of Dormitories, Hostels, Hotels etc., the evacuation plans
have to be made out with extreme care as more number of occupants are involved;
The fire escape plans have to be practised periodically by the occupants in the
form of mock fire drills so that the evacuation of the occupants in the building can
be carried out promptly, smoothly and in an orderly manner avoiding panic and
confusion which can lead to accidents and injuries;
It has to be ensured that the exits and stairways of the building are always kept
clear of all obstructions or hazardous materials;
Where Residential and Non-Residential Occupancies co-exist, extreme care has to
be taken in the design and construction of the premises so as to ensure that all
essential fire and life safety requirements as per Codes are incorporated in the
building;
No dwelling unit of a Residential occupancy shall have its sole means of egress
pass through any part of non-Residential occupancy in the same building;
Interior finishes, including floor finishes in Residential occupancies, shall be of
approved classes as per relevant Codes/ standards;
Building Services, including lifts/escalators shall be of standard approved types as
per relevant Codes/Standards.
Rooms containing A/C plants, high-pressure boilers, transformers etc, having
fire and explosion hazards, shall not be located directly under or adjacent to
exits. Walls of enclosure for
such rooms shall have minimum 4 hrs. Fire
resistance.
Flammable liquids for household purposes shall be kept in tightly stopped or
sealed containers. Particular care has to be taken to avoid storage of low flash
point flammable liquids like petrol in residential accommodation.
No stove or combustion heater shall be located directly under or immediately at
the foot of stairs or otherwise so located as to block escape.
Kitchen exhaust ducts are hazardous since they convey hot and flammable gases
and vapours. All kitchen exhaust fans shall be fixed to an outside wall or to a
duct of non-combustible material, which leads directly to the outside.
All outdoor antennae shall be properly grounded and protected from lightning.
Doors leading to rooms in which flammable liquids are stored or used shall be
posted with a sign on each side of the door in 50mm high block letters stating fire door-Keep closed In addition, they must have the required fire resistance also.
Educational Buildings (Group-B)

Educational occupancy is distinguished from Assembly occupancy in that in the
former the same occupants are regularly present, and they are subject to discipline and
control;
All educational buildings of permanent nature shall be of Type I construction having
external shell and load bearing elements of 4 hrs. Fire resistance rating, while internal
/ non-load bearing walls shall have 2 hrs. fire resistance;
All educational buildings not of permanent nature, may be of Type II or Type III
construction as per IS 1642. All such semi-permanent buildings shall be restricted to
57
V Semester
ground and one upper floor only, and the floor area not exceeding 1000 m2 on each
floor;
Type IV construction, as well as temporary structures, such as
tents
or
with
thatched construction, shall not be allowed for housing educational institutions;
Basement, if constructed, should not be used for classrooms, laboratories, libraries or
for assembly halls;
Every clasroom with a capacity of 45 persons or more should have minimum two door
exits;
The occupant load of educational buildings or any individual story or section for
determining the exits required shall be not less than one person per 4m2 of net area;
There shall be at least two exits available from every floor area; All internal staircases,
lift, lobbies and corridors should be adequately ventilated and illuminated;
Emergency lighting in accordance with approved standards must be provided for all
interior stairs and corridors and normally occupied areas;
NO exit doorway shall be less than 1m. The height of door shall not be less than 2m;
The doors shall open inwardly wherever the doors lead to corridors or open on
landings leading to flight of stairs;
Any building having area more than 500 m2 on each floor, and 15 m or more in
height, shall have minimum two staircases of enclosed type;
Internal stairs shall be constructed of non-combustible materials throughout;
The width of staircases shall not be less than 1.5 m for building up to a height of 30
m;
Educational buildings above 30 m in height are not permitted;
Minimum width of treads for stairs shall not be less than 300 mm. The treads shall be
constructed and maintained properly so as to avoid slipping during use;
Maximum height of riser shall not be more than 150 mm and number shall be limited
to 15 per flight;
No living space, store or other fire risk shall open directly into the staircases;
The main staircase and external staircase shall be continuous from ground floor to the
terrace level;
No combustible material (interior finish) shall be used for decoration/wall panelling in
the staircase;
Floor indication boards shall be prominently indicated on the wall facing the staircases
near to the landing. It shall be of size not less than 0.5 x 0.5 m;
All exit marking signs shall be prominently indicated showing the way to the escape
route, and the same shall be illuminated by electric light connected to
corridor/staircase circuits along with emergency lighting, which should be designed to
come on withinone second of the failure of the normal lighting supply, and to remain
on continuous operation for a minimum duration of 1 hour and 30 minutes;
If external stairs are provided, care has to be taken to ensure that no wall opening or
window opens on to or close to an external staircase;
No combustible material of any kind shall be stored or used in any building or section
thereof;
Bare minimum quantities of flammable materials such as chloroform, ethyl alcohol,
spirit, etc shall be allowed to be handled or stored;
Doors in fire resistant walls shall be so installed that these may normally be kept in
open position, but will close automatically when required;
Corridor door openings in smoke barriers shall be not less than 1500 mm in width.
Provision shall also be made for double swing single/double leaf type doors;
58
V Semester
Any room in which volatile flammable substances are used or stored, shall be
provided with a suitably designed exhaust ventilation system. Proper care shall be
taken in providing electrical installations in such rooms, which should conform to
approved standards;
Ventilators should be provided near ceiling level for lighter than air vapours, and near
the floor for heavier than air vapours like LPG;
Fire Protection and Life Safety requirements as stipulated in National Building Code
Part 4, latest version, as well as IS 14435 1997, fire Safety in Educational InstitutionsCode of Practice should be complied with for all Educational Buildings;
Portable fire extinguishers as per scales recommended in IS 2190-1992, Code of
Practice for Selection, Installation and Maintenance of First Aid Fire Extinguishers
should be installed in all Educational Buildings;
Teachers and other staff of the Educational Institutions should be sensitised to their
responsibilities for the safety and well being of the students. They and selected Senior
Students should also be trained in the use of first aid fire fighting equipment in case of
fire emergency;
Cooking of food, where carried out in Schools, should be done at a safe place, in a
detached building, away from the main building where class rooms are located;
If gas or electricity is used for the kitchen, proper safety measures have to be exercised
in the handling of the connected equipment, and the ovens/burners should be kept at
an elevated surface compared to the cylinders;
Educational Institutions having auditorium should have fire protection and means of
exit arrangements as required for similar capacity Assembly occupancies;
Laboratories in the Educational Institutions shall comply with all the fire safety
measures as stipulated in relevant standards, like IS 4209-1987, code of Safety for
Chemical Laboratories;
Computer Rooms, where provided in Educational Buildings should have the fire
protection arrangements as prescribed in IS-12456-1988, code of Practice for fire
protection of electronic data processing installations;
Educational Buildings having height 15m or more should comply with fire protection
and life safety norms for high rise buildings as prescribed in NBC Part 4;
Emergency Plan should be made by all Educational Institutions, and evacuation drills
should be organised at regular intervals, which should be not less than once a quarter;
Along with the evacuation drills, it will be desirable to organise short duration special
training programmes on any safety subject, so that the students from their very young
age will be suitably trained in inculcating safety habits;
Fire Prevention/Fire Safety Measures in Health Care Facilities

Potential fire and explosion hazards associated with medical gas piping systems shall
be taken into account in the design,installation, testing, operation and maintenance of
these systems;
All stipulated safety precautions should be observed in the storage and handling of
various types of gas cylinders which are usually found in such occupancies;
Similarly, all necessary precautions should be observed in the storage and handling of
bulk cryogenic liquid systems (generally liquid oxygen);
Specific precautions are to be taken to protect oxygen cylinders, containers and
associated equipment from abnormal mechanical shock and heat;
Full cylinders shall be stored/kept segregated from empty cylinders;
59
V Semester
The floors of operation rooms, anaesthetising locations and such other rooms/locations
and contiguous areas where hazardous gases/vapours are likely to be present should
have conductive floors to equalise/dissipate possible static charges.
A
resistance
not
exceeding
50
mega
ohms
is
generally
sufficient to prevent accumulation of dangerous electrical charges. Personnel entering
such hazardous areas shall wear shoes having soles and heels of conductive rubber;
As a general guidance, the under mentioned anaesthetic agents are considered
flammable during conditions of clinical use: Cyclopropane, Ethylene, Ethyl Ether,
Divinyl Ether, Ethyl Chloride etc;
The following anaesthetic agents are considered non-flammable during conditions of
clinical use: Chloroform, Nitrous Oxide, Halothane, Trichloroethylene,
Methoxyfluorane, Enfluorane;
Wherever clinical procedures are performed like operation rooms, delivery rooms etc.,
special mechanical ventilation arrangements are required. It will be desirable to
maintain slight positive pressure in such areas to prevent infiltration of contaminated
air into such sensitive areas;
While
plastic
containers
are
preferred
to
glass
containers
to
avoid breakage problems, care has to be exercised in the choice of plastic containers in
their compatibility with the liquid to be contained;
The relevant pollution control rules regarding the safe disposal of hospital wastes,
which may contain various hazardous materials, have to be scrupulously complied
with(Bio-medical Waste (Management and Handling) Rules, 1998 refers);
It is essential that core personnel employed in hospital facilities
like doctors, nurses, aides, wards, attendants, etc, shall be indoctrinated in all aspects
of fire prevention, fire safety, evacuation procedures, etc. in case of emergencies. To
ensure this, regular instructional programmes and fire drills should be
conducted and records maintained;
However, it has to be remembered that life safety of all the patient occupants in health
care facilities cannot be adequately assured by evacuation procedures alone. It is,
therefore, necessary that the fire protection measures incorporated and
maintained for such occupancies should be of the highest standards so as to ensure
maximum life safety opportunities for the occupants.
Assembly Buildings (Group-D)

Mixed Occupancies are predominantly life hazard occupancies;
Places of assembly in buildings of other occupancy, shall be so located, separated or
protected as to avoid any undue danger to the occupants of the place of assembly from
a fire originating in the other occupancy or smoke there from;
Canteens in auditoriums pose substantial fire and life safety hazards, and are not
recommended to be located in the basements. In any case, they must be sprinklered;
All rooms or areas used for storage of any combustible materials or equipment, or for
painting, refurbishing, repair or similar purposes shall be effectively cut off from
assembly areas. They shall be located away from staircases. Besides installation of
sprinklers, it will be necessary for provision of fire barriers (fire resistant seperating
walls) also to segregate the fire hazardous areas from Assembly areas;
Rooms containing equipments subject to possible explosion shall be effectively cut off
from other parts of the building, and provided with adequate vents to the outside air;
The proscenium wall of every theatre using movable scenery or decorations shall have
exclusive of the proscenium opening, not more than two openings entering the stage,
each not to exceed 2m2 and fitted with self-closing fire resistant doors;
60
V Semester
The decoration of places of assembly shall be of non-flammable materials. Fabrics and

papers used for such purposes shall be treated with an effective flame retardant
material. Stage settings made of combustible materials shall likewise be treated with
fire retardant materials of Class 1 flame spread;
Decoration materials and stage settings of combustible nature have been the cause of
several theatre fires, which have resulted in total losses;
The curtain shall have an emergency closing device capable of causing the the curtain
to close without the use of power, and when so closed, it shall be reasonably tight
against the passage of smoke;
The stage roof of every theatre shall have a ventilator or ventilators in or above it,
operable from the stage floor by hand, and also opening by fusible links or some other
approved automatic heat/smoke actuated device, to give a free opening
equal to at least one-eighth the area of the floor of the stage;
The handling and use of gasoline, fuel oil and other flammable liquids shall not be
permitted.
Underground Shopping centres and larger Shopping Malls/Centres.
Department Stores and Super-markets contain different kinds of merchandise, which

together can constitute high fire load.
Generally, these buildings may be multi-storeyed ones, with customer movement
patterns permitting both vertical and horizontal movements. Storied buildings have
open stairs and sometimes escalators also. Their peculiar design, layout and high fire
density, along with a large number of floating customer population as well as staff, all
in combination virtually make these
premises highly vulnerable from fire and life safety point of view; It follows from the
above, as well as from the world-wide experience gained in the past through major
fires in Department stores, that a lot of careful thought and planning have to be
addressed in the design and construction of the buildings, and the fire protection and
means of exit arrangements required to be incorporated in such buildings must also be
of the highest standards. Stringent Code implementation is a must in such
occupancies;
Mixed Occupancies of this nature are quite hazardous and quite a few fire incidents
had occurred in different cities / towns in India and abroad in such premises causing
fatalities, especially in big Departmental Stores. Hazardous areas shall be segregated.
In some of the cities in India (like Surat for instance) there are huge multi-storey
(high-rise) complexes such as Textile Market, where bulk quantities of textile
materials are stored, along with retail outlets also. The high fire hazard potential in
such complexes necessarly call for high standards of fire protection also.
In the case of Underground Shopping Complexes, the hazards are much more
multifarious with more serious evacuation problems. Therefore, such complexes also
shall scrupulously comply with all the fire and life safety protection requirements as
stipulated in the Codes.
Apart from covered roof mercantile operations, mercantile units o function in
basements and sub basements levels also in our cities. These below grade shop
complexes are quite fire hazardous and warrant due fire protection measures, like
mandatory sprinkler protection.
Apart from what has already been stated, all Building Codes should address the
problems relating to covered mall shopping centres also, particularly the life safety
concerns.
61
V Semester
Occupancies where goods of a highly hazardous nature are predominant shall be

considered under Hazardous buildings.
Industrial Buildings (Group G)
Subdivisions: Buildings under this Group are subdivided according to hazard

categories:
Subdivision G-1: Buildings used for low hazard industries in which the contents are of
low combustibility;
Subdivision G-2: Buildings used for moderate hazard industries in which there are
possibilities of fires which may burn with moderate rapidity, and may give off large
volumes of smoke;
Subdivision G-3: Buildings used for housing high hazard industries,
which are liable to give rise to fires which will burn with extreme
rapidity, and from which poisonous fumes or explosions are also likely.
Guidance with regard to the classification of Industrial Buildings into low, moderate
and high hazard classes and the types of industrial buildings coming under this
subdivisions can be obtained from Annex-B to Part 4, NBC;
In case of mixed occupancies of G-1, G-2, and G-3 classes of industries in one
building, where no partition walls are provided between the various classes of
occupancies, the entire building will have to be considered as a G-3 premises, and the
fire protection requirements which are commensurate with high hazard class industry
will have to be provided.
General Global statistics bear out the fact that fires and explosions in industrial and
manufacturing facilities, which come under this Group of Occupancies, account for
the major portion of direct material losses as well as indirect losses (such as
production losses) in a country. In the matter of loss of lives also this Occupancy
Group is one among the front ranking Groups like Assembly. The large number of
such occupancies which abound in urban and rural areas in the country, as well as the
innumerable types of hazardous materials handled and processed in these promises,
and human factors are generally responsible for such heavy losses;
The hazards involved in industrial occupancies vary greatly and, therefore, an
integrated approach has to be followed in the matter of provision of adequate fire and
life safety requirements for such premises;
Factors to be considered for evaluation of life safety risks are materials used for
interior finish, rate of fire spread, burn rate, and evaluation of toxic fumes, potential
ignition sources, fire load and smoke generation. Property protection follows
employees evacuation;
Industrial occupancies which come under the purview of Industrial legislation of the
Central / State Government, for starting, siting, operating etc. of the industry, have to
comply with the relevant provisions of the same, apart from complying with the
requirements specified in relevant Parts of NBC as well as local Codes/Byelaws/Regulations regarding design, and construction of the buildings and for
incorporation of the fire and life safety requirements in the buildings;
Hazardous, pollution-prone etc. industries, as designated by the authorised legislation,
are required to formulate and submit their On-site and Off-site Emergency Plans to the
concerned authorities on specified time schedules. The details of these requirements,
including the details of information to be furnished on various documents/forms (to be
submitted to appropriate authorities) like Safety Report, Safety Data Sheet, On-site
Emergency Plan, Off-site Emergency Plan etc., are given in various Schedules under
62
V Semester
the Manufacture, Storage and Import of Hazardous Chemicals Rules 1989, issued by
Govt. of India.
Whenever flammable vapours/ gases are present within their flammable limits, the
slightest spark created by the operation of electrical equipment like switches or spark
producing tools (friction sparks) can give rise to fire or explosion. While safety from
electrical sparks can be achieved by safe electrical equipment/apparatus as
already mentioned, spark from tools can be avoided by use of non-sparking tools.
If Petroleum liquids are stored or handled at temperatures at or above their flash point,
they should be treated with extreme caution (as for class-1 flammable liquids).
Hazardous area normally covers an area extending upto 15m from equipment
handling
flammable/combustible
liquids,
or
30m
from
equipment
handling flammable gases;
In appropriate cases, clearance from the Chief Controller of Explosives (Explosives
Dept.) will also be necessary;
FIRE SAFETY IN BUILDING DESIGN AND CONSTRUCTION BASIC PRINCIPLES

General
The design of any building and the type of materials used in its construction are
important factors in making the building resistant to a complete burn-out, and in
preventing the rapid spread of fire and smoke which may otherwise contribute to the
loss of lives and property.
Fire Load is the measure of the maximum heat that will be released if all the
combustibles in a fire area burned, including wall linings, wooden or combustible
partitions, coverings on floors and ceilings.
The fire resistance of a building or its structural and non-structural elements is
expressed in hours against a specified fire load which is expressed in kcal/m2, and
against a certain intensity of fire. The fire - resistance test for structural elements shall
be done in accordance with good practice.
Fire Resistance Rating is at times referred to as fire Endurance Rating also. While the
actual time is recorded in the nearest integral minutes, fire resistance ratings are given
in standard intervals. The usual fire resistance ratings for all types of structural
members, doors and windows are 15 mins., 30 mins., 45 mins., 1hr., 11/2 hrs., 2 hrs.,
3 hrs., and 4 hrs.
The fire resistance of an element is the time in minutes from the start of the test until failure
occurs under any one of the criteria set out below:
(a) Resistance to collapse (stability)
(b) Resistance to penetration of flame (integrity)]
(c) Resistance to temp. rise on unexposed face (insulation)
Types of construction
According
to
fire
categories, namely,
Type 1 construction,
Type 2 construction,
Type 3 construction and
Type 4 construction.
resistance,
buildings
shall
be
classified
into
four
The fire resistance ratings for various types of construction for structural and
non-structural members shall be as given in standard Tables in NBC Part-4 IS:1809-
63
V Semester
1979 deals with methods of testing structural members of different material for their
fire safety. For fire resistance ratings required for various structural and non-structural
members to be used for different classes of construction, please refer to standard
Tables in NBC. Part-4.
The fire resistance is the time duration the member or assembly can withstand the fire
test without failure. The usual fire resistance ratings for structural assemblies,
members, doors tc. are: 1/2 hr., 1hr., 2 hrs., 3hrs. & 4 hrs. A 1hr. rating indicates that
the assembly/ member can ithstand the standard test for minimum 1 hr. without
failure by any one of the failure criteria listed in the fire test protocol i.e. stability.
Integrity and Insulation. Perfect party walls have minimum fire resistance of 4 hrs.
Combustible materials on the other side of the fire seperating wall can be segregated
before the wall collapses, and the fire enters the segregated compartment. This
reduces the overall damage and material losses.
Fire damage assessment / post fire structural safety assessment of various structural
elements of the building and adequacy of the structural repairs can be done using the
fire resistance ratings mentioned in the tables. Uses of these Tables is to assess the
stability of building damaged by fire; before declaring a building damaged by fire
which has undergone repairs, as safe For buildings 15 m in height or above, non
combustible materials should be used for construction and the internal walls of
staircase enclosures should be of brick work or reinforced concrete or any other
material of construction with minimum of 2h rating. The walls for the chimney shall
be of Type 1 and Type 2 construction depending on whether the gas temperature is
above 200 c or less.
Steel Construction
Bare steel members if provided would collapse under fire conditions much earlier than other
structural elements like walls, slabs etc. All supporting structural beams and columns of steel
should therefore be enclosed in 5 cms (2 in) thick concrete or equivalent fire proofing
material. Encasement of structural steel members has been a very common and satisfactory
method of insulating steel to increase its fire resistance. Encasement of structural steel
members can be done utilizing concrete, lath and plaster, gypsum board or sprayed mineral
fibres Load bearing steel beams and columns shall be protected against failure / collapse of
structure in case of fire. This could be achieved by use of appropriate methodology using
suitable fire resistance rated materials.
Maximum Height
Every building shall be restricted in its height above the ground level and the number of
storeys, depending upon its occupancy and the type of construction. The maximum
permissible height for any combination of occupancy and types of construction should be
necessarily be related to the width of street fronting the building, or floor area ratios and the
local fire fighting facilities available.
Buildings above 15m. : Not permitted for occuppancies A1, A2, G3, Groups H & J
Buildings above 30 m: not permitted for Groups B, C, D & F
Buildings above 18 m: Not permitted for G-1 & G-2 Occupancies. Buildings above 60 m:
Not permitted for A3 & A4 Occupancies. No height restrictions for buildings in A5, A6 &
group E
Note: Classification of Occupancies and Groups under them are as given in NBC Part-4.
Open Spaces
The open spaces around or inside a building shall conform to the requirements of Part 3,
NBC, Development Control Rules and General Building Requirements.
64
V Semester
For high rise buildings, the following additional provisions of means of access to the
building shall be ensured:
The width of the main street on which the building abuts shall not be less than 12 m
and one end of this street shall join another street not less than 12 m in width;
The road shall not terminate ina dead end ; except in the case of residential building,
up to a height of 30 m.
The compulsory open spaces around the building shall not be used for parking; and
Adequate passageway and clearances required for fire fighting vehicles to enter the
premises shall be provided at the main entrance; the width of such entrance shal lbe
not less than 4.5m. If an arch or covered gate is constructed, it shall have a clear headroom of not less than 5m.
The approach to the building and open spaces on all its sides upto 6m width and the
same all be of hard surface capable of taking the mass of fire engine weighing upto 45
tonnes. The said open space shall be kept free of obstructions and shall be motor able
The main entrance to the plot shall be of adequate width to allow easy access to the
fire engine and in no case shall it measure less than 6 m. If the main entrance at the
boundary wall is built over, the minimum clearance shall be 4.5m. Turning radium of
9m. Shall be provided for fire tender movement. If entrance gate is of lesser
dimension, fire engine with their ladders cannot negotiate them in case of emergency.
Mixed Occupancy
When any building is used for more than one type of occupancy in so far as fire safety
is concerned, it shall conform to the requirements for the occupancies of higher
hazard. Unless the high hazard area is separated by separating walls of 4th rating, the
occupancies shall not be treaded individually.
A typical example of a mixed occupancy is a covered mall building, which is a single
building enclosing a number of tenants and occupancies such as mercantile units,
restaurants, entertainments and amusement facilities, offices, clinical laboratories etc.
This can be a high rise building also.
In many of our cities, the number and variety of such mixed or multiple occupancies
are increasing fast. A recent development is the growth of so-called multiplexes,
which are in fact one multi-level building complex, having multiple occupancies like
cinema theatre, shopping complex, hotel/restaurants, and may be a few other ancillary
occupancies. The unusually high fire and life hazards in such multiplexes can well be
imagined. Consequently, the design and construction of the building, as well as the
fire protection and life safety measures incorporated in the building.
Exposure Protection
Any neighbouring buildings, particularly those of more than one storey, will be
subject to some degree of exposure hazard either from flying brands or radiation, or
both, as a result.
Normally, window and ventilator openings in the higher building are
protected by 6.25 mm (1/4 in) thick wired glasses in steel frames
Fire seals
This is a seal provided to close the opening or imperfection of fit or design between
elements or components to eliminate the possibility of fire and smoke passing through
65
V Semester
them. These fire stops fill the openings around penetrating items such as cable trays,
conduits, ducts, pipes etc. through the wall or floor openings.
Provision of non- combustible sleeking is also resorted to as an alternative to
proprietary seals for penetration of pipes. Fire stopping materials include:
l cement mortar
l gypsum-based plaster
l cement or gypsum vermiculite/perlite mixes
l glass fibre, crushed rock, blast furnace slag, or ceramic based
products (with or
without resin binders), and +. intumescent mastics
Not all of them will be suitable in every situation.
Openings in separating Walls and Floors.
A doorway or opening in a separating wall on any floor shall be limited to 5.6 m2 in
area with a maximum height/width of 2.75 m. Every wall opening shall be protected
with fire-resisting doors having fire rating of not less than 2 h in accordance with
accepted standards.
Opening in walls or floors which are necessary to be provided to allow passages of all
building services like cables, electrical wirings, telephone cables, plumbing pipes etc
hall be protected by enclosure in the form of ducts/ shafts having a fire resistance of
not less than 2 h. The inspection door of all service shafts except electrical shafts shall
have fire resistance of not less than 1 h. For electrical shafts they shall have fire
resistance of not less than 2 hours (Bus-bar system shall be desirable.) Medium and
low voltage wiring running in shafts/ducts shall either be armoured type or run
through metal conduits/pipes. Further, the space between the conduits and the walls/
slabs shall be filled in by a filler material having fire resistance rating of not than one
hour.
In case the opening size exceeds 5.6m2, fire resisting doors designed to protect them
need to be adequately strengthened. Normally doors with larger panel areas, tend to
buckle in fire conditions.
Concealed spaces
Such spaces within a building such as space between ceiling and false ceiling, horizontal and
vertical ducts, etc, tend to act as flues/ tunnels during a fire. Provision should, therefore, be
made to provide fire stopping within such spaces.
Vertical Opening
In a building fire vertical openings like stairs and lift shafts acts as flues or chimneys
conveying flames, hot gases and smoke vertically and serve as channels for easy
spread to the upper levels. Hence, the need for enclosure or protection of such vertical
shafts to prevenet fire spread to other areas and floors served by them.
Door openings at every floor level leading to staircases or lifts/lift lobbies should be
protected by single fire doors for safe evacuation of occupants in case of fire
emergency.
Every vertical opening between the floors of a building shall be suitably enclosed or
protected, as necessary, to provide the following :
Reasonable safety to the occupants while using the means of egress by preventing
spread of fire, smoke, or fumes through vertical openings from floor to floor to allow
occupants to complete their use of the means of egress. Further it shall be ensured to
provide a clear height of 2100 mm in the passage/ escape path of the occupants.
66
V Semester
Compartmentation
Helps in limitation to the damage of building and its contents :
Fires on one or two floors, or when spread over a large floor area, are extremely
difficult to control and extinguish by manual fire fighting methods. Building designs
with unprotected vertical openings, like open stairwells, large floor areas without
separation walls, A/c duct work without dampers etc. provide avenues for fire spread
vertically as well as sideways. Fire fighting operations become difficult and
prolonged as the fire propagation continues upwards as well as horizontally.
Judicious compartmentation of a building is considered as a primary method among
passive fire protection measures. It helps to segregate a space that has a higher fire or
life hazard than the surrounding area;
Limit the size of the fire, thereby limiting the smoke generation and also facilitate fire
suppression;
To protect high value or critical areas or operations from a fire in the surrounding area
(Eg: Computer rooms, control rooms, safe vaults, records room etc.)
Service Ducts/Shafts.
Service ducts and shafts shall be enclosed by waiis of 2 h and doors of 2 h, fire rating.
All such ducts/shafts shall be property sealed and fire stopped at all floor levels.
A vent opening at the top of the service shaft shall be provided having between onefourth and one-half of the area of the shaft. Natural venting of service shafts helps in
smoke disposal thus making fire fighting and rescue operations easier.
Refuse chutes which are used for collection and disposal of the waste from the
various floors constitute a potential source of fire due to accumulation of combustible
waste. Provision of fire resistant doors at every floor level helps prevention of fire
spread from floor to floor. Refuse chutes shall have openings at least 1 m above roof
level forventing purpose Inspection panels and doors shall be tight fitting with 2 hours
fire resistance.
Drains
Many a time, damage caused by water used in fire fighting has proved costlier than the fire
damage itself, possibly because of the nature of the materials involved. It is therefore
important that they have proper drainage arrangements in all the areas of the building.
Similarly, it is equally important to have non combustible drain pipes for obvious reasons.
The drain pipes should be provided on the external wall for drainage of water from all floors.
Fire stop or enclosure of openings in external walls
Total areas of windows and door openings in external walls of a building should not
exceed 75% of wall area for stability of structure and for reducing exposure hazards
to adjoining property.
Certain aspects, applicable to particular occupancies only, which may affect the
spread of fumes and thus the safe evacuation of the building in case of fire are :
Service equipment and storage facilities in buildings other than storage buildings;
Residence or shop, when partly used as godown assumes altogether different
proportion from fire safety point of view and needs to be dealt with differently.
Interior finish and decoration;
67
V Semester
Interior finish materials like wall panelling, wooden floorings, or false ceilings play
equally destructive role in aggravating loss of human lives and property in case of
fire, and hence these must conform to class-1 flame spread characteristics. Generation
of large volumes of smoke and toxic gases seriously affect the life safety of the
occupants.
The use of combustible surface finishes on walls (including facade of the building)
and ceilings affects the safety of occupants of a building. Such finishes tend to spread
the fire even though the structural elements may be adequately fire resistant, serious
danger to life may result .It is therefore essential to take adequate precautions to
minimize spread of flame on such walls, facade of building and ceiling surfaces.
The finishing materials used for various surfaces and decor shall be such that it shall
not generate toxic smoke/fumes.
Interior finishes or linings, also provide a large unbroken surface over which flame
spreads. The flame from the interior finish may release sufficient thermal energy for
the formation of hot gas layer which may become thick, attaining a temperature
around 600oC, and starts descending from the top. At this stage, all the combustible
contents as well as the furnishings in the room may simultaneously get ignited,
which is known as flash-over or full fire involvement. This can happen
even in a few minutes.
Use of combustible interior finishes (interior linings) such as low density fibre board
ceilings, wood panelling textile wall coverings, vinyl wall coverings, cellular
polyurethane and polystyrene materials, and combustible floor coverings, had resulted
in several heavy death toll fires in the past.
Interior finish affects the fire in four ways: (i) It affects the rate of heat build-up to a
flash-over condition (ii) It contributes to flame spread over the surface, (iii) It adds
to the intensity of fire by contributing additional fuel, and (iv) It produces toxic gases
and smoke that adds to life hazard and property damage. The fourth factor is the most
important since it affects occupant life safety seriously.
The susceptibility to fire of various types of wall surfaces is determined in terms of
the rate of spread of flame. Based on the rate of spread of flame, surfacing material
shall be considered as divided into four classes as follows.
Class 1 surfaces of very low flame spread Class 2 Surfaces of low flame spread.
Class 3 Surfaces of medium flame spread Class 4 Surfaces of rapid flame spread
Class 1 may be used in any situation.
Class 2 may be used in any situation, except on walls, facade of the building, staircase
and corridors.
Class 3 may be used only in living rooms and bed rooms (but not in rooms on the
roof) and only as a lining to solid walls and partitions; not on staircases or corridors
or facade of the building.
Note- Panelling (lining) shall be permitted in a limited area. It shall not be permitted
in a vestibule.
Materials of class-4 flame spread are the worst ones for use in buildings, and hence
their use is to be strictly prohibited unless they are given proper fire retardant
treatment. This is equally true for false ceilings and false floors also.
Class 4 materials shall not be used in kitchens, corridors and staircases. Some
materials contain bitumen and, in addition to risk from spread of fire, emit dense
smoke on burning. Such materials shall be excluded from use under these conditions
and shall also not be used for construction of ceiling where the plenum is used in
68
V Semester
return air in air-conditioned buildings Class 4 materials shall not be used in kitchens,
corridors and staircases.
When frames, walls, partitions or floors are lined with combustible materials, the
surfaces on both sides of the materials shall conform to the appropriate class.
Wired Glass
The wired glass shall be of minimum half hour fire resistance rating.
Sashes and Frames- The Sashes or Frames or both shall be entirely
of iron or other suitable metal such as stainless steel, securely bolted
or keypad into the wall, except in case of panels in internal doors.
Setting of Glass- The panels of glass shall be set in rebates or grooves not less than
6.0 mm in width or depth, with due allowance for expansion, and shall be secured by
hard metal fastenings to the sashes or frames independently of any cement or putty
used for weather proofing purposes.
If the supporting frame work to hold wired glasses is of combustible nature, eg. of
wood, the support would be lost in case of a fire .at a very early stage, and the wired
glasses would fall off defeating the very purpose for which they are provided.
If the opening protected is more than 5m2 the glass loses its fire resisting property. It
will give way soon, nullifying the very purpose for which it is installed.
Skylights
Wired glass for skylights or monitor lights shall comply with the following
requirements:
Wired Glass for skylights or Monitor Lights- The wired glass for
skylights or monitor lights shall be of minimum half hour fire resistance
rating.
Frames and Glazing - The frames shall be continuous and divided
by bars spaced at not more than 700 mm centers. The frames and bars shall be of iron
or other hard material and supported on the curb either of metal or of wood covered
with sheet metal. The toughened glass shall be secured by hard metal fastenings to the
frame and bars independently of any lead, cement or putty used for weather-proofing
purposes.
Materials used in louvers wherever provided shall be of minimum half hour fire
resistance rating.
Glasses used in facade of high rise buildings
These shall have minimum of 1 hr fire resistance. If this is not observed, glasses will
shatter and fly off in case of a fire, injuring pedestrians passing by on the surrounding
streets.
HIGH RISE BUILDINGS-15 M IN HEIGHT OR ABOVE.
The definition of high rise building, viz., 15m in height or above, should be read in
conjunction with the definition for Building Height
Some of the outstanding problems which had been experienced by the fire services during
fire fighting operations in high rise buildings are:
External fire fighting and rescue difficult; l Evacuation prolonged/difficult;
Rescue and fire fighting mainly from within the building;
Being fully air-conditioned, traps heat and smoke during fires, l Danger of flash vers;
Smoke venting problems;
Large number of occupants. Incase of fire, human behaviour unpredictable;
Special care for physically handicapped; Special care to keep escape routes clear;
69
V Semester
Hazards from increasing use of plastic materials, interior finish decoration;

Multi occupancy hazards, high fire loads; l Inadequate water supplies;
Indequatc/unserviceable fire protection systems and equipment.
Basements
Occupancies which are prohibited from being located in basements are either of high
risk category, or Assembly occupancy, making their evacuation in case of fire
difficult due to smoke logging and also possible impediments to fire fighting
operations.
Departmental stores, shops, storage of flammable oils and gases, banquet hall,
auditorium, discotheque, restaurants etc, shall not be permitted in basements.
Basement shall not be permitted below the ward block of a hospital/ nursing home
unless it is fully sprinklered.
A system of air inlets shall be provided at basement floor level and smoke outlets at
basement ceiling level. The staircase of basements situated at the periphery of the
basement to be entered at ground level only from the open air. It shall communicate
with basement through a lobby provided with fire resisting self closing doors of one
hour resistance. If the travel distance exceeds the desired level, additional staircases
shall be provided at proper places.
Each basement and basement compartment shall have separate smoke outlet duct or
ducts.
Mechanical extractors for smoke venting system from lower basement levels shall
also be provided. It shall also have an arrangement to start it manually. Mechanical
extractors shall be designed to permit 30 air changes per hour in case of fire
or distress call;
In ventilating ducts crossing the transformer area or electrical switchboard, fire
dampers shall be provided. All floors shall be compartmented with area not exceeding
750 m2 by a separation wall with 2 h fire rating.
High rise buildings shall be provided with lightning protection.
Fire Control Room
For all buildings 15m in height and above, there shall be a control room on the entrance floor
of the building with communication system (suitable public address system) to all floors and
facilities for receiving the message from different floors. Details of all floor plans along with
the details of fire fighting equipment and installations shall be displayed in the fire control
room. The fire control room shall also have facilities to detect the fire on any floor through
indicator board connection to fire detection and alarm systems on all floors. The fire staff in
charge of the fire control room shall be responsible for maintenance of the various services
and the fire fighting equipment It should have an area of 16m2 to 20m2, preferably on
ground floor; The Control and Indicating Equipment(Control Panel of the AFA system),
power supply units and the fire protection ancillary panels(for automatic sprinkler system or
other fixed fire protection system etc.) should be installed in the room; It should have
intercom and direct telephone facilities. Where possible, a direct hot line to local fire brigade
should be provided; It should have a mimic panel of the premises protected and details of all
the fire protection systems installed; The room should be air-conditioned and should have
emergency lighting system.
MEANS OF ESCAPE /EGRESS / EXIT
70
V Semester
Nature of Fire in Buildings

Every building shall be so constructed, equipped, maintained and operated as to avoid undue
danger to life and safety of the occupants from fire, smoke, fumes or panic during the survival
time available for escape.
Growth and Spread of Fire and Smoke
The fire growth stage is the most important to life safety. It is in this stage that the space or
room of fire origin eventually becomes uninhabitable, making human survival difficult. It is
for this reason that fire detection and action to protect or rescue the occupants have to be
speedily initiated during this stage itself. Materials burning near a wall will have a faster rate
of fire growth than materials burning in the centre of the room. This is because of the reradiation from the heated walls to back to the burning fuel. When a fire spreads across the
ceiling heat build up throughout the room becomes faster, eventually leading to flashover.
Occupants survivability becomes impossible at this point. The spread of smoke and fire to
the other parts of the building exposes the occupants inthese areas also to survival problems.
Building features such as vertical shafts, ducts, plenums, void spaces and even windows can
all contribute to spread of fire and smoke. Large complex structures such as multi-storeyed
shopping malls, atrium buildings etc. require thorough planning and design for smoke control
measures.
Means of Escape Requirements
Safe exit for the occupants in a building on fire requires a safe path of escape from the
fire in the shortest possible time. This path, which should be as short as possible, and
easily negotiable, should be ready for use in case of emergency
For ensuring the life safety of occupants from a fire, the following are the
requirements in general:
Provision of adequate No. of properly designed, unobstructed means of exit of
adequate capacity which are available at all times;
Availability of alternative means of exit for use, if the already chosen one is
inaccessible due to fire, heat, smoke and toxic gases;
Protection of the entire rescue path against fire, heat, smoke and toxic gases during the
egress time based on occupant load, travel distance and exit capacity;
Adoption of compartmentation and other adequate passive fire protection measures to
ensure the safe egress/evacuation of the occupants in case of fire;
Provision of adequate and reliable fire alarm system in the building to alert the
occupants;
Provision of refuge areas where total evacuation of occupants is not contemplated;
Adequate illumination and marking of the means of egress;
Formulation organisation and practice of effective evacuation drill procedures.
Design Considerations of Means of Exit
Designing a means of egress involves more than numbers, flow rates and densities.
Good exits facilitate everyone to leave the fire area in the shortest possible time by
prompt and efficient use of them. If the fire is discovered promptly and occupants
alerted also equally promptly, early evacuation can be done. However, evacuation
times are directly related to the fire hazard; higher the hazard, shorter the exit time.
Provision of two separate means of exits for every floor including basements is a
fundamental requirement, except in very few deserving cases.
71
V Semester
Sufficient number of unobstructed exits of adequate capacity and properly designed,

with easy access;
Safeguarding of exits against fire and smoke during the length of time they are
designed for use;
Availability of alternate exit and means of access to it, in case one exit is unusable due
to fire;
Sub division of areas to provide sufficient areas of refuge for occupants where
evacuation may be delayed;
Adequate protection of vertical openings to minimize hazards from fire and smoke;
Efficient fire alarm systems for alerting occupants and others concerned in case of fire;
Adequate lighting of exits and rescue paths;
Adequate exit indication signs to help evacuation;
Ensuring trouble free evacuation through the escape route by safeguarding of
equipment and vulnerable areas from fire and smoke hazards;
Fully rehearsed exit drill procedures to ensure orderly and smooth exit;
Institution of panic control measures;
Control fire hazards from interior finish material
Internal Staircases
The staircase shall be ventilated to the atmosphere at each landing with a vent at the
top; the vent opening shall be of 0.5 m2 in the external wall and the top. If the
staircase cannot be ventilated, because of location or other reasons, a positive pressure
50 pa shall be maintained inside. The mechanism for pressurizing the staircase shall
operate automatically with the fire alarm. The roof of the shaft shall be 1 m above the
surrounding roof. Glazing or glass bricks if used in staircase shafts shall have fire
resistance rating of minimum 2 hours.
Venting or pressurisation of staircases provide smoke-free passage to
people being evacuated who face danger of suffocation by smoke inhalation.
All buildings, which are 15 m in height or above, and all buildings used as
educational, assembly, institutional, industrial, storage and hazardous occupancies
aving area more than 500 sq. m on each floor shall have a minimum of two staircases.
They shall be of enclosed type; at least one of them shall be on external wall of
building and shall open directly to the exterior/interior open space or to an open place
of safety. Further, the provision or otherwise of alternative staircases shall be subject
to the requirements of travel distance being complied with.
Smoke moves from an area of higher pressure to one of lower pressure. Pressure
differences may be caused by buoyancy from the fire. Every internal escape stair
should therefore be a protected stairway.
Internal Stairs shall be constructed of non-combustible materials throughout.
In case internal stairs form a part of the escape route, they have to be treated as escape
stairs and as a protected stairway to enable them fulfil their role for safe evacuation of
occupants during fire emergencies.
A staircase shall not be arranged round a lift shaft. Lift shafts tend to carry smoke and
fire upwards People escaping through stairs downwards must be safe from such smoke
and fire.
No combustible material shall be used for decoration / wall panelling in the staircase.
72
V Semester
The exit sign with arrow indicating the way to the escape route shall be provided at a
suitable height from the floor level on the wall and shall be illuminated by electric
light connected to corridor circuits.
Floor indicator boards in the staircases help people getting down the stairs to know on
which floor they are, and how far they are from the ground level where they will be
safe from the fire. This also helps in reducing psychological pressure on them whilst
being evacuated in case of a fire emergency.
No gas piping, ducting or electrical panels shall be laid in the stair way. These have
fire hazard potential.
The lobby should have not less than 4 sq.m permanent ventilation, or protected from
the ingress of smoke by a mechanical smoke control system.
Width of Staircase
Following minimum width shall be provided for staircases:
a) Residential buildings (dwellings) 1.0m
b) Residential hotel buildings 1.5 m
c) Assembly buildings like auditorium, theatres and cinemas
d) Educational buildings up to 30 m in height
1.5 m
e) Institutional buildings like hospitals
2.0 m
f) All other buildings 1.5 m
2.0m
Fire Lifts
This lift can be used even by building occupants except during fire emergencies. This
is a lift designed to have additional protection with controls to enable it to be used
under the direct control of the fire service during fires.
For fire fighting operations in high rise buildings, it will be almost impossible for fire
fighters to carry their equipments to the upper floors of a tall building without the use
of lift, which is much easier and quicker than carrying them up through stairs.
Fully automated fire lifts having minimum capacity for 8 passengers with emergency
switch on ground level shall be provided. In general, buildings 15m in height and
above shall be provided with fire lifts.
In case of fire only fireman shall operate the fire lift. In normal course, lift may be
used by other persons.
In case of fire, firemen can commandeer the lift for their exclusive use. A switch in a
glass fronted box marked Firemans Switch placed at ground level and by operation of
this switch firemen can recall the lift if it is in normal operation and utilise the lift for
their use.
Each fire lift shall be equipped with suitable intercommunication equipment for
communicating with the control room on the ground floor of the building
One fire lift per 2000 m 2 of floor area shall be provided.
Fire lift should be provided with a ceiling hatch for use in case of emergency, so that
when the car gets stuck up, it shall be easily operable.
By opening the hatch, fire brigade may be able to rescue people trapped in lifts which
have suddenly stopped in case of a fire. The lift shall be so wired that in case of power
failure, it comes down at the ground level and comes to stand-still with door open.
Automatic changeover from normal supply to generator supply is very important
because the generator room may not easily be accessible in case of a severe fire.
73
V Semester
The speed of the fire lift shall be such that it can reach the top floor from ground level
within one minute
External Stairs
It is desirable to provide external staircases in case of high-rise buildings. External

stairs, when provided shall comply with the following:
The flights and landings of an external escape stair should be of fire resisting
construction;
All external stairs shall be directly connected to the ground;
No wall opening or window opens on to or close to an external stairs. Flames can leap
out of such doors and windows in external walls of affected building hampering
evacuation and fire fighting operations.
The route to the external stairs shall be free of obstructions at all time.
Horizontal Exits:
(a) Horizontal exits are particularly useful during fire emergencies in hospitals (health care
occupancies) for evacuation of bedridden patients or patients suffering from immobility.
Adjoining compartments into which horizontal evacuation is done should also have a floor
area sufficient to accommodate evacuees from the adjoining compartment.
(b) Sometimes, progressive horizontal evacuation may also have to be adopted depending on
the emergency situation and the facilities available.
Illumination of means of exit
Staircase and corridor lights shall conform to the following.
(a) The staircase and corridor lighting shall be on separate circuits and shall be independently
connected so that it could be operated by one switch installation on the ground floor easily
accessible to fire fighting staff at any time irrespective of the position of the individual control
of the light points, if any. It should be miniature circuit breaker type of switch so as to avoid
replacement of fuse in case of crises
(b) Staircase and corridor lighting shall also be connected to alternative supply. The
alternative source of supply may be provided by battery continuously trickle charged from
the electric mains.
One control switch at the ground level will help in putting on emergency lights for prompt
illumination of escape routes. Miniature circuit breakers avoid frequent fuse replacement.
Refuge Areas
In addition to the requirements set out, multi-storey buildings must be provided with
fire enclosures to enable refuge areas to be provided in approved staircase enclosures.
Wherever practicable refuge areas these should be designed in accordance standards.
Refuge areas in new and refurbished buildings must be equipped with a
communications system approved, that will enable any disabled person in the refuge
to communicate with the Security Services control room.
All refuges must be provided with appropriate signage.
Designers should consult the Fire Safety Adviser about the numbers and locations of
refuges to be provided. In some circumstances it may be appropriate to restrict refuges
to one staircase, in order avoid confusion for building evacuation officers (and the
emergency services attending an incident.
Refuge areas must be provided in Halls where accommodation for disabled persons is
provided above ground floor level. They must also be provided in Halls where
74
V Semester
disabled people can access the upper floors by means of a lift, unless another means of
providing 30 minute protection from the effects of fire can be provided.
For buildings more than 24m in height, refuge area of 15 sq.m or an area equivalent to
0.3 sq.m per person to accommodate the occupants of two consecutive floors,
whichever is higher, shall be provided as under.
For floors above 24 mt and up to 39 m - One refuge area on the floor immediately
above 24 m.
For floors above 39 m- One refuge area on the floor immediately above 39 m and so
on after every 15 m. Refuge area provided in excess of the requirements shall be
counted towards FAR.
The refuge area shall be provided on the periphery of the floor and
open to air, at-least on one side, protected with suitable railings.
Visual and hearing impairment visual and vibrating fire alarm systems
Fire alarm systems must incorporate a means of alerting deaf and blind persons to the
alarm, where such people might be expected to be present and without the support of
able-bodied persons who can alert them to the alarm. This will apply in buildings
accessible to the general public, where the
In other buildings it may be sufficient for the system as built to be capable of a future
upgrade, either across the system or in discrete areas such a single offices, if there is
no immediate need for such a system at the time of construction/refurbishment.
Doors
Designers should consider the direction that doors open with respect to the direction of
escape for disabled people. The use of electromagnetic hold open devices linked to the
fire alarm system can assist disabled people in normal usage of the building, but their
automatic release in a fire situation can form a barrier for disabled people who may be
unable to open the door to evacuate. The Fire Safety Adviser must therefore be
consulted on the use of such devices. Designers should also specify door furniture that
will make it easier for disabled people to open doors without assistance.
Ramps
Ramps shall comply with all the applicable requirements of stairways regarding
enclosure capacity and limiting dimensions.
The slope of a ramp shall not exceed 1 in 10. Ramps with slopes greater than those
recommended render them difficult to be used, particularly by physically handicapped
elderly people and children, and hence this requirement.
Ramps in means of egress are required to be enclosed or protected. Further, they must have
landings located at the top, at the bottom and at doors opening into the ramp
75
V Semester
UNIT V
FIRE FIGHTING EQUIPMENT
General
(a) All fires start small, and if immediately tackled with proper type and amount of
extinguishing medium, can be easily extinguished.
(b) In the earlier days, in the absence of any other present day equipment, portable buckets
filled with water and sand were used for tackling incipient fires - water buckets for
tackling ordinary fires, and sand buckets for oil fires. Even now, in rural areas, as well as
railway and other remotely located public premises, water and sand buckets could be seen
distributed for tackling small fires.
(c) Portable fire extinguishers are specially designed for the purpose of tackling fires in their
incipient stage, and they are now very commonly used for the same purpose. In fact, they are
now considered as the first line of defence in fire fighting operations, and has assumed the
front position among the fire protection measures for all types of occupancies as well as fire
risks.
(d) The term portable when applied to fire extinguishers, implies that they can be carried
manually to any desired fire scene and operated by one person. In some of the foreign
standards, including European standards, the maximum weight of portable extinguishers has
been specified as 23 kg.
(e) Apart from portable extinguishers, which are of comparatively smaller size, there are
bigger size of extinguishers which are trolley-mounted and could be pulled to the desired spot.
These bigger sizes of extinguishers also come under the broad term of first aid fire fighting
equipment.
Extinguishing Agent
Water
Foam
Carbon dioxide
Dry Chemical
Wet chemical
Special Purpose
Principle Use
wood and paper fires - not electrical
flammable liquid fires - not electrical
electrical fires
flammable liquids and electrical fires
fat fires - not electrical
various (eg metal fires)
Types of Extinguishers:
(a) Portable fire extinguishers can be divided into 5 categories according to the extinguishing
agent they contain:
(i) Water type extinguishers;
(ii) Foam extinguishers;
(iii)Dry powder extinguishers;
(iv)CO2 extinguishers; and
(v) Halon / Halon alternative type extinguishers.
(b) They can also be grouped into categories according to their method of operation.
Extinguishers can be operated by the use of air or gas pressure in the upper part of the
container, which forces the extinguishing medium out through a nozzle. They can also be
operated using a cartridge containing an inert gas (nor-mally CO2) under pressure. When the
cartridge is pierced, the gas which comes out of the cartridge drives out the extinguish-ing
medium. In other types, the pressurising agent (air or inert gas) is stored inside the upper
portion of the extinguisher itself, and therefore the body of the extinguisher remains
permanently pressurised. The first one is known by the name, gas cartridge
76
V Semester
type of extinguisher, and the
stored pressure type of extinguisher.
second
one
is
known
by
the
name
(c) Water (gas cartridge) type extinguisher:

(i) In this pressure is released from a cartridge which is stored inside the body of the
extinguisher. The cartridge is pressurised with CO2 gas (to a pressure of approx. 35 bars). On
puncturing the cartridge, by striking the knob on the top, the gas is released, and on coming
out of the cartridge, it expels the water from the body of the extinguisher. The expelled water
comes out through the nozzle of the extinguisher in the form of a small jet, which can be
projected on to the fire.
(ii) The liquid capacity of the extinguisher, when filled to the specified level, is 9 litres.
(iii) The gas cartridge is screwed on to a holder which is fitted on to the cap of the
extinguisher. The maximum size of the gas cartridge is 60 g for a 9 litre extinguisher.
(iv)
On operation, the water jet should give an effective throw of not less than 6m for a
minimum period of 60 sec., and at least 95 % of water in the extinguisher should be
discharged.
(d) Water (Stored Pressure) Extinguisher:
(i) The extinguisher is filled with water and dry air pressurised
up to 10 bars. The air can be supplied by compressed air cylinders or by certain type of pump.
(ii) Operation is performed by withdrawing the safety pin,
depressing the valve lever and directing the water jet by means of the hose.
(iii) As this type of extinguisher is permanently pressurised, it can only be opened for
inspection after discharged.
(iv) The normal capacity of this extinguisher is also 9 litres.
(e) Mechanical Foam Extinguisher (9 L):
(i) The extinguisher is filled with pre-mixed foam solution (AFFF)
(ii) Foam extinguisher can either be of the stored pressure type, or gas cartridge type.
(iii)The operation of these types is similar to what has been stated under the water
extinguishers.
(iv) The figures of the two types are shown below:
77
type
V Semester
(f) Dry Powder Extinguisher:

(i) Various types of dry powder extinguishers are available in the market. Some of them are
filled with dry powders suitable for class B & C fires, and some suitable for class A B C fires.
(ii) As already stated under Extinguishing Media chapter, dry chemical powders have
excellent fire knocking down properties. However, for permanent extinguishment, more often,
their use will have to be followed with discharge of extinguishing media like foam or water.
(iii) Dry Powder Extinguisher (stored pressure type): The construction of this type of
extinguisher is similar to that of water (stored pressure type). The pressure maintained inside
the extinguisher is about 10 bars. It is normally fitted with a pressure gauge and a fan-shaped
nozzle. The throw of jet, and duration of discharge for extinguishers of different capacities are
given overleaf:
(iv) Dry Powder Extinguisher (Gas Cartridge) type: 4 sizes of extinguishers of this type are
available in the market - 1kg, 2kg, 5kg & 10 kg capacities. The sizes of the gas cartridges also
vary according to the extinguisher size. This type of extinguisher is quite common as a
requirement for various type of occupancies.
DRY CHEMICAL POWDERS
On most fires involving burning metals, the result of applying water can be
explosively disastrous, and so new methods of extinction have been evolved.
The base chemical of most dry chemical powders is sodium bicarbonate. This, with
the addition of a metallic serrate as a waterproofing agent, is widely used as an
extinguish ant, not only importable extinguishers, but also for general application in
large quantities. Apart from stearates, other additives like silicones are also used to
decrease the bulk density, and to reduce packing in the cylinder.
Dry chemical is expelled from containers by gas pressure and, by means of specially
designed nozzles, and is directed at the fire in a concentrated cloud. This cloud also
screens the operator from the flames, and enables a relatively close attack to be made.
Dry chemical powder can also be supplied in polythene bags for metal fires, as it is
more effective to bury the fire under a pile of bags which melt and allow the contents
to smother the fire.
78
V Semester
Special powders have been developed for some metal fires, especially for the
radioactive metals such as uranium and plutonium. These are known as the ternary
eutectic chloride group, (Chlorides of Sodium) (Na), Potassium (K) and Barium (Ba)
in the proportions of 20%, 29% and 51% respectively for the three chlorides). These
powders contain an ingredient which melts, then flows a little and forms a crust over
the burning metal, effectively sealing it from the surrounding atmosphere and isolating
the fire. Dry chemical powders are also tested for their compatibility with foam, as it
was discovered that the early powders tended to break down foam, and the two should
complement each other on fires where foam is the standard extinguishant.
These powders which are 10 to 75 microns in size are projected on the fire by an inert
gas (usually CO2 or N).
(g) CO2 Extinguisher:

The main features of this extinguisher are:
It consists basically of a high pressure cylinder;
The CO2 is retained mostly in a liquid condition at about 51 bars pressure (at a
temperature of 15oC)
Different capacities are available, viz., 2kg, 3kg and 4.5 kg (portable types). Trolley
mounted types are of capacities 6.5kg, 9kg and 22.5kg.
Hazards of CO2 extinguishers:
Although not itself toxic, CO2 will not support life when used in large quantities to
extinguish a fire.
If used in an unventilated area, it dilutes the oxygen supply and makes human survival
difficult.
A thick cloud of CO2 gas may cause disorientation
(vi) Halon Extinguishers:
In India Halon 1211 extinguishers are still available although they are- getting phased
out;
The standard capacities of these extinguishers are 1.25 kg, 2.5 kg, 4 kg, 5 kg & 6.5 kg;
They are quite effective on fires in electrical / electronic equipment;
They are getting replaced gradually by other extinguishers containing Halon
alternatives.
Soda Acid & Chemical Foam Extinguishers have already been phased out, and there
IS withdrawn.
Selection and Installation of Extinguishers:
The most important considerations while selecting extinguishers are the nature of the
area to be protected, and the nature of the hazard involved. Another factor to be
considered is the human element involved. An individuals reaction to a fire will be
largely influenced by his familiarity with the extinguishers, his training and experience
in its operation and his self-confidence. Training, therefore, is very important.
Detailed instructions regarding selection, installation and maintenance of first-aid fire
extinguishers are contained in IS:2190 - 1992 (which is under revision). It is essential
that all users (at least organisations) should be quite familiar with these instructions, so
that maximum advantage can be gained for promotion of fire safety standards for their
own benefit.
79
V Semester
Inspection and Maintenance of Fire Extinguishers:
An inspection is a quick check that visually determines that the fire extinguisher is
properly placed and will operate
Maintenance, as distinguished from inspection, means a complete and thorough
examination of each extinguisher. A maintenance check involves opening the
extinguisher, examining all its parts, cleaning, replacing defective parts, reassembling,
recharging and repress rising the extinguisher, where necessary.
Detailed instructions regarding periodical maintenance, hydrostatic pressure testing,
and refilling of extinguishers are given in IS:2190-1992 which should be scrupulously
followed.
Definitions
1. Extinguishing agent: The substance contained in a fire-extinguishing system, when
discharged on to the fire, is intended to produce extinction.
2. Risk: A measure of an insurer probable liability, determined by the standard of a
building, its usage and the quality of its fire protection.
3. Hazard: A particular area or activity in which a danger of fire can occur, e.g. pain
praying plant, cotton pickings and carding machinery or heat-treatment bath.
4. Storage hazard: The general dangers of storage of goods, having regard to their fire
grading, flammability, method of packing, storage etc.
5. Underground fire hydrant: An assembly contained in a pit or box below ground level,
and comprising a valve and outlet connection from a water supply main.
6. Pillar fire hydrant: A fire hydrant whose outlet connection is fitted to a vertical
component projecting above ground level.
7. Foam inlet: Fixed equipment consisting of an inlet connection, fixed piping and a
discharge assembly, enabling the Fire Service to introduce foam into an enclosed
compartment.
8. Ring main system: A water main that encircles a building, or series of buildings or
other associated fire risks, and that feeds hydrants, internal rising mains, etc.
9. Dry rising main: A vertical pipe installed in a building for fire-fighting purposes, fitted
with inlet connections at Fire Service access level and landing valves at specified
points, which is normally dry but is capable of being charged with water, usually by
pumping from Fire Service appliances.
10. Wet rising main: A vertical pipe installed in a building for fire-fighting purposes that
is permanently charged with water from a pressurized supply and fitted with landing
valves at specified points.
11. .Landing valve: An assembly comprising a valve and outlet connection from a wet
rising main or dry rising main.
12. Sprinkler: A device that seals an aperture in the pipe work of a sprinkler system, that
operates automatically at a predetermined temperature and discharges water in a
regular pattern over the area below it.
13. Wet system: A sprinkler system that is intended for use in locations where the ambient
temperature is always above the freezing point of water. The sprinkler pipe work is
charged with water in the operational condition.
14. Dry system: A sprinkler system that is capable of being used in any normal ambient
temperature. The sprinkler pipe work is charged with air in the operational condition.
15. Alternate system: A sprinkler system that may be used either as a wet system, where
freezing temperatures do not occur, or as a dry system in conditions where freezing
temperatures may occur, or where part of the system may be exposed to them.
16. Water spray system: A system, similar in principle to a sprinkler system, that is
designed to extinguish flammable liquid risks, or to provide cooling to an exposed
80
V Semester
area likely to be subjected to intense heat radiation from a neighbouring fire. Spray
systems range in size from very small to very large.
17. Deluge system / Installation: An installation fitted with open spray nozzles controlled
by a single deluge valve and operated on the actuation of automatic fire detectors so
that the entire area is sprayed with water or foam as the case may be. The installation
can be controlled manually also. This is generally used to protect large buildings
against large flammable liquid spillages, eg., Aircraft hangars, Oil processing areas,
Tanker loading bays etc.
18. Engineered total flooding systems: Those piped systems fed from a centralised tank or
cylinder storage tank to give a known total rate of discharge and concentration of the
gaseous extinguishing agent within the enclosure.
19. NOTE: They require individual design and calculation to determine flow rates, total
discharge time and the nozzle locations and nozzle pressures to ensure the best
arrangement to suit the type and distribution of combustibles within the enclosure.
20. 35.Local application systems: Those systems in which the gaseous extinguishing agent
is retained in a centralized supply tank or cylinder bank, and is fed through a piped
system to nozzles located to discharge simultaneously on to specific areas of risk.
21. 36. Manual hose-reel systems: Those systems in which the gaseous extinguishing
agent is retained in a centralised supply tank or cylinder bank, and is fed through a
piped system to manual hose reels located at specific points adjacent to the main
areas of risk.
22. 44. Modular systems: Systems that comprise one or more storage units that all
discharge simultaneously through their own outlet nozzle, the pressure and flow rate
of which is predetermined. They may or may not be piped systems.
23. NOTE. If they are piped systems, the permissible pipe sizes and pipe lengths, and the
number and type of fittings and nozzles have to be specified by the manufacturer for
each unit.
HYDRANT SYSTEMS / INSTALLATIONS
Water being the main extinguishing medium, major fires has to be controlled and
extinguished by the use of water from fire fighting hoses operated by the regular fire services.
This fire fighting water is usually obtained from hydrants installed on public mains or
other premises.
Hydrant Systems can be of two types:
(a)External Hydrant System, where the hydrants are installed
in the open, like the city or
town water mains, or hydrant systems installed in the open areas in industrial or such other
occupancies; and (b)Internal Hydrant System, installed in buildings or
structures to be
protected.
The basic requirements of any hydrant systems are:
(a)Water reservoir or source of water supply (for supply of water for fire fighting purposes);
(b)Pump(s) for imparting energy to the water (for conveying
water through pipe lines,
and to make water available at the required pressures for fire fighting purposes);
(c)Pipelines, which may be laid underground or above ground,
for conveying water under
pressure to the required places;
(d) Hydrants (which are the outlets installed on the pipelines at strategic locations on the
water mains for drawing water, using delivery hoses, for fire fighting purposes.
External Hydrant Systems:
(a) These systems are essential and important requirements for fighting fires in cities, towns
and individual occupancies or premises. The guidelines for provision, installation, inspection
81
V Semester
and maintenance of these systems are given in IS:13039-1991, Code of Practice for Provision,
and Maintenance of External Hydrant System.
(b) The guidelines regarding the water reservoirs and such other details for water supply are
given in IS:9668-1991, Code of Practice for Provision and Maintenance of Water Supplies for
Fire Fighting
(c) The capacity of pumps required for these systems have to be worked out based on
requirements of output and pressure for the systems. Provision has to be made for standby
pumps fed from a different source of power at the rate of 50% of total number of pumps, and
subject to a minimum of one. The static fire fighting pumps should conform to the
requirements given in IS:12469-1988, Pumps for Fire Fighting Applications
(d) Pressure requirements of systems
The pressure for systems is normally designed based on practical considerations and specific
needs. A minimum residual pressure 1.5kg/cm2 (20psi) should usually be maintained at
hydrants delivering the required fire flow.
Other factors to be taken into consideration in the provision and use of external hydrant
systems:
Minimum size of mains should be not less than 150 mm;
Underground mains should be laid not less than 1m below ground level;
Above ground mains should be adequately supported at regular intervals not
exceeding 3.5m;
The fire hydrant mains should always be laid in rings or loops;
Adequate number of shut-off valves (isolation valves) should be provided at strategic
locations in the system for the purpose of isolating any portion for maintenance,
repairs etc.
Fire fighting mains in industrial premises should not be utilised for any other purpose
such as process use etc.,
Normally in cities and towns, hydrants should be provided at intervals of 100m, but
this can be varied according to the risks in the area;
In case of industrial premises, the intervals for hydrants can be 30m for high hazard
occupancies, 45m for moderate hazard occupancies and 60m for light hazard
occupancies.
Hydrants should be readily accessible to fire appliances and for fire fighting
operations;
No portion of a protected building should be more than 45 m from an external
hydrant;
For systems in cities and towns hydrant inspection should be carried out at intervals
not exceeding one month, and for industrial establishments, once every week;
Internal Hydrant Systems
These systems are generally installed for fire protection of buildings or special
structures. An internal hydrant installation comprises of the following elements:
(i)
Static or terrace tank for storing water for fire fighting purposes;
(ii)
Rising mains, down comer mains or external mains to feed water from the
source to the required point under pressure;
(iii) Fire fighting pump(s) with all fitments and components; and
(iv)
Other necessary components like internal hydrants (also called as landing
valves, external hydrants (also called as yard hydrants), hose reels, hoses and branch
pipes, in cabinets.
The main features and requirements for the internal hydrant systems are listed below:
82
V Semester
The capacities of the underground static water tanks/ terrace tanks vary according to
the fire risks involved in the occupancy;
Internal hydrants form part of any of the following systems(i)
Dry-riser system,
(ii)
Wet-riser system,
(iii) Wet-riser-cum
(iv)
Down-comer-system
Dry riser system is not normally charged with water but could be charged either
through the fire service inlet provided at the bottom, or through an installed pump
when required, or directly from a fire appliance;
A wet riser system remains charged throughout so that by connecting delivery hoses,
fire fighting operations could be carried out immediately. Generally, hose reels are
also connected to this system alongside landing valves. The landing valves provided in
the system are required to be sited so as to ensure that no part of the building protected
is more than 30m from the landing valve. This system is normally charged by the
operation of the static fire fighting pump installed in the building. However, a fire
service inlet is also provided for charging it from fire service appliances.
The fire service inlet for 100mm internal dia rising main should have a collecting head
with 2 nos. of 63mm inlets, and for 150mm rising main, should have a collecting head
with 4 nos. of 63mm inlets.
AUTOMATIC SPRINKLER SYSTEMS

General
Automatic sprinklers are devices for
automatically distributing water
upon a fire in sufficient quantity to
extinguish it completely or to
prevent its spread, by keeping the
fire under control, by the water
discharged from the sprinklers. The
water for fire fighting is fed to the
sprinklers through a system f
piping, normally suspended from
the ceiling, with the sprinklers
installed at intervals along the pipes.
The orifice of the sprinkler head,
incorporating the fusible link or
fusible bulb of the automatic
sprinkler, is normally kept closed,
which is thrown open on the
actuation of the temperaturesensitive fusible link or fusible bulb.
Automatic sprinkler systems

are quite effective for ensuring life
safety, since they give early warning
of the existence of fire and simultaneously start application of water on to the fire which will
help control and extinguishment of the fire. The downward force of the water spray from the
sprinklers also helps minimise the smoke accumulation in the room of fire besides cooling the
environment and promoting survival of the occupants.
BC Part-4, Fire and Life Safety, also recognises the importance of sprinklers for
achieving fire and life safety. The provision of the sprinkler system in buildings helps to offset
deficiencies in fire protection requirements in existing buildings and the Code provides trade-off
in the matter of various fire protection requirements when automatic sprinkler systems are
provided. For eg., longer travel distances to exits, higher fire load density etc. are allowed with
the provision of sprinklers.
83
V Semester
However, it has to be mentioned that

partial coverage of the buildings by sprinkler
protection is neither advisable from fire protection
point of view nor from cost effectiveness. In case
a fire originates from an unprotected area and after
growing into a well developed fire spreads to the
protected area, it would have generally developed
sufficient intensity to verpower the sprinklers.
Types of Sprinkler Systems:
There are four main types of sprinkler
systems:
Wet - The pipes are permanently charged with water and used for all locations
except where freezing temperatures are likely to occur or special conditions
exist.
Dry - The pipes are normally charged with air under pressure.
Alternate - Can be arranged to be either wet or dry depending upon ambient
temperature conditions.
Pre-action - The pipes are normally charged with air, and get filled with water
when a fire actuates a separate detection system. Sprinkler heads then operate
individually.
Sprinkler Heads:
Their operation can be divided into two main types:

Those in which the operating medium is fusible solder; and
Those in which the operating medium is a glass bulb (quartzoid bulb).
Fusible solder type: In this type the body of the sprinkler is held in place by two yokes
and a flexible metal diaphragm into which a valve is fitted. Three parts, viz., the strut,
the hook, and the key are held together by a special fusible solder. In a fire condition
the
fusible solder (or link) melts and the component members are thrown clear of
the head, allowing the water to flow out in the form of spray after hitting the deflector.
The solders used with automatic sprinklers are made of alloys of metals like tin,
lead, cadmium etc.
Fusible bulb type: The second type of operating element of the
sprinkler
head
utilises a frangible bulb. In this, a small bulb of special glass contains a liquid leaving
a small air bubble entrapped in it. When exposed to heat from fire, the liquid expands
and the bubble disappears. Due to increase of pressure the bulb
shatters, releasing
the water in the form f spray. The operating temperature is regulated by adjusting the
amount of liquid, the nature of the liquid itself, as well as the size of the bubble.
Temperature Ratings of Automatic Sprinklers:

Automatic Sprinklers have various temperature ratings that are based on standardised tests in
which a sprinkler is immersed in a liquid, and the temperature of the liquid raised slowly until
the sprinkler operates. All heads are marked with their operating temperature ratings, and are
colour coded for easy identification.
Sprinkler Water Supplies:
The water supplies for the sprinkler system must have adequate and reliable pressure and flow
as per Sprinkler System Codes / Rules. Use of salt or brackish water is not permitted. The
supplies may be by (i) Town mains, (ii) Elevated reservoirs, (iii) Gravity tanks, (iv)
Automatic pump supply or (v) Pressurised tanks. Apart from primary water supply, secondary
water supply arrangements should also be made as stand by.
84
V Semester
Types of Sprinklers
The following are the types of sprinklers which are
accepted for general use:
(a) Conventional Sprinkler: These produce a spherical
type of
discharge with a portion of the water
directed upwards to the ceiling. They may be of upright
or pendent type.
(b) Spray pattern: This operates with a hemispherical
discharge pattern below the deflector with no water
being directed upwards.
(c) Ceiling flush pattern: The heads are installed with
the base flush to the ceiling, and heat sensitive elements
facing downwards. The pipe work remains concealed
above the ceiling.
(d) Side wall pattern: These are installed along the walls
of a room close to the ceiling, and produce a horizontal
pattern of spray. These are commonly used for guest
room fire protection in hotels.
(e) Dry upright pattern: These are the same as pendent
type sprinklers.
Other important facts / features regarding Sprinkler Systems:
(i) Design density of the system means the minimum density of discharge (in mm/min.) of
water, for which a sprinkler installation
is designed, determined from the discharge of a
specified group of sprinklers in lpm divided by the area covered in m2 .
(ii) Each system has to be hydraulically designed to provide an
approx.density of ischarge
over an assumed maximum area of operation.(no. of sprinklers likely to operate) in the
highest and remote areas to be protected.
(iii) High rise system: Is a sprinkler system in which the highest sprinkler is more than 45
m above the lowest sprinkler/sprinkler pumps, whichever is lower.
(iv) Low rise system: Is one in which the highest sprinkler is 45 m or less from ground level
or sprinkler pumps.
(v) Design point: A sprinkler installation is planned on the basis of a design point. This means
the maximum number of sprinklers that may be operated at one time in case of fire. Though
an installation may have 500 or even 1000 sprinklers, the design point may be only 25. This
practically means that the installation is capable of dealing with a fire where pto 25 heads are
operated.
(vi) Work done at Factory Mutual showed that convective heat generally supplies more than
80% of the heat sprinklers need for activation.
(vii) Sprinklers can only be effective if they activate before the fire gets past them.
(viii) It has been reported that in buildings where sprinkler systems have been installed the
chances of fatal occupant casualties and property losses per fire are reduced to about twothirds, compared to buildings where sprinklers have not been installed.
Automatic Sprinklers shall be installed in (as stipulated in Part-4, NBC):
(a) basements used as car parks or storage occupancy, if the area exceeds 200 m2;
(b) multi-level basements, covered upper floors used as car parks, and for housing essential
services ancillary to a particular occupancy or for storage occupancy, excluding any area to be
used for sub-station, A.C. plant and DG set;
(c) any room or other compartment of a building exceeding 1 125m2 in area except as in (g)
(see Note), if so advised by local authority.
(d)departmental stores or shops, if the aggregate covered area exceeds 750 m2;
(e) all non-domestic floors of mixed occupancy which constitute a hazard and are not
provided with staircases independent of the remainder of the buildings;
85
V Semester
(f) godowns and warehouses, as considered necessary;

(g) on all floors of the buildings other than residential buildings, if the height of the building
exceeds 30 m (45 m in case of group housing and apartments)
(h)dressing room, scenery docks, stages and stage basements of theatres;
(j) in hotels, hospitals, industries low and moderate hazard, mercantile buildings of height 15
m or above;
(k) in hotels below 15 m, if covered area at each floor is more than 1000 m2;
(l) false ceiling voids which are used for storage or as return air plenums exceeding 800 mm
in height in sprinklered buildings and
(m) Canteen provided in upper floors of D-1 and D-2 occupancies shall be sprinklered.
NOTES
1. It is desirable that all high rise buildings should be fully sprinklered irrespective of their
height and occupancy. If selective sprinklering is adopted, there is a real danger of a fire
starting on one of the lower unsprinklered floors gathering momentum, spreading upwards
from floor to floor through the un sprinklered floor and reaching the first sprinklered floor as
a fully developed fire. In such an event, the sprinklers can be rendered useless or ineffective.
2. Use of false ceiling voids for storage or as return air plenums should be discouraged.
AUTOMATIC DELUGE INSTALLATIONS:
These are installations fitted with open spray nozzles, controlled by a single deluge valve and
operated on the actuation of automatic fire detectors, or sprinkler heads, so that the entire
area to be protected is sprayed with water. The installation can be controlled manually also. These systems are provided where there is a concentration of highly
flammable liquids like aircraft hangars, tank farms filling gantries etc. and for cooling
purposes. The deluge system primarily caters for special hazards where intensive fires with a
very fast rate of fire propagation are expected, and it is desirable to apply water
simultaneously over complete area.
Model Building Bye-laws

FIRE PROTECTION AND FIRE SAFETY REQUIREMENTS
7.1 SCOPE
This part covers the requirements of the fire protection for the multi-storeyed buildings
(high rise buildings) and the buildings, which are of 15 m. and above in height
and low occupancies of categories such as Assembly, Institutional., Educational (more
than two storeyed and built-up area exceeds 1000 sq m)., Business (where plot area
exceeds 500 sq m.), Mercantile (where aggregate covered area exceeds 750 sq m.), Hotel,
Hospital, Nursing Homes, Underground Complexes, Industrial Storage, Meeting /
Banquet Halls, Hazardous Occupancies.
7.2 PROCEDURE FOR CLEARANCE FROM FIRE SERVICE
a)
b)
c)
The concerned Authority shall refer the building plans to the Chief
Fire Officer for obtaining clearance in respect of building identified in
clause 7.1 of these Bye-Laws.
The Authority shall furnish three sets of complete building plans along
with prescribed fee to the Chief Fire Officer, after ensuring that the proposals
are in line with Master Plan/Zonal Plan of the area.
The plans shall be clearly marked and indicate the complete fire protection
arrangements and the means of access/escape for the proposed building
with suitable legend along with standard signs and symbols on the
drawings. The same shall be duly signed/certified by a licensed Fire
86
V Semester
d)
e)
f)
g)
7.3
Consultant/Architect. The information regarding fire safety measures

shall be furnished as per Annexure D along with details.
The Chief Fire Officer shall examine these plans to ensure that they are in
accordance with the provisions of fire safety and means of escape as per
these byelaws and shall forward two sets of plans duly signed for
implementation to the building sanctioning Authority.
After completion of fire fighting installations as approved and duly tested
and certified by the licensed Fire Consultant / Architect, the Owner/ Builder
of the building shall approach the Chief Fire Officer through the
concerned Authority for obtaining clearance from fire safety and means of
escape point of view. The concerned Authority shall ensure that clearance
from Chief Fire Officer has been obtained for the building identified in
clause 7.1 before granting the completion certificate.
On receipt of the above request, the Chief Fire Officer shall issue the No
Objection Certificate from fire safety and means of escape point of view
after satisfying himself that the entire fire protection measures are
implemented and functional as per approved plans.
Any deficiencies observed during the course of inspection shall
be communicated to the Authority for rectification and a copy of the same
shall be forwarded to the concerned building owner /builder.
RENEWAL OF FIRE CLEARANCE
On the basis of undertaking given by the Fire Consultant / Architect, the Chief Fire
Officer shall renew the fire clearance in respect of the following buildings on annual basis:1)
Public entertainment and assembly
7.4
2)
Hospitals
3)
Hotels
4)
Under ground shopping complex
FEE
a)
For augmentation of fire service facilities for effecting rescue/fire

fighting operation in high rise building, fee payable to Chief Fire
Officer by the applicant(s) along with sets of plans for obtaining the No
Objection Certificate shall be as prescribed by the Authority.
7.5 FIRE CONSULTANT

The Architect of the project will be responsible for making provisions for fire protection
and fire fighting measure as provided in this Chapter and for that she / he may consult an
expert in this field, as in case of other professionals for structural, sanitary and others.
7.6 TERMINOLOGY
For the purpose of this Chapter all the technical terms shall have the meaning as defined
in National Building Code of India, Part-IV, Fire Protection as amended from time to time
but for the terms which are defined otherwise in these bye-Laws.
7.7GENERAL
The Chief Fire Officer may insist on suitable provisions in the building from fire safety
87
V Semester
and means of escape point of view depending on the occupancy, height or on account of
new developments creating special fire hazard, in addition to the provision of these
building bye laws and part IV (Fire Protection) of National Building Code of India
7.8MEANS OF ACCESS
As provided in Building Bye-Laws
4.7.
7.8.1 Provisions of Exterior Open Spaces around the Building :As provided in
building bye laws 4.9.4.
7.9
EXIT REQUIREMENT
As provided in Building Bye-Laws 4.8.
7.9.1 Type of Exits: As provided in Building Bye-Laws 4.8.1

7.9.2 Number of Size of Exits: As provided in Building Bye-Laws 4.8.2
7.9.3 Arrangements of Exits: As provided in Building Bye-Laws 4.8.3
7.9.4 Occupant Load: As provided in Building Bye-Laws 4.1
7.9.5 Capacity of Exit: As provided in Building Bye-Laws 4.8.4
7.9.6 Staircase Requirements: As provided in Building Bye-Laws 4.8.5
7.9.7 Minimum Width Provision for Stairways: As provided in Building Bye-Laws 4.8.6
7.9.8 Minimum Width Provision for Passageway/Corridors: As provided in Building
Bye- Laws 4.8.7
7.9.9 Doorways: As provided in Building Bye-Laws 4.8.8
7.9.10 Stairways: As provided in Building Bye-Laws 4.8.9
7.9.11 Fire Escapes or External Stairs:
a)
b)
c)
d)
e)
f)
g)
h)
Fire escape shall not be taken into account while calculating the number of
staircases for a building.
All fire escapes shall be directly connected to the ground.
Entrance to the fire escape shall be separate and remote from
internal staircase.
The route to fire escape shall be free of obstructions at all times except
the doorway leading to the fire escape which shall have the required
fire resistance.
Fire escape shall be constructed of non-combustible materials.
Fire escape stairs shall have straight flight not less than 125 cm wide with
25 cm treads and risers not more than 19 cm.
Handrails shall be at a height not less than 100 cm.
Fire escape staircase in the mercantile, business, assembly, hotel buildings
above 24 m. height shall be a fire tower and in such a case width of the
same shall not be less than the width of the main staircase. No combustible
material shall be allowed in the fire tower.
7.9.12 Spiral Stairs
88
V Semester
a)
The use of spiral staircase shall be limited to low occupant load and to a
building height 9 m.
b)
A spiral stair shall not be less than 150 cm in diameter and shall be
designed to give the adequate headroom.
7.9.13 Staircase Enclosures
a)
b)
c)
d)
7.9.14
a)
The external enclosing walls of the staircase shall be of the brick or the
R.C.C. construction having fire resistance of not less than two hours. All
enclosed staircases shall have access through self-closing door of
one-hour fire resistance. These shall be single swing doors opening in the
direction of the escape. The door shall be fitted with the check action door
closers.
The staircase enclosures on the external wall of the building shall be
ventilated to the atmosphere at each landing.
Permanent vent at the top equal to the 5% of the cross sectional area of
the enclosure and openable sashes at each floor level with area equal to 1 to
15% of the cross sectional area of the enclosure on external shall be
provided. The roof of the shaft shall be at least 1 m. above the surrounding
roof. There shall be no glazing or the glass bricks in any internal closing wall
of staircase. If the staircase is in the core of the building and cannot be
ventilated at each landing, a positive of 5-mm. w.g. by an electrically
operated blower/blowers shall be maintained.
The mechanism for pressurizing the staircase shaft shall be so installed
that the same shall operate automatically on fire alarm system/sprinkler
system and be provided with manual operation facilities.
Ramps
Ramps of slope of not more than 1 in 10 may be substituted for and shall
comply with all the applicable requirements of all required stairways as to
enclosure capacity and limiting dimensions. Larger slopes shall be
provided for special uses but in no case greater than 1 in 8. For all slopes
exceeding 1 in
10 and where the use is such as to involve danger of slipping, the ramp
shall
be surfaced with approved non-slipping material.
he minimum width of the ramps in the Hospitals shall be 2.4 m. and in the basement using
car parking shall be 6.0 m.
c)
Handrails shall be provided on both sides of the ramp.
d)
e)
f)
7.10
Ramp shall lead directly to outside open space at ground level or courtyards
of safe place.
For building above 24.0 m. in height, access to ramps from any floor of
the building shall be through smoke fire check door.
In case of nursing homes, hospitals etc. area exceeding 300 sq m. at each
floor one of the exit facility shall be a ramp of not less than 2.4 m. in width.
PROVISION OF LIFTS
a)
b)
Provision of the lifts shall be made for all multi-storeyed building having a
height of 15.0 m. and above.
All the floors shall be accessible for 24 hrs. by the lift. The lift provided in
89
V Semester
the buildings shall not be considered as a means of escape in case of

emergency.
c)
Grounding switch at ground floor level to enable the fire service to ground
the lift car in case of emergency shall also be provided.
d)
The lift machine room shall be separate and no other machinery be installed
in it.
7.10.1 Lift Enclosure/lift
General requirements shall be as follows
a)
b)
c)
d)
e)
f)
g)
h)
i)
j)
k)
l)
m)
n)
Walls of lift enclosures shall have a fire rating of two hours. Lift shafts
shall have a vent at the top of area not less than 0.2 sq m.
Lift motor room shall be located preferably on top of the shaft and
separated from the shaft by the floor of the room.
Landing door in lift enclosures shall have a fire resistance of not less than
one hour.
The number of lifts in one lift bank shall not exceed four. A wall of two
hours fire rating shall separate individual shafts in a bank.
Lift car door shall have a fire resistance rating of 1 hour.
For buildings 15.0 m. and above in height, collapsible gates shall not be
permitted for lifts and solid doors with fire resistance of at least one hour
shall be provided.
If the lift shaft and lobby is in the core of the building a positive pressure
between 25 and 30 pa shall be maintained in the lobby and a possible
pressure of 50 pa shall be maintained in the lift shaft. The
mechanism for the pressurization shall act automatically with the fire
alarm/sprinkler system and it shall be possible to operate this mechanically
also.
Exit from the lift lobby, if located in the core of the building, shall be
through a self-closing fire smoke check door of one-hour fire resistance.
Lift shall not normally communicate with the basement. If however, lifts
are in communication, the lift lobby of the basement shall be pressurized as
in (g) with self closing door as in (h).
Grounding switch (es), at ground floor level shall be provided to enable
the fire service to ground the lifts.
Telephone/talk back communication facilities may be provided in lift cars
for communication system and lifts shall be connected to the fire control
room of the building.
Suitable arrangements such as providing slope in the floor of the lift lobby
shall be made to prevent water used during fire fighting, etc at any
landing from entering the lift shafts.
A sign shall be posted and maintained on every floor at or near the lift
indicating that in case of fire, occupants shall use the stairs unless
instructed otherwise. The sign shall also contain a plan for each floor
showing the location of the stairways. Floor marking shall be done at
each floor on the wall in front of the lift-landing door.
Alternate power supply shall be provided in all the
lifts.
7.10.2 Fire Lift

Following details shall apply for a fire lift in addition to above requirements:
90
V Semester
a)
b)
c)
d)
e)
f)
g)
To enable fire service personnel to reach the upper floors with the
minimum delay, one or more of the lifts shall be so designed so as to be
available for the exclusive use of the fireman in an emergency and be
directly accessible to every dwelling/lettable floor space on each floor.
The lift shall have a floor area of not less than 1.4 sq.mt. It shall have a
loading capacity of not less than 545 kg. (8 persons lift) with
automatic closing doors.
The electric supply shall be on a separate service from electric supply
mains in a building and the cables run in a route safe from fire, that is
within a lift shaft. Lights and fans in the elevator having wooden paneling
or sheet steel construction shall be operated on 24-volt supply.
In case of failure of normal electric supply, it shall automatically
switchover to the alternate supply. For apartment houses, this changeover of
supply could be done through manually operated changeover switch.
Alternatively, the lift should be so wired that in case of power failure, it
comes down at the ground level and comes to stand still with door open.
The operation of a fire lift shall by a single toggle of two-button switch
situated in a glass-fronted box adjacent to the lift at the entrance level.
When the switch is on landing; call points will become inoperative and the
lift will be on car control only or on a priority control device. When the
switch is off, the lift will return to normal working. This lift can be used by
the occupants in normal times.
The words 'F1RE LIFT' shall be conspicuously displayed in fluorescent
paint on the lift landing doors at each floor level.
The speed of the fire lift shall be such that it can reach to the top floor
from ground level within one minute.
7.11 BASEMENT
As provided in Chapter- 3 and Building Bye-Laws 4.5.5
7.11.1 Requirements
i)
ii)
iii)
iv)
v)
The access to the basement shall be either from the main or alternate
staircase providing access and exit from higher floors. Where the staircase
is continue the same shall be enclosed type serving as a fire separation from
the basement floor and higher floors. Open ramps shall be permitted if they
are constructed within the building line subject to the provision of the (iv).
In case of basement for office, sufficient number of exit ways and access
ways shall be provided with a travel distance not more than 15.0 m. The
travel distance in case of dead-end shall be 7.5 m.
The basement shall be partitioned and in no case compartment shall be
more than 500 sq m. and less than 50 sq m. area except parking. Each
compartment shall have ventilation standards as laid down in Bye-Laws
separately and independently. The partition shall be made in consultation
with Chief Fire Officer.
The first basement (immediately below ground level) can be used
for services/parking/other permissible services. Lower basement, if
provided, shall exclusively be used for car parking only.
Each basement shall be separately ventilated. Vents with cross-sectional
area (aggregate) not less than 2.5 percent of the floor area spread evenly
round the perimeter of the basement shall be provided in the form of grills
91
V Semester
vi)
vii)
viii)
ix)
x)
xi)
xii)
xiii)
7.12
or breakable starboard lights or pavement lights or by way of shafts.

Alternatively a system of air inlets shall be provided at basement floor
level and smoke outlets at basement ceiling level. Inlets and extracts may
be terminated at ground level with starboard or pavement lights as before.
But ducts to convey fresh air to the basement floor level have to be laid.
Starboard and pavement lights should be in positions easily accessible to the
firemen and clearly marked "SMOKE OUTLET" or AIR INLET" with an
indication of area served at or near the opening.
The staircase of basement shall be of enclosed type having fire resistance
of not less than two hours and shall be situated at the periphery of the
basement
to be entered at ground level only from the open air and in such positions
that
smoke from any fire in the basement shall not obstruct any exit serving
the ground and upper stories of the building and shall communicate
with basement through a lobby provided with fire resisting self closing door
of one hour rating. In case of basement being used as car parking only,
the travel distance shall be 45 m.
In multi-storeyed basements, intake duct may serve all basements levels,
but each basement and basement compartment shall have separate smoke
outlet duct or ducts. Mechanical extractors for smoke venting system
from lower basement levels shall also be provided. The system shall be of
such design as to operate on actuation of smoke, heat sensitive
detectors/sprinklers, if installed, and shall have a considerably superior
performance compared to the standard units. It shall also have an
arrangement to start it manually.
Mechanical extractors shall have an internal locking arrangement so
that extractors shall continue to operate and supply fans shall stop
automatically with the actuation of fire detectors. Mechanical extractors
shall be designed to permit 30 air changes per hour in case of fire or
distress call. However, for normal operation, only 30 air changes or any
other convenient factor can be maintained.
Mechanical extractors shall have an alternate source of power supply.
Ventilating ducts shall be integrated with the structure and made out of
brick masonry or RCC as far as possible and when this duct crosses the
transformer area of electrical switchboard, fire dampers shall be provided.
Kitchens working on gas fuel shall not be permitted in
basement/sub- basement.
If cutouts are provided from basement to the upper floors or to the
atmosphere, all side cutout openings in the basements shall be protected by
sprinkler heads at closed spacing so as to form a water curtain in the event of
a fire.
Dewatering pump shall be provided in all basements.
PROVISION OF HELIPAD
All high-rise buildings 50 m. and above shall have provision for a Helipad on the
terrace. The same shall be approved by the Authority.
7.13
SERVICE DUCTS/REFUGE CHUTE
92
V Semester
a)
Service duct shall be enclosed by walls and door, if any, of 2 hours fire
rating.
b)
c)
7.14
If ducts are larger than 10 sq m. the floor should seal them, but provide
suitable opening for the pipes to pass through, with the gaps sealed.
A vent opening at the top of the service shaft shall be provided between
onefourth and one-half of the area of the shaft. Refuge chutes shall have an
outlet at least of wall of non-combustible material with fire resistance of
not less than two hours. They shall not be located within the staircase
enclosure or service shafts or air-conditioning shafts. Inspection panel and
door shall be tight fitting with 1 hour fire resistance; the chutes should be
as far away as possible form exits.
Refuge chutes shall not be provided in staircase walls and A/C shafts etc.
ELECTRICAL SERVICES
Electrical Services shall conform to the following:
a)
b)
c)
d)
e)
f)
g)
The electric distribution cables/wiring shall be laid in a separate duct shall

be sealed at every floor with non-combustible material having the same
fire resistance as that of the duct. Low and medium voltage wiring running in
shaft and in false ceiling shall run in separate conduits.
Water mains, telephone wires, inter-com lines, gas pipes or any other
service lines shall not be laid in ducts for electric cables.
Separate conduits for water pumps, lifts, staircases and corridor lighting
and blowers for pressuring system shall be directly from the main switch
panel
and these circuits shall be laid in separate conduit pipes, so that fire in one
circuit will not affect the others. Master switches controlling essential
service circuits shall be clearly labeled.
The inspection panel doors and any other opening in the shaft shall
be provided with airtight fire doors having fire resistance of not less then 1
hour.
Medium and low voltage wiring running in shafts, and within false ceiling
shall run in metal conduits. Any 230 voltage wiring for lighting or other
services, above false ceiling should have 660V grade insulation. The
false ceiling including all fixtures used for its suspension shall be of
non- combustible material.
An independent and well-ventilated service room shall be provided on the
ground floor with direct access from outside or from the corridor for the
purpose of termination of electrical supply from the licenses service
and alternative supply cables. The doors provided for the service room shall
have fire resistance of not less than 1 hour
MCB and ELCB shall be provided for electrical circuit.
7.15 STAIRCASE
AND
CORRIDOR
LIGHTS
The staircase and corridor lighting shall be on separate circuits and shall be
independently connected so that it could be operated by one switch installation on the
ground floor easily accessible to fire fighting staff at any time irrespective of the
position of the individual control of the light points, if any. It should be of miniature
circuit breaker type of switch so as to avoid replacement of fuse in case of crisis.
93
V Semester
a)
b)
c)
7.16
Staircase and corridor lighting shall also be connected to alternate source

of power supply.
Suitable arrangement shall be made by installing double throw switches to
ensure that the lighting installed in the staircase and the corridor does not
get connected to two sources of supply simultaneously. Double throw switch
shall be installed in the service room for terminating the stand by supply.
Emergency lights shall be provided in the staircase and corridor.
AIR-CONDITIONING
a)
Air- conditioning system should be installed and maintained so as to

minimise the danger of spread of fire, smoke or fumes thereby from one
floor of fire area to another or from outside into any occupied building or
structure.
b)
Air -Conditioning systems circulating air to more than one floor area
should be provided with dampers designed to close automatically in case of
fire and thereby prevent spread of fire or smoke. Such a system
should also be provided with automatic controls to stop fans in case of
fire, unless arranged to remove smoke from a fire, in which case these
should be designed to remain in operation.
c)
Air- conditioning system serving large places of assembly (over one
thousand persons), large departmental stores, or hostels with over 100 rooms
in a single block should be provided with effective means for preventing
circulation of smoke through the system in the case of fire in air filters or
from other sources drawn into the system even though there is insufficient
heat to actuate heat smoke sensitive devices controlling fans or dampers.
Such means shall consist of approved effective smoke sensitive controls.
7.16.1 Air- Conditioning should conform to the following:
a)
b)
c)
the
Escape routes like staircase, common corridors, lift lobbies; etc should not
be used as return air passage.
The ducting should be constructed of metal in accordance with BIS 655:1963
Wherever the ducts pass through fire walls or floor, the opening around
ducts should be sealed with fire resisting material of same rating as of walls
/
floors.
d)
e)
f)
g)
Metallic ducts should be used even for the return air instead of space
above the false ceiling.
The material used for insulating the duct system (inside or outside) should
be of flame resistant (IS 4355: 1977) and non- conductor of heat.
Area more than 750 sq m. on individual floor should be segregated by a
firewall and automatic fire dampers for isolation should be provided.
In case of more than one floor, arrangement by way of automatic fire
dampers for isolating the ducting at every floor from the floor should be
made. Where plenums used for return air passage, ceiling and its features
and air filters of the air handling units, these should be flame resistant.
Inspection
panels should be provided in the main trenching. No combustible material
should be fixed nearer than 15 cm. to any duct unless such ducting is
properly enclosed and protected with flame resistant material
94
V Semester
h)
In case of buildings more than 24 m. in height, in non-ventilated lobbies,

corridors, smoke extraction shaft should be provided.
7.16.2 Fire Dampers
a)
b)
These shall be located in air ducts and return air ducts/passages at

the following points:
i)
At the fire separation wall.
ii)
Where ducts/passages enter the central vertical
shaft. iii)
Where the ducts pass through floors.
iv)
At the inlet of supply air duct and the return air duct of
each compartment on every floor.
The dampers shall operate automatically and shall simultaneously switch
off the air- handling fans. Manual operation facilities shall also be provided.
Note: For blowers, where extraction system and dust accumulators are used, dampers shall be provided.
c)
d)
Fire/smoke dampers(for smoke extraction shafts) for building more than 24

m. in height.
For apartment houses in non-ventilated lobbies /corridor operated by
detection system and manual control sprinkler system.
For other buildings on operation of smoke/ heat detection system and
manual control/sprinkler system.
Automatic fire dampers shall be so arranged so as to close by gravity in
the direction of air movement and to remain tightly closed on operation
of a fusible link.
7.17 BOILER ROOM

Provisions of boiler and boiler rooms shall conform to Indian Boiler Act. Further,
the following additional aspects may be taken into account in the location of boiler/ boiler
room
a)
The boiler shall not be allowed in sub-basement, but may be allowed in
the basement away from the escape routes.
b)
The boilers shall be installed in a fire resisting room of 4 hours fire
resistance rating, and this room shall be situated on the periphery of the
basement. Catch pits shall be provided at the low level.
c)
Entry to this room shall be provided with a composite door of 2 hours fire
resistance.
d)
The boiler room shall be provided with fresh air inlets and smoke exhaust
directly to the atmosphere.
e)
The furnace oil tank for the boiler if located in the adjoining room shall
be separated by fire resisting wall of 4 hours rating. The entrance to this
room shall be provided with double composite doors. A curb of suitable
height shall be provided at the entrance in order to prevent the flow of oil
into boiler room in case of tank rupture.
f)
Foam inlets shall be provided on the external walls of the building near
the ground level to enable the fire services to use foam in case of fire.
7.18 ALTERNATE SOURCE OF ELECTRIC
SUPPLY
A stand by electric generator shall be installed to supply power to staircase and corridor
lighting circuits, lifts detection system, fire pumps, pressurization fans and bowlers,
P..A system, exit sign, smoke extraction system, in case of failure of normal electric
95
V Semester
supply. The generator shall be capable of taking starting current of all the machines and
circuits stated above simultaneously.
If the standby pump is driven by diesel engine, the generator supply need not be connected
to the standby pump. The generator shall be automatic in operation.
7.19
SAFETY MEASURES IN ELECTRIC SUB-STATION

1)
2)
3)
4)
5)
6)
7)
8)
9)
10)
11)
12)
13)
14)
15)
16)
17)
18)
19)
Clear independent approach to the sub-station from outside the building

shall be made available round the clock
The approaches/corridors to the sub-station area shall be kept clear
for movement of men and material at all times.
The sub-station space is required to be provided with proper internal
lighting arrangements.
In addition to natural ventilation proper ventilation to the sub-station area is
to be provided by grill shutters and exhaust fans at suitable places so as
to discharge all smoke from the sub-station without delay in case of fire so
that sub-station operations can be carried out expeditiously.
Cable trenches of 0.6 m. X 0.6 m. dummy floor of 0.6 mt. depth shall be
provided to facilitate laying of cable inside the building for connecting to
the equipment.
Steel shutters of 8X 8 with suitable grills shall be provided for
transformers and sub-station room.
The floor of the sub-station should be capable of carrying 10 tons
of transformer weight on wheels.
Built up substation space is to be provided free of cost.
Sub-station space should be clear from any water, sewer, air conditioning,
and gas pipe or telephone services. No other service should pass through
the sub station space or the cable trenches.
Proper ramp with suitable slope may be provided for loading and unloading
of the equipment and proper approach will be provided.
RCC pipes at suitable places as required will be provided for the cable
entries to the sub station space and making suitable arrangement for noningress of water through these pipes.
The sub station space is to be provided in the approved/sanctioned covered
area of the building.
Any other alteration /modification required while erection of the equipment
will be made by the Owner / builder at site as per requirement.
Adequate arrangement for fixing chain pulley block above the fixing
be available for load of 15 tons.
Provision shall be kept for the sumps so as to accommodate complete
volume of transformer oil, which can spillover in the event of
explosion of the transformer in the basement of the building. Sufficient
arrangement should exist to avoid fire in the sub-station building from
spread of the oil from the sumps.
Arrangement should be made for the provision of fire retardent cables so as
to avoid chances of spread of fire in the sub-station building.
Sufficient pumping arrangement should exist for pumping the water out, in
case of fire so as to ensure minimum loss to the switchgear and transformer.
No combustible material should be stacked inside the substation premises
or in the vicinity to avoid chances of fire.
It should be made mandatory that the promoters of the multi-storeyed
96
V Semester
20)
21)
22)
23)
24)
25)
26)
27)
28)
29)
30)
31)
32)
33)
building should get substation premises inspected once a year to get

their license revalidated for the provision of electric supply from
Electricity Board so that suitable action can be taken against the Owner /
Builder in case of non- implementation of Bye-Laws.
The sub-station must not be located below the 1st basement and above the
ground floor.
The sub station space should be totally segregated from the other areas of
the basement by fire resisting wall. The ramp should have a slope of 1 : 10
with entry from ground level. The entire Sub-station space including the
entrance at ground floor be handed over to the licensee of electricity free of
cost and rent.
The sub-station area shall have a clear height of 12 feet (3.65 m.) below
beams. Further the Sub-station area will have level above the rest of
basement level by 2 feet.
It is to be ensured that the Sub-station area is free of seepage / leakage of
water.
The licensee of electricity will have the power to disconnect the supply of
the building in case of violation of any of the above points.
Electric sub station enclosure must be completely segregated with 4-hours
fire rating wall from remaining part of basement.
The Sub-station should be located on periphery /sub basement and (not
above ground floor).
Additional exit shall be provided if travel distance from farthest corner to
ramp is more than l5 m.
Perfect independent vent system 30 air changes per hour linked with
detection as well as automatic high velocity water spray system shall be
provided.
All the transformers shall be protected with high velocity water spray system
/ Nitrogen Injection System Carbon Dioxide total flooding system in case of
oil filled transformer. In addition to this, manual control of auto high
velocity spray system for individual transformers shall be located outside
the building at ground floor.
Suitable arrangement for pump house, water storage tanks with main
electrical pump and a diesel-operated pump shall be made if no such
arrangement is provided in the building. In case the water pumping
facilities are existing in the building for sprinkler system, the same should
however be utilized for high velocity water spray system. Alternatively
automatic CO2 total flooding system shall be provided with manual controls
outside the electric sub-station.
System shall have facility to give an audio alarm in the basement as well as
at the control room.
Fire control room shall be manned round the clock.
34)
The electric sub station shall have electric supply from alternate source for
operation of vent System lighting arrangements.
Cable trenches shall be filled with sand
35)
Party walls shall be provided between two transformers as per the rules.
36)
37)
Electric control panels shall be segregated.

Exits from basement electric substation shall have self-closing fire smoke
97
V Semester
38)
check doors of 2-hours fire rating near entry to ramp.

All openings to lower basement or to ground floor shall be sealed properly.
39)
Yearly inspection shall be carried out by electrical load sanctioning
Authority.
40)
41)
per
Ramp to be designed in a manner that in case of fire no smoke should

enter the main building.
Electric sub station transformer shall have clearance on all sides as
BBL/relevant electric rules.
42)
Other facility will be as per Building Bye-Laws and relevant electric rules.
43)
Rising electrical mains shall consist of metal bus bars suitably protected
from safety point of view.
Oil less transformer shall be preferred.
44)
7.20 FIRE
REQUIREMENTS
PROTECTION
Buildings shall be planned, designed and constructed to ensure fire safety and this sha1l
be done in accordance with part IV Fire Protection of National Building Code of India,
unless otherwise specified in these Bye-Laws. In the case of buildings (identified in ByeLaws No.
7.1) the building schemes shall also be cleared by the Chief Fire
Officer.
7.20.1 First Aid /Fixed Fire Fighting /Fire Detection Systems and other
Facilities
Provision of fire safety arrangement for different occupancy from. SI no. 1 to 23 as
indicated below shall be as per Annexure 'A' 'B' & 'C'.
Note for Annexure A B &
C
1
2
3
4.
5
Where more than one riser is required because of large floor area, the
quantity of water and pump capacity recommended in these Annexures
should be finalized in consultation with Chief Fire Officer.
The above quantities of water shall be exclusively for fire fighting and
shall not be utilized for domestic or other use.
A facility to boost up water pressure in the riser directly from the mobile
pump shall be provided in the wet riser, down comer system with suitable
fire service inlets (collecting head) with 2 to 4 numbers of 63 mm inlets for
100200 mm dia main, with check valve and a gate valve.
Internal diameter of rubber hose for reel shall be minimum 20 mm. A shut
off branch with nozzle of 5 mm. size shall be provided.
Fire pumps shall have positive suctions. The pump house shall be
adequately ventilated by using normal/mechanical means. A clear space of
1.0 m. shall be kept in between the pumps and enclosure for easy
movement /maintenance.
Proper testing facilities and control panel etc. shall be provided.
98
V Semester
6
7
8
7.21
Unless otherwise specified in Bye-Laws, the fire fighting equipments

/installation shall conform to relevant Indian Standard Specification.
In case of mixed occupancy, the fire fighting arrangement shall be made
as per the highest class of occupancy.
Requirement of water based first aid fire extinguishers shall be reduced to
half if hose reel is provided in the Building.
STATIC WATER STORAGE TANK

a)
b)
c)
A satisfactory supply of water exclusively for the purpose of fire fighting

shall always be available in the form of underground static storage
tank with capacity specified in Annexure-A with arrangements of
replenishment by town's main or alternative source of supply @ 1000
liters per minute. The static storage water supply required for the above
mentioned purpose should entirely be accessible to the fire tenders of the
local fire service. Provision of suitable number of manholes shall be made
available for inspection repairs and insertion of suction hose etc. The
covering slab shall be able to withstand the vehicular load of 45 tonnes in
case of high rise and 22 tonnes in case of low rise buildings. A draw off
connection shall be provided. The slab need not strengthened if the static
tank is not located in mandatory set- back area.
To prevent stagnation of water in the static water tank the suction tank of
the domestic water supply shall be fed only through an over flow
arrangement to maintain the level therein at the minimum specified capacity.
The static water storage tank shall be provided with a fire brigade
collecting branching with 4 Nos. 63mm dia instantaneous male inlets
arranged in a valve box with a suitable fixed pipe not less than 15 cm dia to
discharge water into the tank. This arrangement is not required where down
comer is provided.
7.22 AUTOMATIC SPRINKLERS

Automatic sprinkler system shall be installed in the following buildings:
a)
b)
c)
d)
e)
All buildings of 24 m. and above in height, except group housing and 45

m. and above in case of apartment /group housing society building.
Hotels below l5 m. in height and above 1000 sq m. built up area at each
floor and or if basement is existing.
All hotels, mercantile, and institutional buildings of 15 m. and above.
Mercantile building having basement more than one floor but below 15 m.
(floor area not exceeding 750 sq m.)
Underground Shopping Complex.
f)
Underground car / scooter parking /enclosed car
parking. g) Basement area 200 sq m. and above.
h)
Any special hazards where the Chief Fire Officer considers it necessary.
i)
For buildings up to 24 m. in height where automatic sprinkler system is

not mandatory as per these Bye-Laws, if provided with sprinkler
installation following relaxation may be considered.
i)
Automatic heat/smoke detection system and M.C.P. need not
be insisted upon.
ii)
The number of Fire Extinguisher required shall be reduced by half.
99
V Semester
7.23
FIXED
CARBON DI-OXIDE / FOAM /

SPRAY EXTINGUISHING SYSTEM
DCO
WATER
Fixed extinguishing installations shall be provided as per the relevant specifications in the
premises where use of above extinguishing media is considered necessary by the Chief
Fire Officer.
7.24 FIRE
ALARM
SYSTEM
All buildings of 15 m. and above in height shall be equipped with fire alarm system, and
also residential buildings (Dwelling House, Boarding House and Hostels) above 24 m.
height.
a)
b)
c)
d)
e)
f)
g)
Note:
All residential buildings like dwelling houses (including flats)

boarding houses and hostels shall be equipped with manually operated
electrical fire alarm system with one or more call boxes located at each
floor. The location of the call boxes shall be decided after taking into
consideration their floor without having to travel more than 22.5 m.
The call boxes shall be of the break glass type without any moving parts,
where the call is transmitted automatically to the control room without any
other action on the part of the person operating the call boxes.
All call boxes shall be wired in a closed circuit to a control panel in a
control room, located as per Bye-Laws so that the floor number from
where the call box is actuated is clearly indicated on the control panel. The
circuit shall also include one or more batteries with a capacity of 48 hours
normal working at full load. The battery shall be arranged to be a
continuously trickle charged from the electric mains.
The call boxes shall be arranged to sound one or more sounders so as to
ensure that all occupants of the floor shall be warned whenever any call box
is actuated.
The call boxes shall be so installed that they do not obstruct the exit ways
and yet their location can easily be noticed from either direction. The base
of the call box shall be at a height of 1.5 m. from the floor level.
All buildings other than as indicated above shall, in addition to the
manually operated electrical fire alarm system, be equipped with an
automatic fire alarm system.
Automatic detection system shall be installed in accordance with the
relevant standard specifications. In buildings where automatic sprinkler
system is provided, the automatic detection system may not be insisted
upon unless decided otherwise by the Chief Fire Officer.
Several type of fire detectors are available in the market but the application of each type
is limited and has to be carefully considered in relation to the type of risk and the
structural
features of the building where they are to be installed.
7.25 CONTROL ROOM

There shall be a control room on the entrance floor of the building with communication
system (suitable public address system) to all floors and facilities for receiving the
message from different floors. Details of all floor plans along with the details of
fire fighting equipment and installation shall be maintained in the Control Room. The
Control Room shall also have facility to detect the fire on any floor through indicator
boards connecting fire detection and alarm system on all floors. The staff in charge of
100
V Semester
the Control Room shall be responsible for the maintenance of the various services and
fire fighting equipment and installation. The Control Room shall be manned round the
clock by trained fire fighting staff.
7.26 FIRE
ORDERS
DRILLS
AND
FIRE
The guidelines for fire drill and evacuation etc. for high-rise building may be seen
in Appendix (B) of National Building Code part IV. All such building shall prepare the
fire orders duly approved by the Chief Fire Officer.
7.27
A qualified fire officer and trained staff shall be appointed for the
following buildings.
a)
All high rise buildings above 30 m. in height where covered area of one
floor exceeds 1000 sq m. except apartments / group housing.
b)
All hotels, identified under classification three star and above category
by Tourism Department and all hotels above 15 m. in height with 150
beds capacity or more without star category.
c)
All hospital building of 15 m. and above or having number of beds
exceeding
100.
d)
Underground shopping complex where covered area exceeds 1000 sq
m. e) All high hazard industries.
f)
Any other risk which Chief Fire Officer considers necessary.
7.28
The lightening protection warning light (red) for high-rise buildings shall be
provided in accordance with the relevant standard. The same shall be checked by
electrical department.
7.29 MATERIAL USED FOR CONSTRUCTION OF
BUILDING
a)
The combustible/flammable material shall not be used for partitioning,
wall paneling, false ceiling etc. Any material giving out toxic
gases/smoke if involved in the fire shall not be used for partitioning of
a floor or wall paneling or a false ceiling etc. The surface frames spread of
the lining material shall conform to class-I of the standard specification.
The framework of the entire false ceiling would be provided with metallic
sections and no wooden framework shall be allowed for paneling/false
ceiling.
b)
Construction features/elements of structures shall conform to National
Building Code and BIS code
7.30LPG
The use of LPG shall not be permitted in the high-rise building except
residential/hotel/hostel/kitchen/pantry (if any) and shall be located at the periphery of the
building on the ground level.
7.31 HOUSE
KEEPING
101
V Semester
A high standard of house keeping must be insisted upon by all concerned. There must be
no laxity in this respect. It must be borne in mind that fire safety is dependent to a large
extent upon good housekeeping.
7.31.1 Good
following:a)
House-Keeping
includes
the
Maintaining the entire premises in neat and clean condition.
b)
Ensuring that rubbish and combustible material are not thrown about
or allowed to accumulate, even in small quantity, in any portion of the
building. Particular attention must be paid to corners and places hidden from
view.
c)
Providing metal receptacles/waste paper basket (of non-combustible
material) at suitable locations for disposal of waste. Separate
receptacles must be provided for disposal of cotton rags/waste, wherever
it is generated, these must under no circumstances be left lying around
in any portion of the building.
d)
Ensuring that receptacles for waste are emptied at regular intervals and the
waste removed immediately for safe disposal outside the building.
e)
Ensuring that all doors/fixtures are maintained in good repairs,
particular attention must be paid to self-closing fire smoke check doors
and automatic fire/doors/rolling shutters.
f)
Ensuring that self-closing fire/smoke check doors close properly and that
the doors are not wedged open.
g)
Ensuring that the entire structure of the building is maintained in good
repairs. h)
Ensuring that all electrical and mechanical service equipments are
maintained
in good working condition at all times.
i)
Ensuring that Cars / Scooters etc. are parked systematically in neat rows. It
is advisable to mark parking lines on the ground in the parking areas near
the building and in the parking area on ground floor and in
basement(s); as applicable, inside the building. A parking attendant must
ensure that vehicles are parked in an orderly manner and that the vehicles
do not encroach upon the open space surrounding the building.
7.31.2. Smoking Restrictions
a)
Smoking shall be prohibited throughout the basement(s) and in all areas
where there is a profusion of combustible materials. Easily
readable
"NO SMOKING" signs must be conspicuously posted at
locations where they can catch the eye. Each sign must also include a
pictograph. The sign may also be illuminated.
b)
In all places where smoking is permitted ashtrays, half filled with water,
must be placed on each table/at each other suitable locations for safe
disposal of spent smoking material. The design of the ashtrays must be
such that they cannot easily topple over. If, for any reason, this is not
practicable a minimum of one metal bucket or other non-combustible
container half filled with water must be provided in each compartment
for disposal of spent smoking materials.
7.31.3 Limiting the Occupant Load in Parking and Other Areas of Basement(s)
Where parking facility is provided in the basement(s) no person other than the
102
V Semester
floor- parking attendant may be allowed to enter and remain in the parking areas
except for parking and removal of Cars/Scooters. Regular offices must not be
maintained in the storage /parking area in the basement(s). The stores / godowns
must be opened for the limited purpose of keeping or removing stores.
No person other than those on duty may be permitted in the air-conditioning plant
room(s), HL/LT switch room, transformer compartment, control room pumphouse, generator room, stores and records etc.
7.32 FIRE PREVENTION
In addition to the measures recommended above, the following fire prevention measures
must be implemented when the building is in occupation.
a)
Storage of flammable substances, such as diesel oil, gasoline, motor oils,
etc must not be allowed anywhere within the building. The only exception
to this rule may be:
i)
Storage of diesel oil in a properly installed tank in a fire-resisting
compartment in the generator room;
ii)
Diesel oil, gasoline, motor oil etc, filled in the vehicle tanks.
b)
c)
d)
e)
f)
g)
h)
Preparation of tea and warming of food must be prohibited throughout the

building.
Where heaters are used during winters, the following precautions must
be taken.
i)
All heaters, except convector heaters, must be fitted with guards.
ii)
Heaters must not be placed in direct contact with or too close to
any combustible material.
iii)
Heaters must be kept away from curtains to ensure that the latter
do not blow over the heater accidentally.
iv)
Heaters must not be left unattended while they are switched on.
v)
Defective heaters must be immediately removed from service
until they have been repaired and tested for satisfactory performance.
vi)
Use of heaters must be prohibited in the entire basement, fire
control room and in all weather maker rooms throughout the
building. Also in all places where there is profusion of
combustible flammable materials.
Use of candles or other naked light flame must be forbidden throughout
the building, except in the offices (for sealing letters only) and kitchen.
When candles/ spirit lamps are used for sealing letters/packets, extreme care
must be take to ensure that paper do not come in direct contact with the
naked flame and the candle/spirit lamp does not topple over accidentally
while still lighted. All candles/spirit lamps kitchen fires must be
extinguished when no longer required.
Fluorescent lights must not be directly above the open file racks in
offices/record rooms. Where this is unavoidable, such lights must be
switched on only for as long as they are needed.
Filling up of old furniture and other combustible materials such as scrap
paper, rags, etc. must not be permitted anywhere in the building. These
must be promptly removed from the building.
More than one portable electrical appliance must not be connected to any
single electrical outlet.
Used stencils, ink smeared combustible materials and empty ink tubes must
not be allowed to accumulate in rooms/compartments where cyclostyling
103
V Semester
i)
j)
k)
l)
m)
be
n)
o)
p)
7.33
is done. These must be removed and disposed off regularly.

All shutters/doors of main switch panels and compartments/shafts for
electrical cables must be kept locked.
Aisles in record rooms and stores must have a clear uniform width of not
less than 1.0 m. Racks must not be placed directly against the wall/partition.
In record rooms, offices and stores, a clear space of not less than 30 cm.
must be maintained between the top-most stack of stores/records and the or
lighting fittings whichever is lower.
A similar clearance, and at (k) above must be maintained from fire detectors.
Fire detectors must not be painted under any circumstances and must also
kept free from lime/distemper.
Records must not be piled/dumped on the floor.
Welding or use of blow torch shall not be permitted inside the building,
except when it is done under strict supervision and in full conformity
with the requirements laid down in IS: 3016-1966 code of practice for fire
precautions in welding and cutting operation.
Printing ink/oil must not be allowed to remain on the floor, the floor must
be maintained in a clean condition at all times.
OCCUPANCY RESTRICTIONS
a)
b)
c)
d)
e)
f)
The premises leased to any party shall be used strictly for the purpose for
which they are leased.
No
dangerous
trade/practices
(including
experimenting
with
dangerous chemicals) shall be carried on in the leased premises;
No dangerous goods shall be stored within the leased premises.
The common/public corridor shall be maintained free of obstructions, and
the lessee shall not put up any fixtures that may obstruct the passage in
the corridor and/or shall not keep any wares, furniture or other articles in
the corridor.
The penalty for contravention of the condition laid down below must be
immediate termination of lease and removal of all offending materials.
Regular inspection and checks must be carried out at frequent intervals to
ensure compliance with conditions above.
Part A
1.
2.
3.
4.
5.
Define air conditioning & tons of refrigeration.

Differentiate latent heat of fusion & sublimation
Write a note on condenser.
Write a note on compressor.
State the problems of condensation.
104
V Semester
6. Differentiate air conditioning & air cooling.

7. Write a note on multi-zone air conditioning.
8. What are the components of refrigeration systems?
9. Write a note on single-zone air conditioning.
10. Write a note on heat gain in buildings.
11. Write a note on window A/C.
12. Write a note on split A/C.
13. Briefly explain packaged units.
14. What is the function of AHU?
15. Write a note on chilled water plants.
16. When centralized plants are used?
17. Explain the air conditioning system suitable for room without an external wall.
18. Write a note on cooling towers.
19. What are the requirements of a good ventilating system?
20. What do you mean by dry expansion system?
21. Name any four factors ventilation.
22. Draw a flow chart showing different types of air conditioning systems.
23. Explain VAV in HVAC systems.
24. Write a short note on automatic fire alarm systems.
25. What are the distinct operations in fire protection scheme?
26. Write short notes on potential source of fire hazards.
27. What are the general considerations to be made while placing fire detectors?
28. Give the classification of fire.
29. Define ignition.
30. What are heat sensitive detectors?
31. What are the components of fire hydrant systems?
32. What is meant by fire load?
33. What are the requirements of fire fighting installations?
34. How foam system fights fire?
35. Differentiate automatic sprinkler system and water pipe lines.
36. What is the main advantage of automatic sprinklers?
37. Write short notes on extinguishers.
38. Write note on halon extinguishers.
39. Write about fire alarm systems.
40. Write about the types of smoke detectors.
105
V Semester
Part B
1. Explain in detail with a sketch the central DX plant system for air conditioning multistoried buildings.
2. Write short notes on : Ducting
Cooling towers
Plant room
AHU
3. Describe the vapour compression cycle in an air conditioning unit.
4. Write a note on concepts of zoning.
5. Write a note on heat gain in interiors.
6. Describe briefly about different methods of air conditioning system.
7. Write a note on all air conditioning systems suitable for a shopping mall.
8. Write in detail about the distribution of services in multi storied building.
9. What is the importance of including air conditioning in the preliminary stage of
building design?
10. Write short notes on: Constant volume system.
Refrigerant based systems.
Vertical distribution of services
AHU
11. What are the types of cooling towers and explain their working principles?
12. Write short notes on all air system with its advantages and disadvantages.
13. Sketch and explain in detail about evaporative coolers.
14. Write in detail the working of VAV. State it advantages over the other systems of air
conditioning.
15. Write in detail about various criteria for selecting air conditioning systems.
16. With a neat sketch explain the duct distribution in multi-storey building.
17. Explain how the building occupants can be protected in case of fire accidents.
18. Write a note on the importance of site planning with respect to fire fighting.
19. Describe the design of egress in a multi-storeyed building.
20. What are heat vents and the types of venting? Explain the principles of venting.
21. Write about the guideline that has to be followed in design of buildings.
22. Write about automatic fire alarm systems.
23. Write in detail about sprinklers and sprinkler systems.
24. What are the general considerations to be made while placing fire detectors?
25. Write short notes on : Classification of fire
Smoke proof closures.
Fire resisting materials
Fire triangle.
106
AIR CONDITIONING
Basic Refrigeration Principles . . . .

Thermodynamics
Heat
Temperature
Latent heat of Fusion
Evaporation, saturation temperature
Pressure temperature relationship for liquid refrigerants
Refrigeration cycle components

Vapor compression cycle
Compressors & Evaporators
Refrigerant control devices
Electric motors, Air handling units, Cooling towers
Thermodynamics. . . .
Thermodynamics is the branch of natural science concerned with heat

and its relation to other forms of energy and work.
There are certain fundamental principles of nature, often called laws of
thermodynamics, which govern our existence here on earth.
The first and most important of these laws is the fact energy can neither
be created or destroyed, but can be converted form one form to
another.
Heat. . . .
Heat is a form of Energy, primarily created by the transformation of

other types of energy into heat energy.
Heat is always defined as the energy in transfer, for it is never content to
stand still, but is always moving form a warm body to a colder body.
(Ex: Spoon in coffee, Source of heat Radiation)
Heat exists at any temperature above absolute ZERO, even though it
may be in extremely small quantities.
Temperature. . . .
Temperature is a physical property of matter that quantitatively
expresses the common notions of hot and cold.
Objects of low temperature are cold, while various degrees of higher
temperatures are referred to as warm or hot.
When a heat transfer path between them is open, heat spontaneously

flows from bodies of a higher temperature to bodies of lower temperature.
The flow rate increases with the temperature difference, while no heat
will be exchanged between bodies of the same temperature, which are

then said to be in "thermal equilibrium".
Temperature is a scale used to measure

the intensity of heat, the indicator that
determines which way the heat energy will
move.
US measures in degrees Fahrenheit
Other parts - centigrade scale (Celsius)
Both scales use two basic points as
reference, the freezing point of water, and
the boiling point of water at sea level.
Fahrenheit
Scale
180
increments/
degrees F
Celsius Scale 100 increments/ degrees C
Heat measurement. . . .
The measurement of temperature has no relation to the quantity of heat.
For example a match stick and a Bonfire same temperature but quantity
varies.
A British Thermal Unit (BTU) is the amount of heat energy needed to raise
the temperature of one pound of water by one degree F.
Heat transfer . . . .
The second law of thermodynamics is that heat travels from a warm
object to a colder one. The rate of heat travel is in direct proportion to the
temperature difference between the two bodies.
Heat can travel in any of the three ways:
Conduction
Radiation
Convection
Radiation is of less importance in case of actual refrigeration process.

However, radiation to the refrigerated space or product form the outside
environment , particularly the sun , may be a major factor in the
refrigeration load.
Conduction plays an important role in the refrigeration process since
temperature difference between the inside and outside environment

causes a rise or drop in the temperature.
Materials play a vital role in the conduction of heat and in the
refrigeration process.
Heat transfer in buildings . . . .
Change of State . . . .
Most of the common substances can exist in three different forms,
called states: solid, liquid and gas.
The state will change when the substance is heated.

As a solid, a substance has a fixed volume and shape and is usually
unable to flow, except in the case of glaciers. For instance, an ice cube
or snowflake is the solid state of water.
When a solid is heated, it turns into a liquid. As a liquid, a substance has
a fixed volume, but its shape changes to fill the shape of its container. For
instance, a glass of water is the liquid state of water.
When a liquid is heated, it turns into a gas. As a gas, a substance does
not have a fixed volume or shape. Gas expands to fill the shape and
volume of its container.
Sensible Heat. . . .
Sensible heat is potential energy in the form of thermal energy or heat.
The thermal
surroundings.
body
must
have
a temperature
higher
than
its
The thermal energy can be transported via conduction, convection,

radiation or by a combination thereof.
In many cases the reference temperature is inferred from common
knowledge, i.e. "room temperature.
Latent Heat . . . .
latent heat is the amount of energy in the form of heat released or
absorbed by a substance during a change of phase (i.e. solid, liquid, or
gas)
Two latent heats are typically described:

latent heat of fusion (melting or freezing)
A change of substance form solid to a liquid or from a liquid to
solid involves latent heat of fusion.
latent heat of evaporation (boiling or condensation).
A change of a substance from liquid to a vapor, or from a vapor
back to a liquid involves the latent heat of evaporation.
Saturation temperature . . . .
The condition of temperature and pressure at which both liquid and
vapor can exist simultaneously is termed saturation.
Saturation temperature is nothing but the temp at which addition of heat
result in change of phase , for water the change of phase will result in
vapor at saturation temperature and for steam the addition of heat result in
superheated steam.
Pressure temperature relationships, Liquids . . . .

Temperature
and
pressure
proportional to each other.
are
directly
This means that as the temperature decreases,

the pressure also decreases, and as the
temperature increases, the pressure increases.
One way to think of this is if you increase the
speed of the molecules by increasing their
temperature- the force of the molecules hitting
their container increases and this increases the
pressure.
The temperature at which a liquid boils is
dependent on the pressure exerted on it.
Principles of Refrigeration . . . .
Liquids absorb heat when changed from liquid to gas
Gases give off heat when changed from gas to liquid.
For an air conditioning system to
operate with economy, the refrigerant
must be used repeatedly.
For this reason, all air conditioners use
the same cycle of compression,
condensation,
expansion,
and
evaporation in a closed circuit.
The same refrigerant is used to move
the heat from one area, to cool this
area, and to expel this heat in another
area.
Refrigeration cycle components . . . .
Refrigeration cycle components . . . .

The refrigerant comes into the COMPRESSOR as a low-pressure gas, it is
compressed and then moves out of the compressor as a high-pressure gas.
The gas then flows to the CONDENSER. Here the gas condenses to a
liquid, and gives off its heat to the outside air.
The liquid then moves to the EXPANSION VALVE under high pressure.
This valve restricts the flow of the fluid, and lowers its pressure as it leaves the
expansion valve.
The low-pressure liquid then moves to the EVAPORATOR, where heat
from the inside air is absorbed and changes it from a liquid to a gas.
As a hot low-pressure gas, the refrigerant moves to the compressor where
the entire cycle is repeated.
The four-part cycle is divided at the centre into a high side and a low side
This refers to the pressures of the refrigerant in each side of the system
Compressor . . . .
The compressor has two functions in the compression refrigeration cycle.
First it removes the refrigerant vapor from the evaporator and reduces the
pressure in the evaporator.
Second the compressor raises the pressure of the refrigerant vapor to a
level high enough so that the saturation temperature is higher than the
temperature of the cooling medium.
Three basic types of compressors:
Reciprocating - used in smaller horsepower sizes for commercial,
domestic and industrial application.
Rotary used in domestic refrigerators
Centrifugal used in large central air conditioning systems
Evaporator . . . .
The Evaporator is a part in the low pressure side of the refrigeration system
in which the liquid boils or evaporates, absorbing the heat as it changes
into a vapor.
Evaporators are of different shapes and different sizes.
The most common style is the blower coil or forced convection
evaporator.
The refrigerant evaporates inside the coil extracting heat from air blown
through the coil by fan.
Direct expansion evaporators are
those in which the refrigerant is fed
directly into the coil through a metering
device such as expansion valve or
capillary tube.
In other types secondary refrigerants such as chilled water or brine

may be used for actual space or product refrigeration while the
evaporator is brine or water chiller.
In these cases the refrigerant cools the water or brine which in turn
cools the air of the conditioned space.
These are basically heat exchangers where heat is exchanged from
liquid to refrigerant.
Control Devices . . . .
To maintain correct operating conditions, control devices are needed
in a refrigeration system.
Metering Devices
Metering devices, such as:
EXPANSION VALVES AND FLOAT VALVES, control the flow of liquid
refrigerant between the high side and the low side of the system.
It is at the end of the line between the condenser and the evaporator.
These devices are of five different types:
an automatic expansion valve (also known as a constant-pressure
expansion valve),
a thermostatic expansion valve,
low-side float valves,
high-side float valves, and
a capillary tube
Automatic Expansion Valve . . . .

An automatic expansion valve
Maintains a constant pressure in the evaporator.
Used only with direct expansion, dry type of evaporators.
The valve feeds enough liquid refrigerant to the evaporator to
maintain a constant pressure in the coils.
This type of valve is generally used in a system where constant loads
are expected.
When a large variable load occurs, the valve will not feed enough
refrigerant to the evaporator and will overfeed the evaporator at low
load.
Thermostatic Expansion Valve . . . .

A thermostatic expansion valve keeps a constant superheat in the
refrigerant vapour leaving the coil.
The valve controls the liquid refrigerant, so the evaporator coils
maintain the correct amount of refrigerant at all times.
The valve has a power element that is activated by a remote bulb
located at the end of the evaporator coils.
The bulb senses the superheat at the suction line and adjusts the
flow of refrigerant into the evaporator
Low-Side Float Expansion Valve . . . .

The low-side float expansion valve controls the liquid refrigerant flow
where a flooded evaporator is used.
It consists of a ball float in either a chamber or the evaporator on the
low-pressure side of the system.
The float actuates a needle valve through a lever mechanism. As the

float lowers, refrigerant enters through the open valve; when it rises, the
valve closes.
High-Side Float Expansion Valve . . . .
In a high-side float expansion valve the valve float is on the highpressure side of the system.
Refrigerant from the condenser flows into the valve and immediately
opens it, allowing refrigerant to expand and pass into the evaporator.
Refrigerant charge is critical.
An overcharge of the system floods back and damages the
compressor. An undercharge results in a capacity drop.
Capillary Tube . . . .
The capillary tube consists of a long tube of small diameter.
It acts as a constant throttle on the refrigerant.
It feeds refrigerant to the evaporator as fast as it is produced by the
condenser.
The flow of refrigerant from the condenser to the evaporator stops

when the compressor unit stops.
The capillary tube is best suited for household boxes, such as freezers
and window air-conditioners, where the refrigeration load is
reasonably constant and small horsepower motors are used.
Electric Motors . . . .
Electric motors are used as the power source on a great majority of
refrigeration compressors and practically all are now alternating
current motors.
All motors in refrigeration are induction motors, the name coming

form the fact that the current in the moving part of the motor is
induced, the moving component having no connection to the source
of current.
The stationary part is called as
stator and the moving part is
called as rotor.
The
stator
windings
are
connected to the power source ,
while the rotor is mounted on the
motor shaft, the rotation of the
rotor provides the motor driving
power source.
Air handling units ( A H U ) . . . .

An air handling unit (AHU) is a device used to condition and circulate
air as part of a heating, ventilating, and air-conditioning (HVAC) system.
An AHU is usually a large metal box containing a blower, heating or
cooling elements, filter racks or chambers, sound attenuators,
and dampers.
Air handling units usually connect to a ductwork ventilation system that
distributes the conditioned air through the building and returns it to the
AHU.
Sometimes
AHUs
discharge
(supply) and admit (return) air
directly to and from the space
served without ductwork.
Small air handlers, for local use,
are called terminal units, and
may only include an air filter, coil,
and blower; these simple terminal
units are called blower coils or fan
coil units.
A larger air handling unit
designed
for
outdoor
use,
typically on roofs, is known as
a packaged unit (PU) or rooftop
unit (RTU)
Cooling towers . . . .
A cooling tower is a heat rejection device, which extracts waste heat
to the atmosphere though the cooling of a water stream to a lower
temperature.
Cooling towers are classified according to the method of moving air
through the tower
Natural draft
Induced draft
Forced draft
Natural draft cooling towers . . . .

Natural draft wet cooling towers
have been used to cool water,
primarily in energy production, for
almost 100 year.
The tower operates on the stack
effect which causes the hot air in the
tower to rise (natural draft)..
The necessary stack
designed in various ways.
can
be
For both technical and cost

reasons,
reinforced
concrete
structures have become standard to
handle the high cooling water flow
rates from increasingly large power
generating units.
Induced draft cooling towers . . . .

Induced draft cross flow cooling towers can be constructed with either
treated wood structure or with Concrete structures with stainless steel.
It generally comes with a distribution basin with nozzles, situated at the
top of the tower.
Gravity pushes the water to be distributed evenly through flower pot
target nozzles over the fill media and then flow vertically along the honey
comb fills.
The fan placed horizontally along the motor to pull air over the fill
media, where some of the water evaporates extracts the heat from the
remaining water.
Moist and warm air is then drawn to the fan and dispersed into the air
outside via the fan deck.
The cold water that is created is then accumulated at the collection
sump and then used for re-circulation.
Induced draft cooling towers . . . .
Forced draft cooling towers . . . .

A forced draft cooling tower uses a fan
to force air into the tower.
In the usual installation the fan shaft is in
the horizontal plane.
The air is forced horizontally through the
fill and upwards to be discharged out at
the top of the tower.
AIR CONDITIONING
SYSTEMS & APPLICATIONS
C O N T E N T ....
Air conditioning systems for small buildings window types,
Evaporative coolers, packaged thermal units and wall units split
systems.
Systems for large building chilled water plant all Air system
variable air volume all water system
Configuring / sizing of mechanical equipment spaces and sizes for

chiller plant cooling tower fan room circulation pumps pipes
ducts.
V A P O R
C O M P R E S S I O N
C Y C L E ....
F A C T O R S
A F F E C T I N G
A I R C O N D I T I O N I N G ....
Outdoor Design Conditions Not in our control
Building Orientation
Indoor Design Temperature
External Glass & Skylights
External Walls
Exposed Roof
Internal Walls, Ceilings & Floors
Occupancy Not in our control - defined by the usage
Lighting
Equipment inside
Fresh Air
S Y S T E M S ....
COOLING SYSTEM vary mostly by the way heat is transferred from the rooms
to the refrigeration machine/mechanical room and from there to the heat
sink. The choice of the heat transfer methods depends on building type
and size.
Cooling system are often classified by the fluids that are used to transfer the
heat from the habitable spaces to the refrigeration machine/mechanical

room.
S m a l l
B u i l d i n g s . . . .
Types of units used for air conditioning in small building :

Window units
Packaged units
Split units
Evaporative coolers
W I N D O W
U N I T . . . .
For air conditioning single spaces like rooms, a window units is used.
The condenser coil, compressor and one fan are on the exterior side
of an internal partition. The compressor is on the outside because it is
the noisiest part of the equipment.
On the interior side of the partition
there is the evaporator coil and a
fan to blow air over it.
As indoor air passes over the
evaporator coil, its temperature is
often lowered
An adjustable opening in the
interior
partition
allows
a
controlled amount of fresh air to
enter for ventilation purposes.
P A C K A G E D
U N I T . . . .
A packaged terminal air conditioner is a type of self-contained heating
and air conditioning system
Packaged units are pre-engineered where most of the mechanical

equipment is assembled at the factory.
They offer low installation, operating and maintenance costs.
Rooftop versions are the most common with each unit serving a separate
zone.
Packaged units are also used on the ground for building with crawl
spaces or above suspended ceiling when there is enough space below the
roof.
P A C K A G E D
U N I T . . . .
P A C K A G E D
U N I T . . . .
S P L I T
U N I T . . . .
Most homes and some other buildings find the split units to be most
appropriate.
In the split unit, the compressor and condenser coils are outdoors while
the air handling unit with the evaporator coil is indoors.
The air handling unit also contains the central heating systems.
The illustrate the use of split systems for a small office building. The air
handling units (AHU) with their evaporator coils and heating systems are in
a mechanical equipment room (MER)
The supply ducts are above a suspended ceiling but on the indoor side
of the roof insulation.
The air is supplied to each room through a top register or a ceiling

diffuser. Return air grilles and ducts bring the air back to the air handling
units.
Split units are of three types

Wall Mounted
Ceiling Mounted
Cassette type
E V A P O R A T I V E
C O O L E R S . . . .
An evaporative cooler (also swamp cooler, desert cooler, and wet air
cooler) is a device that cools air through the evaporation of water.
Evaporative cooling differs from typical air conditioning systems which
use vapor-compression refrigeration cycles.
Evaporative cooling works by employing water's large enthalpy of

vaporization.
The temperature of dry air can be dropped significantly through the
phase transition of liquid water to water vapor (evaporation), which can

cool air using much less energy than refrigeration.
E V A P O R A T I V E
C O O L E R S . . . .
In extremely dry climates, evaporative cooling of air has the added

benefit of conditioning the air with more moisture for the comfort of building
occupants.
Unlike closed-cycle refrigeration, evaporative cooling requires a water
source, and must continually consume water to operate.
Air washers and wet cooling towers use the same principles as evaporative
coolers but are designed for purposes other than directly cooling the air
inside a building.
For example, an evaporative cooler may be designed to cool the coils of
a large air conditioning or refrigeration system to increase its efficiency.
AC
Parameters
Depending upon the following

factors the conditioning systems
has its own advantages and
disadvantages:
Ducts
Portability
Aesthetics
Flexible Sizing
Affordability
Suitable For
Window AC
Small rooms
with a
window sill
Split AC
Any room
with or
without a
window
Relatively on
Minimal
Noise
the higher
noise
side
Humidity
Humidity
control, dust
Advanced
control, dust filter,
features
filter
bacteria
filter
Slight
Designer
possibility to
indoor units
Interference
interfere with
blend well
with home
window
decor
with wall
curtains and
decor
drapes
Indoor and
outdoor units
Minimal
need some
Ease of
effort
installation
amount of
required
effort for
installation
Cassette AC
Large indoor
spaces
Silent
operation
Humidity
control, dust
filter,
bacteria
filter
Barely
interferes
with interior
decor
Needs
specialised
false ceiling
SYSTEMS FOR LARGE

BUILDINGS . . . . . .
S Y S T E M
Water
Space
Operation
S E L E C T I O N
. . . .
Availability of Soft Water for Air Conditioning

Space for Installation of AC Plant
Competence of Operation & Maintenance Staff
Choice
of system will depend on building purpose and degree of
occupancy. There are three categories :

i. All -Air system
ii. All-water system
iii. Combination Air-water System
A L L
A I R
S Y S T E M . . . .
Air is blown across the cold evaporator coil and then delivered by
ducts to the rooms that require cooling.
Air systems can effectively ventilate, filter and dehumidify air.
The main disadvantages lies in the bulky ductwork that is required.
A L L
W A T E R
S Y S T E M . . . .
The water is chilled by the evaporator coil and then delivered to fan-coil
units in each space.
Although the piping in the building takes up very little space, the fan-coil
units in each room do required some space.
Ventilation, dehumidification and filtering of air are possible but not as
effective as with an air system.
C O M B I N E D
In
smaller
buildings,
S Y S T E M . . . .
the
heat
given
off
by
refrigeration
machine/mechanical room is usually dumped into the atmosphere by

blowing outdoor air over the condenser coil.
To make this heat transfer more efficient, water can be sprayed over the
condenser coil.
Medium sized buildings often use a specialized piece of equipment
called an evaporative condenser to dump heat into the atmosphere by
evaporating water.
A cooling tower also dumps

heat into the atmosphere by
evaporating water.
This cooling tower is pumped
to
the
refrigeration
machine/mechanical
Most
cooling
placed on roofs.
towers
room.
are
C H I L L E D
W A T E R
S Y S T E M . . . .
Although standard air conditioners are very popular, they can use a lot of
energy and generate quite a bit of heat.
For large installations like office buildings, air handling and conditioning is
sometimes managed a little differently.
Some systems use water as part of the cooling process. The two most wellknown are chilled water systems and cooling tower air conditioners.
C H I L L E D
W A T E R
S Y S T E M . . . .
In a chilled-water system, the entire air conditioner is installed on the roof

or behind the building. It cools water to between 4.4 and 7.2 degrees
Celsius.
The chilled water is then piped throughout the building and connected
to air handlers.
This can be a versatile system where the water pipes work like the
evaporator coils in a standard air conditioner.

If it's well-insulated, there's no practical distance limitation to the length
of a chilled-water pipe.
C H I L L E D
W A T E R
S Y S T E M . . . .
V A R I A B L E
A I R
V O L U M E . . . .
In VAV systems, chilled air is distributed to spaces from an air handling

unit, and the temperature of individual spaces is controlled by throttling the
quantity of air into each space.
The throttling is accomplished by terminal units that are controlled by the

space thermostats.
VAV systems were originally introduced as a more efficient alternative to
constant-volume reheat systems.

A VAV terminal unit, often called a VAV box, is the zone-level flow control
device.
V A R I A B L E
A I R
V O L U M E . . . .
It is basically a quality, calibrated air damper with an automatic actuator.

The VAV terminal unit is connected to either a local or a central control
system. Control of the system's fan capacity is critical in VAV systems.

In the cooling mode of operation, as the temperature in the space is
satisfied, a VAV box closes to limit the flow of cool air into the space. As the
temperature increases in the space, the box opens to bring the temperature
back down.
The fan maintains a constant static pressure in the discharge duct.
Therefore, as the boxes close, the fan slows down or restricts the amount of air
going into the supply duct. As the boxes open, the fan speeds up and allows
more air flow into the duct, maintaining a constant static pressure.
V A R I A B L E
A I R
V O L U M E . . . .
CONFIGURING OF EQUIPMENT. . . .
A method and system of managing a configuration of mechanical
equipment provides a structured procedure.
It helps to manage various parameters of the mechanical equipment to
facilitate the
maintenance of safety,
legal compliance,
performance, and
reliability of the mechanical equipment.
An actual configuration of the mechanical equipment is determined
based on an evaluation of the mechanical equipment.
Upgrade
requirements
are
planned
for
upgrading
the
actual
configuration to the desired configuration if the actual configuration is

noncompliant with the desired configuration.
SIZING OF EQUIPMENT. . . .
Correct sizing of mechanical equipment is important for several reasons.
Extra money need not be paid up front for an oversized system. This is the
typical process for the construction of new buildings.
Mechanical equipment that is larger than needed results in inefficiencies of
the system.
Oversized furnaces and air conditioners cycle on and off more often than if
they were correctly sized.
They blast on and meet the required heating or cooling loads quickly,
turning off before maximum efficiency is reached. This is called short-cycling.
Further, this also results in a shorter service life for the equipment, and can also
result in thermostat and humidity problems.
C H I L L E R S . . . .
A chiller plant is a collection of individual components that have been
selected to work together as a system.
A chiller plant offers a number of benefits over simple packaged cooling
units as
greater energy efficiency,
better controllability, and
longer life.
Also a chiller-based system can be much more efficient in terms of space
utilization within the building because components need not be located
within the same space.
Water is a more space-efficient heat transfer medium than air, and

therefore works well in space-constrained applications such as high-rise
buildings.
C H I L L E R S . . . .
C H I L L E R S . . . .
These are the characteristics of an efficient chiller plant.
An efficient design concept.
Selecting an appropriate design concept that is responsive to the
anticipated operating conditions is essential to achieving efficiency.

Efficient components.
Chillers, pumps, fans, and motors should all be selected for stand-alone as
well as systemic efficiency.
Proper installation, commissioning, and operation.
A chiller plant that meets the first two criteria can still waste a lot of
energyand provide poor comfort to building occupantsif it is not
installed or operated properly. For this reason, following a formal
commissioning process that functionally tests should be done for the
assurance of efficiency.
C H I L L E R S . . . .
Though there are a vast number of details associated with designing an
efficient chiller plant, in new construction projects the following key
design strategies are addressed:
Focus on Chiller Part Load Efficiency
Design Efficient Pumping Systems
Properly Select the Cooling Tower
Integrate Chiller Controls with Building EMS
Commission the System
D U C T S . . . .
Ducts are used in heating, ventilation, and air conditioning (HVAC) to
deliver and remove air.
These needed airflows include, for example, supply air, return air,
and exhaust air.
As such, air ducts are one method of ensuring acceptable indoor air
quality as well as thermal comfort.
A duct system is often called ductwork. Planning ('laying out'), sizing,
optimizing, detailing, and finding the pressure losses through a duct system
is called duct design.
FIRE SAFETY:
Fire Detection And Fire Fighting

Installation
Fire fighting pump and water requirements, storage wet risers, Dry rises
Heat smoke detectors sprinkler systems
Fire extinguishers & cabinets
Fire protection system CO2 & Halon system
Fire alarm system, snorkel ladder
Configuring, sizing and space requirements for fire fighting equipments
FIRE
Sets Off
Alarm
Signal
Over
Telephone Lines
To
Central Station
- Confirms Alarm
- Calls Police
- Contacts Owner
Fire Fighting Pumps . . . .
A fire pump is a part of a fire sprinkler system's water supply and can be
powered by electric, diesel or steam.
The pump intake is either connected to the public underground water
supply piping, or a static water source (e.g., tank, reservoir, lake).
The pump provides water flow at a higher pressure to the sprinkler
system risers and hose standpipes.
Water for Fire fighting . . . .

Water is the most commonly used agent for controlling and fighting a fire,
by cooling adjacent equipment and for controlling or extinguishing the fire
either by itself or combined as a foam.
It can also provide protection for fire fighters and other personnel in the
event of fire.
Water shall therefore be readily available at all the appropriate locations,
at the proper pressure and in the required quantity.

Fire water should not be used for any other purpose.
Basically, the requirements consist of an independent fire grid main or ring
main fed by permanently installed fire pumps taking suction from a suitable
large capacity source of water such as storage tank, cooling tower basin,
river, sea, etc. The actual source will depend on local conditions.
Wet Riser & Dry Riser . . . .

A wet riser is a system of pipes that are kept permanently filled with
pressurised water, supplied by a mains pump, a storage tank fitted with a
booster pump, or a direct connection to a towns main water source.

Generally, wet risers are installed in large buildings more than 60 metres
above ground level, though some smaller buildings are also often fitted with
wet risers.
Inside the building, internal outlet valves can be found on staircase landings
or at each lift lobby and are clearly labelled; these outlets usually resemble
taps.
Wet Riser & Dry Riser . . . .

Dry Riser systems comprise vertical mains normally fitted into staircase
enclosures with outlet valves on each floor ready to deliver a supply of water
to fire fighting hoses.
An external inlet valve at ground level enables connection with a water
supply, normally from a fire appliance (fire engine).
Dry risers are normally installed in buildings which are 18m high, although if a
building has more than 18 storeys then a wet riser (which is permanently
charged with water) will be installed
Why are fire detection & alarm systems installed?
Notify building occupants to take evasive action to escape the dangers of

a hostile fire.
Summon organized assistance to initiate or assist in fire control activities
Initiate automatic fire control & suppression systems & to sound alarm
Supervise fire control & suppression systems to assure operational status is
maintained
Initiate
controls
auxiliary functions involving environmental, utility & process
Types of fire alarm systems . . . .

Most basic type is designed to only be initiated manually known as a
local system or protected premises (pull station & bell)
Typically, this system is expanded to include fire detection devices to

sense the presence of a fire and initiate a signal.
Fire system categories . . . .

Fire alarm systems have to protect both buildings and occupants.
Before a fire protection system can be designed, it is necessary to
define the main objectives of the system. This is normally determined
by a fire risk assessment, and should be provided as part of the fire

system specification.
The categories of fire alarm systems are
"L" if they are designed to protect life,

"P" to protect buildings and
"M" if they are manual systems.
Category M (Manual)
This is the simplest form of fire protection coverage using break glass call
points and sounders only. There is no automatic fire detection device and
in the event of a fire the alarm has to be manually operated at a call
point.
Category P (Property)
Protection of property and its content. This classification allows for

automatic detection of fire, initiates alarm and indicates location of fire
within the premises. There are 2 levels of coverage in this category.
Category P2 - Partial coverage to high risk areas only may be
sufficient. This would be determined in consultation with occupants, fire
officers and insurers.
Category P1 - Total coverage. All areas being protected by smoke and
heat detectors.
There are 4 levels of coverage in L category:

Category L3/L4 - Smoke detectors or a mixture of smoke and combustion gas
detectors, should be provided in the following: All escape stairways, all
corridors and any other areas that form part of the common escape routes.
Category L3 - Provides for smoke detector coverage in all escape routes so
enough advance warning is given to allow people adequate time to
evacuate before escape routes become blocked by fire or smoke.
Category L2 - As per L3 system, but in addition, automatic fire detectors
should be installed in rooms in which the fire risk is high enough to warrant
individual protection.
Category L1 - Total coverage to protect the lives of all the occupants in the
building, including those in the room where a fire might start.
Fire extinguishers
A fire extinguisher is an active fire protection device to

put
out
fires,
extinguishers
often
consist
in
emergency
situations.
of
pressurized
containers
chemicals that, when discharged, can put out fires.
Fire
of
Class A Extinguishers . . . .
Put out fires in ordinary combustibles, such as

wood and paper.
The numerical rating for this class of fire

extinguisher refers to the amount of water the
fire extinguisher holds and the amount of fire it
will extinguish.
Class B Extinguishers . . . .
used on fires involving flammable liquids, such

as grease, gasoline, oil, etc.
The numerical rating for this class of fire
extinguisher states the approximate number of
square feet of a flammable liquid fire that a nonexpert person can expect to extinguish.
Class C Extinguishers . . . .
are
suitable
energized
for
fires.
use
on
electrically
This
class
of
fire
extinguishers does not have a numerical

rating. The presence of the letter C
indicates that the extinguishing agent is
non-conductive.
Class D Extinguishers . . . .
are designed for use on flammable metals and are
often specific for the type of metal in question. There is

no picture designator for Class D extinguishers. These
extinguishers generally have no rating nor are they given
a multi-purpose rating for use on other types of fires.
Types of Fire Extinguishers . . . .
Dry Chemical extinguishers are usually rated for multiple

purpose use.
They contain an extinguishing
agent and
use a
compressed, non-flammable gas as a propellant.
BC powder is either sodium bicarbonate or potassium

bicarbonate, finely powdered and propelled by carbon
dioxide or nitrogen.
Similarly to almost all extinguishing agents the powders

acts as a thermal ballast making the flames too cool for
the chemical reactions to continue.
Halon extinguishers . . . .
contain a gas that interrupts the chemical reaction that takes place
when fuels burn.
These types of extinguishers are often used to protect valuable electrical

equipment.
Halon extinguishers have a limited range, usually 4 to 6 feet.
The initial application of Halon should be made at the base of the fire,
even after the flames have been extinguished.
Halons
ozone
are chlorofluorocarbons causing damage to the

layer
and
are
being
phased
environmentally-friendly alternatives
out
for
more
Carbon Dioxide (CO2) . . . .
extinguishers are most effective on Class B and C

(liquids
and
electrical)
fires.
Since
the
gas
disperses quickly, these extinguishers are only

effective from 3 to 8 feet.
The carbon dioxide is stored as a compressed

liquid in the extinguisher; as it expands, it cools
the surrounding air.
The cooling will often cause ice to form around

the horn where the gas is expelled from the
extinguisher.
Since
the
fire
could
re-ignite,
continue to apply the agent even after the fire

appears to be out.
CO2 . . . .
Carbon dioxide (CO2) also works on classes B

and C/E and works by suffocating the fire.
Carbon dioxide will not burn and displaces air.
Carbon dioxide can be used on electrical fires

because, being a gas, it does not leave residues
which
might
further
harm
the
damaged
equipment.
Carbon dioxide extinguishers have a horn on the
end of the hose. Due to the extreme cold of the

carbon
dioxide
that
is
expelled
extinguisher, it should not be touched.
from
an
How to Use a Fire Extinguisher
P A S S -- Pull, Aim,
Squeeze, and Sweep
Squeeze
Aim
Sweep
Pull
Fire alarm strobe- LIGHTS are one of the most effective ways of grabbing
people's attention.
At the same time, the system also turns on the siren alarms and the fire
alarm strobe. The fire alarm strobe flashes brightly, alerting the building
occupants of the fire and directing them to safety.
Most of the time, the fire alarm strobes and siren alarms are used in
conjunction with each other. The combination of light and sound is very
effective in getting people to look and see what's going on, and alert
them of the fire emergency.
CEILING STROBES PROVIDE

AUDIBLE/VISIBLE NOTIFICATION
FIRE-GAS DETECTORS
Monitors levels of carbon dioxide and carbon
monoxide (common to all fires)
More discriminating than other detectors can
be designed to be sensitive only to gases
produced by specific types of hostile fires and
ignores gases produced by friendly fires
Not many in use very specialized applications
COMBINATION DETECTORS
Single device can be designed to have more
than
1
function
e.g..
heat/smoke,
smoke/carbon monoxide detectors
FLAME DETECTORS
3 basic types of flame
detectors:
Ultraviolet light (UV)
Infrared (IR)
Can detect both types
of light
Ultraviolet light
Flame Detector
AUTOMATIC ALARM INITIATING DEVICES

HEAT DETECTORS FIXED TEMPERATURE & RATE-OF-RISE
Fixed-temperature devices
Oldest types in use
Relatively inexpensive
Least prone to false alarms
Activation temperature slightly above highest ceiling temperature.
Detect heat by one or more of 3 primary principles of physics:
Expansion of heated material
Melting of heated material
Changes in resistance of heated
material.
SMOKE DETECTORS
Can initiate an alarm much quicker than a heat detector because it
responds to smoke generated very early in a fires development
(incipient stage) 2 basic types:
Photoelectric
Ionization

Building Services III

Încărcat de

Informații document

Drepturi de autor

Formate disponibile

Partajați acest document

Partajați sau inserați document

Opțiuni de partajare

Vi se pare util acest document?

Este necorespunzător acest conținut?

Drepturi de autor:

Formate disponibile

Building Services III

Încărcat de

Drepturi de autor:

Formate disponibile

Building Services III