835

2014,26(6):835-847
DOI: 10.1016/S1001-6058(14)60092-5

Hydrodynamics of marine and offshore structures*

FALTINSEN O. M.
Centre for Autonomous Marine Operations and Systems (AMOS), Department of Marine Technology, NTNU,
NO-7491 Trondheim, Norway, E-mail: odd.faltinsen@ntnu.no
(Received October 20, 2014, Revised November 13, 2014)
Abstract: An overview of hydrodynamic problems related to the broad variety of ships and sea structures involved in transportation,
oil and gas exploration and production, marine operations, recovery of oil-spill, renewable energy, infrastructure and aquaculture is
given. An approximate hydroelastic model for wave and current induced response of a floating fish farm with circular plastic collar
and net cage is discussed. Weakly nonlinear potential-flow problems such as slow-drift motions and stationkeeping, springing of
ships and ringing are given special attention. Body-fixed coordinate system is recommended in weakly nonlinear potential-flow analysis of bodies with sharp corners. Dynamic ship instabilities, Mathieu-type instabilities, chaos and two-phase flow involving interface instabilities are discussed. It is advocated that slamming must be coupled with structural mechanics in order to find important
time scales of the many physical effects associated with slamming and that both water entry and exit matter in describing the global
wetdeck slamming effects. Further, sloshing-induced slamming in prismatic LNG tanks is perhaps the most complicated slamming
problem because many fluid mechanic and thermodynamic parameters as well as hydroelasticity may matter.
Key words: hydroelastic model, slow-drift motion, instability, slamming

Introduction
There is a broad variety of ships and sea structures involved in transportation, oil and gas exploration
and production, marine operations, recovery of oilspill, renewable energy, infrastructure and aquaculture.
Hydrodynamics by itself or in combination with structural mechanics and automatic control matters in design and operation. Ultra-deep and ultra-long structures with hydroelastic effects are parts of the scenarios.
Oil and gas production moves into increasingly deeper
water towards 3 000 m depth. Challenges for platforms in ultra-deep water are complex current profiles
acting through the whole water column, internal
waves associated with vertical density variations, weights of risers and mooring system, complex installation and retrieval operations, low ambient temperature
and large hydrostatic pressure. The fact that about
80% of oceans are deeper than 3 km opens for challenging explorations, mappings and industrial developments in a long-term perspective. Submersible deve* Biography: FALTINSEN O. M. (1944-), Male, Ph. D.,
Professor

lopments and ocean mining are part of the scenarios.

Examples on ultra-long structures are seismic cables,
floating airports and submerged floating bridges with
a length up to about 4 km intended for crossing fjords
on the West Coast of Norway. Membrane structures
involving strong hydroelastic coupling with internal
and external flow have been proposed for fresh water
transportation and fish farming.
Climate change with melting of ice has opened
the possibility of Northern sea routes. Twenty-five per
cent of the remaining nondetected hydrocarbon resources might be in the Arctic. Critical ecological
areas in remote and cold areas with darkness in the
winter cause challenges for safe and environmentally
friendly oil and gas exploitation and transport. Combined ice and wave loads, atmospheric icing and growlers (small fragments of ice) impacting and damaging
ship hulls are examples on technical issues.
The expected increase in world population requires more food. There is a large potential in increasing
the marine food production. The total bio production
measured in calories is equally divided between land
and water. However, only about 2% of the food production used for human consumption comes from
water. Increased aquaculture is therefore expected in

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the future. There is a trend of moving marine fish

farms to more exposed areas. The fish farms will be
subject to more energetic waves and stronger currents.
Further, the dimensions of the fish farms are expected
to increase and new designs will appear. The importance of marine technology will consequently increase.
Damages and collapses of floating fish farms have led
to escape of fish and thereby major economic losses.
Damages can be caused by operational failures, breaking of mooring lines, anchor pull out or contacts between chains or ropes with the net. Escaped farmed
salmon may bread with the wild salmon and lead to
genetic pollution of the wild fish. Salmon lice is another concern. Multi-trophic aquaculture is used to deal
with faeces and feed spills from fish net cages to give
nutrients to, for instance, mussels and kelps. Feed
availability is a critical factor for sustainable growth
of aquaculture. Use of red feed in fish oil has been
proposed, which requires design of fishing nets with
very small openings.
Current, wind and free-surface waves represent
important ambient flow conditions. Earthquakes can
cause subsea landslides and high-density turbidity
flow with velocities up to 25 m/s of concern for pipelines. Oceanic freak or rogue waves characterized by
an unusually large ratio between maximum wave height and significant wave height, i.e. larger than two,
have been measured[1]. Internal waves were governing
in the design of APL loading buoy at Lufeng, South
China Sea. Since the characteristic time of the considered internal waves is 20 min, they act as a steady
current with strong variations over a depth of about
300 m. The maximum horizontal velocity is around
3 m/s in a 100-year return period.
Challenging marine operations with lowering and
lifting of geometrically complex subsea structures through the splash zone are planned for the Aasgaard
field in the North Sea in significant wave heights up to
4.5 m. Non-functioning modules of a seabed gas compressor need to be replaced with minimum economic
loss for the gas production. Since the lowering/lifting
velocity is small, both water entry (slamming) and exit
happens due to the relative motion between the waves
and the ship involved in the operation.
Other examples on important ocean engineering
problems are stationkeeping of floating structures in
deep and shallow water by dynamic positioning[2] and
mooring systems, ringing (transient response of e.g.
monotowers in survival wave conditions), green water
on deck of FPSO units, wetdeck slamming and steepwave impact on offshore platforms in deep and shallow water with possible hydroelastic effects. Here
FPSO stands for floating production storage and offloading. Resonant wave motion in a moonpool limits
lowering and lifting operations of e.g. subsea modules
or remotely operated underwater vehicles (ROVs) through the moonpool of a ship. Furthermore, viscous

flows associated with vortex induced vibrations (VIV)

and vortex induced motions (VIM) remain challenging problems. VIV can cause fatigue damage to, for
instance, risers, pipelines and floating submerged tunnels while VIM is of concern in the mooring design
of deep-draft floaters. Galloping, i.e. instable body
motions can happen, for instance, for separated crossflow past two circular cylinders in tandem. Reynolds
number scaling of model tests with non-negligible viscous effects is not always properly recognized. However, if viscous pressure drag dominates and flow separation occurs from sharp corners, Reynolds number
scaling is secondary.
Renewable energy from waves, current and wind
has continuing interest. Important issues are efficiency,
survivability in extreme weather, site selection, energy
cost and subsidies. Offshore wind turbines have presently large interest. Proposed structures are from a
hydrodynamic point of view similar as for offshore
platforms used in oil and gas exploration and production, i.e. monotowers, jackets, semisubmersibles,
Spar buoys and tension leg platforms. Hydrodynamic
studies involve marine installations, ship access and
combined wave, current and aerodynamic load effects.
There is continuing interest in what we can learn
from aquatic animals to improve the hydrodynamic
performance of ships such as drag reduction resulting
in reduced CO2 emission. Further, can rudder design
learn from that leading edge tubercles on the humpback whale flipper generate vortices, maintain lift, and
prevent stall at high angles of attack? Environmental
concerns have led International Maritime Organization (IMO) to introduce an energy-efficiency-design
index in terms of grams of CO2 emission per nautical
mile divided by deadweight tonnage that applies to oil
tankers, bulk carriers, gas carriers, general cargo, container ships, refrigerated cargo and combination carriers. High-speed ships are presently not so popular
due to e.g. fuel consumption and CO2 emission. There
is a tendency that activities repeat themselves with a
period of the order of 30-40 years, then, adopting new
advances in enabling technologies taking advantages
of e.g. new materials, hybrid power plants (batteries,
gas, diesel, renewables, etc.), guidance, navigation
and motion control systems. Integrated design and
analysis including hydrodynamics, structural mechanics and automatic control may open up for lighter and
marginally dimensioned concepts. The textbook by
Faltinsen[3] describes the very different fluid mechanic
aspects of semi-displacement vessels, planing vessels,
air cushion and foil-supported vessels. Seakeeping and
dynamic instabilities are important considerations.
Further, cavitation limits the speed of existing commercial vessels and the far-field waves (wash) are of
concern, in particular, for semi-displacement vessels
in supercritical shallow-water conditions involving
small far-field wave decay.

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Sloshing in LNG tanks, springing, and whipping

as well as large-amplitude parametric roll of container
vessels are examples on hot topics where ship hydrodynamics plays a dominant role. Springing of ships is
wave-excited resonant global hydroelastic vibrations
that matters for the fatigue life of large bulk carriers
and container ships. Whipping is slamming-induced
transient global ship vibrations. Sloshing-induced slamming in prismatic LNG tanks is a particularly complicated slamming problem because many fluid mechanic and thermodynamic parameters as well as hydroelasticity may matter. Furthermore, violent sloshing causes complicated in-flow scenarios of slamming. The consequence is that both computational
tools and model tests are limited. Other aspects of sloshing are discussed in Faltinsen and Timokha[4]. Offshore applications include oil-gas-separators on floating platforms with resonant internal waves on the oilwater interface. Perforated plates are introduced perpendicular to the flow direction to minimize sloshing
and increase operational time.
Replenishment operations in open sea are the
most dangerous naval operations in peacetime. When
one vessel approaches or leaves the other, large interacting, strongly time-dependent and alternating transverse forces, yaw moments and associated rudder
angles happen. Xiang and Faltinsen[5] present a potential-flow method without lift to predict the calmwater interacting loads in open or restricted water for
small and moderate Froude numbers. The method can
consider several objects with different speeds and motion directions. Additional interacting mean wave
loads can be analyzed by state-of-the-art numerical
methods. A collision between ships or between a ship
and a stationary object is mainly a structural problem.
When the collision happens, a hydrodynamic potential-flow problem with high-frequency free-surface
condition represents a proper approximation. Linear
time-dependent wave generation matters subsequently.
If one ship penetrates the other ship, flooding of compartments may occur with possible excitation of sloshing and pumping (piston)-mode resonance similar
as in a harbor. Collision and grounding can result in
oil spills of major environmental concern and is often
caused by machinery failure and navigational errors.
However, hydrodynamic speed-dependent sinkage and
trim of ships in supercritical, critical and supercritical
shallow-water conditions can also cause grounding[3].
The hydrodynamic toolbox contains approximate
rational and empirical numerical methods, experiments and CFD. The weakly nonlinear potential-flow
multimodal method for sloshing described in Faltinsen
and Timokha[4] is an example on an approximate rational method. When viscous flow separation matters,
Morisons equation is a well-established empirical
method in describing wave and current loads on
small-volume structures, which are transparent to inci-

dent waves, e.g. jackets. Empirical pressure drop models with quadratic relative velocity dependence in
combination with potential flow are used to describe
flow through perforated structures, e.g. screens, swash
bulkheads, damping plates and cover-structures for
subsea installations. A drawback is improper description of loading contributions from separated flow at
the outer edges.
There is a broad variety of CFD methods involving grid and particle methods[4]. The governing
equations may differ dependent on the application.
However, Navier-Stokes methods for incompressible
fluid with either laminar or turbulent flow assumptions are common in marine hydrodynamics. Laminar
codes are sometimes used without recognizing the fact
that vorticity flow away from boundary layers is easily turbulent. Either interface capturing methods (volume-of-fluid, level-set, color-functions) or interface tracking methods deal with free-surface conditions. The
fact that interface-capturing methods introduce an artificial layer at the free surface is a potential cause of
unphysical behavior. Some particle methods such as
SPH often show unphysical spatial and temporal slamming pressure variations. CFD has a great advantage
in flow visualization and in modeling complex configurations. However, verification and validation with
error analysis is needed to ensure that the predicted
flow is real. Verification involves benchmark testing,
convergence studies and satisfaction of conservation
of mass, momentum and energy. A small angle between an impacting free surface and a hull surface is
challenging for a CFD code. The rapid change of the
flow at the spray roots requires locally small cells/
elements or many particles depending on which numerical method is used. Because potential-flow effects
of an incompressible liquid are dominant during slamming without gas cushions, the similarity solution
results presented by Zhao and Faltinsen[6] for vertical
water entry of semi-infinite rigid wedges represent
benchmark data for CFD solvers at low deadrise angles. Dispersion errors and numerical damping can be
important in a numerical wave tank and in predicting
the far-field waves generated by ships and ocean structures. Validation includes comparison with model
tests. However, the fact that experimental bias and
precision errors exist is sometimes ignored. CFD has
gained increased popularity, but the computational
time limits the ability to obtain probability distributions of wave-induced loads and response in design
sea states. Since some hydrodynamic problems still
lack physical understanding, CFD can obviously not
solve all problems. Further, other governing equations
than the Navier-Stokes equations may apply. For instance, mud is a non-Newtonian fluid, i.e. NavierStokes equation do not apply to ship behavior in
muddy areas in shallow water conditions with interfacial waves.

838

When separated viscous flow is localized in

space, domain decomposition with viscous flow and
potential flow domains can significantly reduce computational time. An example is flow separation at a
sharp-edged lower entrance of a moonpool that strongly affects the resonant wave amplitudes inside the
moonpool. The facts that Kristiansen and Faltinsen[7]
linearized the free-surface conditions and used the finite volume method in the potential and viscous flow
domains combined with that the pressure was unknown in both domains had a very beneficial effect on the
computational speed for the moonpool problem.
Greco et al.[8] studied green water on a ship deck by
domain decomposition. The wave breaking, fragmentation, air entrainment and viscous flow associated
with green water used a CFD solver while the flow
outside the deck was approximated by linear potential
flow.
Space limits in-depth discussions of all the
above-mentioned problem areas. Further details are
given in the main text about fish farming, weakly nonlinear analysis of wave-induced loads and response,
dynamic instabilities and slamming.
1. Wave and current load effects on floating fish
farms
There exist a variety of floating fish farms such
as circular plastic collar and interconnected hinged
steel fish farms. Fish containment without netting and
cages with netting in a rigid frame will not be discussed. The floater of the circular plastic collar fish farm
is made of high-density polyethylene (HDPE) pipes. It
is common with two semi-submerged concentric pipe
circles (see Fig.1). An example on dimensions in protected water is 50 m diameter and 30 m net-cage height. The solidity ratio Sn is an important parameter of
a netting and is for a plane netting the ratio of the area
of the shadow projected by wire (twine) meshes on a
plane parallel to the screen to the total area contained
within the frame of the screen. A typical twine diameter of the net is 3 mm. The solidity ratio of the netting
may be from 0.15 to 0.32, but biofouling can substantially increase the effective solidity ratio. A bottom weight ring is often used instead of bottom weights to ensure sufficient volume of the net cage.
Sufficient water exchange in a net cage matters
for the fish health and growth. Important factors are (a)
available support of oxygen compared to the size and
amount of the fish, (b) removal of refuse from the
cages and under the cages, (c) natural current velocity
for exercise and well-being of the fish. However, there
is an upper limit of the current velocity of 0.5 m/s0.6 m/s to avoid small fish being forced towards the
netting and being damaged. Another consideration is
minimum net deformation to ensure sufficient net
cage volume. The current deforms the net cage (see

Fig.1) and thereby reduce the net cage volume and

affects the current loads. The netting may consequently get in contact with the weight rope or with the
chains supporting a bottom weight ring with the possibility of damaging the netting. A not properly designed bottom weight ring may considerably deform in
severe weather conditions and damage the net. Large
snap loads due to the elastic behavior of the net structure and the relative motion between the floater
and the net can occur. Bardestani and Faltinsen[9] experimentally and numerically predicted the latter fact
in nearly 2-D flow conditions.

Fig.1 Top: Floating fish farm with circular plastic collar consisting of two tori that are semi-submerged in calm water,
railing, jump net, netting, dead fish removal system,
frame of ropes and bottom weights. Bottom: Model tests
of netting with bottom weights in current (Sintef Fisheries and Aquaculture)

The fact that the netting may have 107 meshes limits CFD and complete structural modeling.
Kristiansen and Faltinsen[10] proposed an experimentally based screen type of force model for the viscous
hydrodynamic load on nets in ambient current. The
model divides the net into a number of flat net panels,
or screens. It may thus be applied to any kind of net
geometry. The force components on a panel are functions of the solidity ratio, the inflow angle and the
Reynolds number. The relevant Reynolds number is
that based on the physical twine diameter. Shielding
effects by the twines are implicitly accounted for. A
uniform turbulent wake is assumed inside the cage.
The fact that some of the incident flow goes around

839

the net cage is neglected. The latter effect gets increased importance with increasing solidity ratio. The
focus in Kristiansen and Faltinsen[10] is on circular net
cages. An existing truss model simulates the net structure itself. The net shape is solved in a time stepping
procedure that involves solving a linear system of
equations for the unknown tensions at each time step.
Comparisons to experiments with circular net cages in
steady current are presented, and the sensitivity of the
numerical results to a set of chosen parameters is investigated. Satisfactory agreement between experimental and numerical prediction of drag and lift as
function of the solidity ratio of the net and the current
velocity is documented. The latter is not true for large
current velocities when Morisons equation is applied.
The reason is associated with large net deformation
and shielding effects of twines. The screen model can
easily be generalized to combined waves and current
and by applying the wake model inside the cage only
to the steady flow. The bottom weight system implies
Froude scaling of model tests. Reynolds-number scale
effects are minimized by keeping the full-scale solidity ratio in model scale.
Li and Faltinsen[11] presented a low-frequency linear slender-body theory for the generalized vertical
added mass, damping and wave excitation loads on an
elastic semi-submerged torus by matched asymptotic
expansions with a near-field and far-field solution,
which were verified by comparing with the linear potential-flow frequency-domain panel code WAMIT.
The near-field solution is on the scale of the cross-sectional diameter while the far-field solution is represented as a source distribution along the centerline of
the torus. Both rigid-body and flexible modes are considered. Wavelengths of practical interest are of the
order of the torus diameter but long relative to the
cross-sectional diameter 2a . 3-D frequency-dependent hydrodynamic interaction on the scale of the
torus diameter is significant. The strip theory does not
predict the strong oscillatory behavior of vertical
added mass and damping as a function of non-dimensional wave number a as the 3-D theory does. The
added mass may become negative and the damping
zero dependent on the mode and frequency. Zero damping means that there are no radiated far-field waves
and correspond to a wave node at the torus for the
considered mode.
Li et al.[12] studied experimentally and theoretically wave load effects on a moored semi-submerged
elastic torus in regular waves of different steepness
and periods. A weak-scatter model that included nonlinear effects by second-order incident waves and nonlinear Froude-Kriloff and hydrostatic loads was applied. Linear hydrodynamic potential-flow forces included in the weak-scatter model were represented by
standard convolution integral formulation with retar-

dation functions calculated from the damping coefficients. There is an analogy to state-of-the art blended
models used in nonlinear analysis of wave-induced
loads on ships. An Euler beam model with additional
curvature and tension effects was applied for vertical
and radial torus deformations. Wave overtopping may
occur in steeper waves. The experimental vertical accelerations showed increasing importance of nonlinearities and higher harmonics with increasing wave
steepness. The weak-scatter model as well as a linear
frequency-domain potential-flow method based on
WAMIT gave satisfactory predictions of the first harmonic component of vertical accelerations at front,
side and aft positions on the floater. The second harmonic acceleration component is well predicted by the
weak-scatter method for wave steepness 1/120, 1/60
and 1/30 by accounting for experimental error bands.
The differences are larger for the highest wave steepness 1/15. Predictions of third and fourth harmonic acceleration components are less satisfactory. It was
speculated if higher-order wave loads might cause resonant vertical accelerations of the floater. The strong
frequency dependence of added mass resulted in a
large number of closely spaced natural frequencies.
The linear frequency domain model as well as unpublished experimental results for a rigid semi-submerged
torus with the same length dimensions as in Li et al.[12]
demonstrated that flexible wave-induced motions are
significant. Overtopping waves and possible flow separation need to be further theoretically investigated.
He (personal communication, 2014) has experimentally studied the influence of fishes in a net cage
on mooring loads. Model tests in scale 1:25 were performed with more than 800 salmon of length 0.16 m
inside a net cage in waves and current. The salmon occupied approximately 2.5% of the net cage volume at
rest, which is representative for a full-scale condition.
If the fishes touched the netting, there was more than
10% increase in the mooring loads. The latter occurred in current only. If the fishes did not touch the netting, the loading influence was the order of 3%. An
important question is if the fish behavior is representative for a full-scale scenario. If the fishes do not
touch the netting, an estimate of the net loading can be
made as follows. The fact that the fish displaces the
water causes a flow and can be analyzed for a single
fish by slender-body potential-flow theory, a firstorder approximation of the far-field behavior can be
obtained by summing up the individual contribution
from each fish in terms of source distributions without
considering the hydrodynamic interaction between the
fishes. The latter procedure enables together with
local ambient flow and realistic fish speeds to assess
the importance of corresponding net loading by using
the previously described net loading method. However,
there are in addition a viscous wake due to the fishes

840

and a flow caused by fish propulsion, which need to

be quantified.
2. Weakly nonlinear analysis of wave-induced
loads and response
A perturbation scheme with the incident wave
slope as a small parameter is common in analyzing
weakly nonlinear potential-flow problems involving
wave-body interaction in non-shallow water externally
to ships and other large-volume structures. Faltinsen
and Timokha[4] analyzed resonant sloshing in a ship
tank as a weakly nonlinear potential-flow problem.
The interior flow problem differs significantly from
the exterior flow problem where the lowest order term
is the same order as the wave slope in non-shallow
water conditions. The lowest order term in the sloshing analysis is smaller order than the excitation,
which expresses the fact that resonant liquid motion
occurs. Damping due to viscous effects has to be
added in the nonlinear ordinary differential equations
of the generalized coordinates of the sloshing modes
in order to reach steady-state oscillatory conditions.
The damping increases, in general, with increasing excitation amplitude and decreasing liquid depth because of breaking waves. Nonlinearities can cause chaos,
secondary resonances with resulting multi-branched
steady-state solutions and 3-D steady-state wave systems such as swirling.
The boundary value problems for the linear and
higher-order potential-flow solutions for external
flows are traditionally formulated in an inertial coordinate system. The body-boundary and free-surface conditions are by Taylor expansions formulated on the
mean body and free-surface positions. Because the
steady flow does not satisfy the body-boundary condition on the instantaneous body surface, the m j terms influenced by second-order derivatives of local
steady velocity potential, occur in the linear bodyboundary conditions for ship motions at forward speed.
The second-order solution involves second-order derivatives of the first-order unsteady velocity potential
and second- and third-order derivatives of the steady
velocity potential on the mean body surface. If the
body has sharp corners with interior angles less than
180o , the procedure fails at the sharp corners and flow
singularities occur. Use of a body-fixed coordinate
system in solving higher-order potential-flow problems does not include any derivative of the velocity
potential on the right-hand side of the body-boundary
conditions. Shao and Faltinsen[13-15] formulated the
boundary value problem in the body-fixed coordinate
system in analyzing weakly nonlinear wave-body interaction problems without and with forward speed/current velocity. Shao and Faltinsen[16] studied numerically the complete second-order weakly nonlinear 3-D

potential-flow problem of a displacement ship at forward speed by accounting for interactions between the
local steady and unsteady flow. The double-body flow
is used as the basis flow. Both monochromatic and
bichromatic head-sea waves are considered with different Froude numbers. A time-domain higher-order
BEM based on cubic shape functions is used and a
forward difference scheme is applied in the free-surface conditions in order to better numerically stabilize
the solution. Generalization to semi-displacement vessels implies that flow separation from the transom
stern with a hollow in the water behind must be incorporated.
If the body surface at rest is not vertical at the
free surface, difficulties with flow singularities at the
intersections between the mean free surface and body
occur. The latter fact limits the possibilities in analyzing higher order than second-order problems for
ships with bow flare as well as for the semi-submerged torus considered in the previous section. When a
tank has non-vertical surface in the free-surface zone,
singular solutions has to be added at the mean free
surface- tank surface intersections to obtain high accuracy in predicting natural sloshing frequencies[17].
The second-order problem involves mean, difference-frequency and sum-frequency body loads. Applications are, for instance, added resistance of ships in
waves, slow-drift oscillations of moored structures
and sum-frequency springing excitation of ships and
tension leg platforms (TLPs). Current can play an important role for the second-order wave loads and in
assessing the air gap of a platform deck. Since slowdrift oscillations and springing are resonant steadystate oscillations, damping is crucial. Wave-drift damping, viscous hull damping and anchor-line damping
matter for slow-drift oscillations while structural damping is generally dominant for springing of displacement vessels. Viscous damping contributes to springing of TLPs. It is well known that the second-order
velocity potential is essential in predicting springing
excitation of TLPs. Shao and Faltinsen[16] found for a
Wigley hull in head sea that the second-order velocity
potential gives dominant contribution to the secondorder wave excitation of springing with a two-node
vertical mode in the wave frequency region where
sum-frequency springing occurs. The blended methods for nonlinear wave-induced loads on ships at forward speed represent state-of-the-art engineering tools
and give wrong results because nonlinearities in the
wave radiation and diffraction are not considered.
Nonlinear springing has been observed in regular
waves in model tests[18] when the encounter frequency
is equal to 1/ n of the structural natural frequencies
where n is an integer, i.e. we can talk about secondorder, third-order and so on nonlinearly excited springing. It is hard from a numerical and theoretical

841

point of view to go beyond second-order nonlinearly

excited springing. Further, a perturbation scheme becomes increasingly tedious with increasing order of
nonlinearly excited springing. Larger sea states with
bow-flare slamming and green water on deck cannot
be based on a perturbation solution. The resulting whipping is difficult to distinguish from springing.
Since a ship most often meets moderate sea conditions, added resistance (mean second-order longitudinal force) in small wavelengths relative to the ship
length is of practical interest. Difficulties in accurate
predictions relative to model tests occur for a ship
with bulb in ballast conditions and head sea. A rough
analogy is to incident waves to a beach, which implies
limitations of a second-order theory. The slowly varying added resistance in a seaway ought to be combined with other resistance components, propulsion
and ship inertia loads. When there are large relative
vertical motions at the propeller plane, the propulsion
loads depend on the distance between propeller shaft
and free surface. Propeller ventilation is a worst-case
scenario. Prpic-Orsic and Faltinsen[19] described the
procedure for regular head sea waves by averaging
propulsion forces over one wave period. A first attempt on considering long-crested irregular sea is to
approximate the wave between subsequent zero crossings as a regular wave with a certain amplitude and
period. Model tests involving wave-induced response
of a ship with propeller ventilation require a depressurized wave tank.
Newmans approximation is commonly applied
to calculate the slow-drift force and moment spectra.
It implies that only mean wave loads are needed from
the hydrodynamic calculations. The latter fact is a significant simplification. However, You[20] demonstrated by comparisons with model tests of a VLCC in
head sea and shallow-water conditions that Newmans
approximation failed and the second-order velocity
potential associated with both the incident waves and
ship-wave interaction gave dominant contributions.
A perturbation scheme implies that the secondorder solution does not influence the first-order solution. Since large slow-drift in yaw can occur and a
mean wave heading is used in the linear problem, inaccuracies appear. A suggestion is to generalize the
two-time scale method for ship maneuvering in waves
proposed by Skejic and Faltinsen[21] where the time
scale of ship maneuvering is large relative to the time
scale of the incident waves. The influence from the
waves on ship maneuvering is through slowly varying
heading and speed dependent mean wave forces and
moments.
Since resonant sloshing is nonlinear and there is
strong coupling between resonant sloshing and ship
motions, a standard perturbation scheme fails to predict second-order response. However, if the slow-drift
yaw is small and the exterior second-order velocity

potential is negligible, the exterior potential flow can

be based on linear time-domain boundary conditions
and direct pressure integration can model secondorder exterior loads. Further, if sloshing occurs in
non-shallow liquid condition and there are no breaking waves, the nonlinear multimodal method[4] can
describe the global sloshing loads in a time-efficient
way. Empirical viscous damping and other loads due
to e.g. mooring have to be added in the equations of
motions following from Newtons second law. The
procedure is partly described in the 2-D studies by
Rognebakke and Faltinsen[22].
Ringing of gravity-based platforms and TLPs is a
transient elastic response that is excited by third- and
higher-order wave-body interaction in survival wave
conditions. Shao and Faltinsen[23] studied first, second,
third and fourth harmonic force amplitudes and phases
on a surface-piercing vertical circular cylinder standing on the sea floor in regular waves by means of a
new potential flow method called the harmonic polynomial cell (HPC) method. Exact nonlinear free-surface conditions without overturning waves were satisfied by time domain simulations. The water domain is
divided into overlapping cells with free-surface fitted
grids. In each cell, a complete set of polynomials that
satisfy Laplace equation is used. The fact that fourthorder polynomials were used give high accuracy. The
method is time-efficient since relatively large grids
can be used and the equation system for the unknown
constants associated with the polynomials results in a
sparse matrix system. Shao and Faltinsen[23] showed
satisfactory agreement with the higher-harmonic experimental results by Huseby and Grue[24]. The reason
for some documented differences is not known. Other
experiments at MARINTEK with a truncated surfacepiercing vertical circular cylinder in relevant ringing
conditions in deep water showed local steep waves
due to wave-body interaction that propagated in the
incident wave direction on the two sides of the column.
The local waves resembled hydraulic jumps. They started on the upstream side and collided on the downstream side with consequent large vertical water
flow. The latter fact questions the possibility of using
a perturbation scheme in deriving the velocity potential.
3. Dynamic instabilities
The importance of dynamic instabilities of ships
increases with increasing speed[3]. Porpoising (vertical
instability) and spinouts are examples for planing vessels. Spinout happens when the boat slows down in a
turn. The consequence of the decreased speed is reduced trim and draft at the stern. It is well known for
displacement vessels that reduced draft at the stern of
a directional stable ship increases the probability of
directional instability[3].

842

Broaching in calm water can happen for semidisplacement vessels above a certain Froude number.
Coupled surge-sway-roll-yaw and associated wave generation are contributing factors. Broaching in following and stern quartering waves of small vessels can
lead to capsizing. Thys and Faltinsen[25] examined the
problem numerically and experimentally for a fishing
vessel with a relatively small length-to-breadth ratio.
The theoretical model combined a 4DOF modular maneuvering model with a seakeeping model, which generalized the STF strip theory[26] by using the 3-D
Laplace equation as governing equation. Further, nonlinear Froude-Kriloff and hydrostatic loads and a simplified surge equation in waves were included. Resistance, rudder forces, wake factors were based on experimental results in calm water, while other propulsion data were empirically determined. The calm
water results were generalized to include incident
wave effects and the steady and unsteady responses
were solved simultaneously. The experiments did not
show broaching while the numerical simulations showed surf riding and broaching. The reason was numerical over-prediction of the wave excitation force in
surge, which resulted in too large ship speed. The finding illustrates that a more advanced theoretical method must be developed, which may have to include
the interaction between local steady and unsteady flow
and a more proper description of the wave systems generated by the ship. Uncertainties in the wave effect
on rudder forces, wake and propulsion are also of concern.
Parametric roll can for container ships lead to
loss of containers. Parametric roll of ships in regular
waves is a Mathieu-type instability due to the fact that
the restoring coefficient in roll is proportional to the
sum of the metacentric height GM and a time dependent term GM sin(e t + ) . Here e is the frequency of encounter. A critical domain for instability
is for e near 2n where n is the undamped natural frequency in roll. The instability domain depends
on GM / GM and the ratio of damping and critical
damping[3]. The smaller the damping is, the smaller
GM / GM is for instability to occur for given e .
GM for ships is associated with the quasi-steady
change in the water-plane area due to relative vertical
motion between the ship and the waves, i.e. GM is
significant for a ship with large flare. Since parametric roll takes time to develop, the time-dependent
change of zero-crossing period in irregular sea becomes a factor. Floating offshore structures designed for
ice conditions with non-vertical hull surface in the
free-surface zone can also suffer from Mathieu-type
instabilities. Greco et al.[27] showed experimentally
and numerically that Mathieu-type instability in roll
could happen due to green water on a FPSO without

forward speed and small flare in head sea regular

waves. Haslum and Faltinsen[28] predicted experimentally and numerically heave and pitch (roll) instabilities of a Spar buoy. Second-order forces, small damping and time-dependent difference in the vertical positions of center of gravity and center of buoyancy explained the instabilities. The damping was low because the mooring arrangement of the Spar buoy model
was in air, the flow separation was insignificant and
the wave generation was small. Later tests with mooring system in water increased the damping sufficiently to avoid instabilities. Mathieu instabilities
(Faraday waves) happen for vertical harmonic tank
excitation. Faltinsen and Timokha[4] give an explanation by the multimodal method, which transforms the
problem into a set of ordinary differential equations
for the generalized coordinates of the free-surface elevation. Restoring terms appear with a time-dependent
term, which is proportional to the ratio between the
forced vertical acceleration and acceleration of gravity.
Physical complexity can make it difficult to predict theoretically time to capsize. An example is the
accident with the car ferry Estonia where 852 people
died. Slamming loads damaged the bow visor and resulted in flooding of the car deck with subsequent filling of other parts of the ship. Waves, wind, ship maneuvering and complex internal flow influenced the
vessel dynamics.
Chaos (instabilities) can happen for forced harmonic lateral excitation of nearly square-base rectangular tanks, upright circular cylindrical tanks and spherical tanks. Chaos implies that steady-state wave
systems are not achieved. Faltinsen and Timokha[4]
document experimentally and theoretically by the multimodal method that chaos occurs in a certain excitation frequency domain near the lowest natural frequency for a square-base rectangular tank and an upright
circular cylindrical tank. The frequency domain with
chaos depends on the filling depth and the forcing amplitude.
Two-phase flow with interface instabilities matter in pipeline transportation of oil and gas and for
water and oil in interaction with oil booms. Instabilities of an interface separating two fluids can lead to
entrainment failure of oil booms[29]. Instability of stratified shear layers can lead to Kelvin-Helmholtz instabilities with the theoretical most unstable wavelength
occurring when the relative velocity between the two
fluids at the interface exceeds a critical value. Instable
Holmboe waves are characterized by separation of
free vortices from the interface shear layer into the
bulk phases and formation of stationary or propagating wave disturbances at the interface. Kristiansen
and Faltinsen[30] used the 2-D lattice-Boltzmann method to study numerically Kelvin-Helmholtz and

843

Holmboe instabilities.
4. Slamming
Slamming is of concern for structural design of
ships, offshore platforms, launching of free-fall lifeboats from offshore platforms and very large floating
structures (VLFS). The books by Faltinsen[3,31] and
Faltinsen and Timokha[4] discuss various aspects of
slamming. Slamming on ships and offshore structures
causes both local and global structural response. A
challenging problem during water entry is non-viscous
flow separation from curved body surfaces, e.g. bulbous sections and due to rolling and transverse ship
velocity.
One must not focus on the impact pressures when
the high pressures have a short duration relative to
local structural natural periods of modes that give dominant contributions to large structural stresses. A
good illustration of this fact is the theoretical analysis
of vertical drop of horizontal aluminum and steel plates reported by Faltinsen[32] that was compared with
experiments where the bending stiffness of the plates
was Froude scaled to give representative values of the
lowest natural structural frequency. For a given drop
velocity, the maximum pressure showed very large
variations for different tests with varying small-amplitude wave conditions including calm water. The maximum stresses were not sensitive at all to the different
impact scenarios for a given impact velocity, i.e. there
is poor correlation between maximum pressure and
maximum stress. The reason is that the main contribution to high stresses comes from oscillations with the
natural frequency of the lowest structural mode and
the fact that the time duration of the large impact pressures is very short relative to the highest natural structural period. The fluid dynamic details of the pressure loading which initially may involve air cushions,
bubbles and water compressibility, are insignificant
for the maximum structural stresses. The theoretical
model is very simple. At the end of the initial slamming (structural inertia) phase, the sum of a spaceaveraged impacting velocity and elastic vibration velocity of the structure is zero. This, together with the
fact that the initial deformations of the plate are zero
and the plate surface is completely wetted, provides
initial conditions for the free elastic vibrations of the
plate. The maximum structural stresses occur during
the free vibration phase at time Tn1 / 4 , where Tn1 is
the highest wet natural period for the plate vibrations.
The time dependence of the generalized coordinate of
the lowest structural mode after the initial impact
phase is similar to a free vibration of a mass-spring
system. The mass term is the sum of a generalized structural mass and added mass term. The spring term is
due to the bending stiffness. One does not need to

know the slamming pressure in the theoretical analysis

of structural stresses. An important parameter is the
impact velocity. The theoretical stresses depend linearly on the impact velocity. The experiments confirmed this behavior. During the free-vibration phase,
the hydrodynamic pressure is associated with generalized added mass effects, i.e. it is proportional to the
local plate acceleration, and is positive on the plate for
the considered mode shape until time Tn1 / 2 . The subsequent negative pressures due to plate vibration can
for sufficiently high impact velocity be so large in magnitude that the total hydrodynamic pressure becomes
equal to the vapor pressure, which implies cavitation.
Because the impacting plate has a small submergence
when cavitation happens, air gets under the plate (ventilation) and the plate oscillates as if it was in air.
Both water entry and exit loads matter for global
wetdeck slamming effects of catamarans and offshore
platforms. The vertical wetdeck force is roughly speaking positive during the water entry phase and negative during the water exit phase with maximum and minimum forces being similar in magnitude. The fine details of wetdeck slamming on a catamaran at forward
speed in head sea occur on a very small time-scale relative to natural periods in heave, pitch and two-node
vertical elastic mode. The consequence is that the global response in terms of vertical shear forces and bending moments in transverse cuts of the catamaran can
be well predicted by using a considerably simplified
water entry and exit model based on a modified von
Karman method with additional nonlinear FroudeKriloff and hydrostatic loads[33]. However, an accurate
estimate of the trim angle is important for slamming
occurrence. Wetdeck slamming is more complicated
on offshore platform decks and both the global longitudinal and vertical slamming forces are of concern.
Wave run-up along platform columns can cause
local damage to the wetdeck. It is theoretically challenging to predict the run up. Slamming effects on columns have to be considered in incident steep waves,
which matter particularly in shallow-water conditions.
However, there is recent attention to accidental slamming loads on the columns of offshore platforms in
steep deep-water waves.
Sloshing-induced slamming in membrane tanks
with LNG is more complex than the previous applications. The reasons are (a) sloshing involves violent liquid motions, (b) many flow parameters have to be recognized, (c) the membrane structure is far more complex than steel structures, (d) the fine details of an impacting free surface may matter for a membrane structure and lead to stochastic behavior even for deterministic tank motion. Thermodynamic effects may
also matter for LNG and NG. Further, hydroelasticity
is of concern.
Many possible impact scenarios have to be con-

844

sidered. A sudden flip-through of the free surface at a

vertical tank wall can happen at very large filling ratios, e.g. 0.98. A vertical jet flow with a high velocity
will, therefore, impact on the tank roof. Large filling
ratios can cause impact on the tank roof of a nearly
horizontal free surface. Another case is impact where
the geometry of the impacting free surface causes a
gas cavity. A gas cavity has a natural frequency associated with the compressibility of the gas and a generalized added mass due to the liquid oscillations caused by the gas cavity oscillations. Abrahamsen and
Faltinsen[34] presented formulas for the natural frequency of gas cushions at rigid tank walls and roofs based
on an adiabatic pressure-density relation, i. e. boiling
and condensation of relevance for LNG and NG are
neglected. Transient damped pressure oscillations in
the gas cavity are excited by the impact. The damping
for a closed cavity is due to heat transfer to and from
the gas cavity and dissipation of the boundary layer
flow in the liquid[35]. They also experimentally demonstrated that air leakage can significantly influence
the decay of the pressure oscillations in the gas cavity.
Steep waves impacting on a vertical tank wall is
important for shallow and lower-intermediate liquid
depths and influenced by the spatial evolution of the
breaking wave and by its phasing with respect to the
vertical wall. Lugni et al.[36] studied 2-D flow in a rectangular tank filled with water and distinguished experimentally three modes: a) flip-through, i.e. impact
of an incipient breaking wave without air entrapment.
(b) Impact of an incipient breaking wave with air entrapment. (c) Impact of a broken wave with air/water
mixing. In the last case, the wave breaks before the
wall, and advances towards the wall as a breaking
bore. The flow is governed by the turbulence of the
wave front, characterized by air-water mixture with
many small air bubbles in the water.
When the flip-through phenomenon occurs, the
concave face of the wave approaches the wall with the
crest moving forward and the trough rapidly rising at
the wall. The presence of the wall delays breaking of
the wave and causes the rise of the leading wave trough. The latter focuses with the wave front, giving intense acceleration to the flow and turning it in the focusing area to form a vertical jet. Very large pressures
can occur in the flip-through condition. The high-pressure loading on the tank wall is sensitive to small
changes of an impacting steep free surface.
3-D effects, air leakage and ullage pressure in
terms of Euler and cavitation numbers have fundamental roles in the kinematic and dynamic evolution
of the flow in case (b) with air entrapment compressibility[37,38]. The word ullage refers to the space
above a liquid in a tank. The cavity closes typically
after the first or second oscillation of the cavity. A
large increase in the pressure decay coefficient was
observed in the vapor pressure regime, i.e., for ullage

pressures close to the vapor pressure of the water.

The time scale of a fluid dynamic phenomenon
such as acoustic effects relative to natural periods of
structural modes contributing to large structural stresses is important in judging if a particular fluid dynamic effect matters. Graczyks[39] numerical studies
give an idea about important structural natural periods.
He examined slamming load effects on a part of the
Mark III containment system. The hydrodynamic part
of the analysis was strongly simplified while the structural modeling was complete. The maximum response values were of significance for the evaluation of the
structural strength. There is a significant influence
from modes with a range of natural frequencies from
about 100 Hz to 500 Hz. An important effect of these
higher modes is compression of the foam and local
bending of the plywood plate adjacent to the resin
ropes. If the influence of bubbles in the liquid is neglected, the effect of liquid compressibility may matter for frequencies of the order of 1 000 Hz and
higher. However, a mixture of gas and liquid can
significantly lower the speed of sound and thereby
increase the time scale of acoustic effects. On the
other hand, the mixture of gas and liquid in an LNG
tank is not homogeneous in space and takes place in a
layer of the LNG next to the ullage space. If the ratios
between the impact duration and important natural
periods are small, the fine details of the hydrodynamics are not needed in describing the maximum structural stresses[32]. The situation for the membrane structure considered by Graczyk[39] is different. Significant response of the lower plywood occurs already during the slamming impact, i.e. before the free-vibration phase. This is both due to the slamming duration
and due to the higher natural frequency of the lowest
important mode (125 Hz-165 Hz).
Because presently there are no numerical methods that can fully describe the sloshing-induced slamming pressures, one has to rely on experiments,
which means in practice model tests. The challenges
are how to scale the model-test results to full scale and
properly account for the structural elastic reactions[4].
A rigid model combined with Froude scaling and geometric scaling is common. However, there are other
fluid dynamic parameters to consider. If gas cavities
occur, the Euler number must be the same in model
and prototype scales to scale impact loads. The consequence is that the ullage pressure has to be lowered in
model scale. Since LNG is partly boiling, the cavitation number is of concern. Further, the ratio between
the gas and liquid density matters for LNG. The effect
of surface tension is believed negligible. It is impossible to find a model-scale liquid that satisfies both
the Reynolds and Froude number scaling with realistic
model scale dimensions. However, the viscous effect
on slamming is believed secondary for sloshing in a
clean tank with realistic excitations.

845

Model tests of slamming and sloshing are typically done with prescribed tank motion, which may be
found by calculations as a realization of the ship motions in representative sea states. The calculations
must account for the mutual interaction between ship
motions and sloshing. Linear potential flow and empirical viscous roll damping can predict the external
wave loads to a large degree. However, nonlinear
free-surface effects play a dominant role for internal
sloshing loads. Even though CFD is not recommended,
in general, for sloshing-induced slamming, it may better describe the global effect of sloshing. The latter
depends on which sea conditions cause significant sloshing resonance. However, the computational speed of
CFD methods makes it in practice unrealistic for longtime simulations in a sea state. The nonlinear multimodal method is time-efficient but limited in describing all flow conditions. Then we are left in practice
with linear sloshing theories, which are fast and are
commonly used. What errors are caused in slamming
induced structural stresses by using calculations of
tank excitations based on linear theories as a basis for
model tests should be investigated. An issue is also
the statistical analysis of the response.
Examples on engineering recommendations to
assess the dynamic structural response to sloshing
loads are the following two calculation methods. The
direct dynamic finite element analysis (FEA) uses the
pressure loads measured during experiments carried
out with a rigid model (scaled to prototype scale) as
input of a dynamic FEA of the full structure. The indirect dynamic FEA uses the results from a static FEA
multiplied by a correction factor obtained through the
dynamic amplification factor (DAF) curve. The DAF
is the ratio between the maximum dynamic response
and the maximum static response for a considered sloshing pressure rise time. It is difficult with the two
methods to account properly for the added mass effects, which depend on the time-dependent wetted structural area, free-surface position and possible presence
of gas cavities. Lugni et al.[40] illustrated the latter fact.
Shallow-water sloshing with a flip-through event was
experimentally studied with a rigid tank and the same
tank with a flexible side-wall portion made by aluminum in the impact area. The ratio between the maximum strains measured in the two cases was 1.84 and
clearly higher than obtained by using an approach similar to the direct dynamic FEA.
Since sloshing-induced slamming causes filling
restrictions in prismatic membrane tanks, a natural
question to ask is if there are ways to reduce the load
level. Swash bulkheads are a possibility from a hydrodynamic point of view. However, it seems impossible to use in membrane tanks. The IHI SPB self-supported prismatic type B tank with aluminum-alloy as
material and used for LNG cargo is equipped with
swash bulkheads. A swash bulkhead is typically pla-

ced in the middle of the tank perpendicular to the

main flow direction. Its effectiveness depends strongly
on its opening area ratio. If it is small, an important
effect is the decrease of the highest natural sloshing
period to a level where sloshing excitation is less severe. Furthermore, flow through the holes causes flow
separation and thereby damping of resonant sloshing.
2-D calculations in Faltinsen and Timokha[3] illustrate
how the wave amplitude response depends on the
sway excitation of a rectangular tank as a function of
forcing frequency and opening-area ratio when the
screen is in the middle of the tank. Faltinsen et al.[41,42]
present comparisons between experiments and theory
for non-shallow depths of rectangular tanks with nearly 2-D flow and sway excitation for a wide range of
opening-area ratios and frequencies. Minimum wave
response for realistic tank excitation occurs for an
opening-area ratio in the order of 0.2. However, conclusions from a hydrodynamic loading point of view
require that realistic tank excitations be considered
with focus on sloshing-induced slamming.
5. Conclusions
An overview of hydrodynamic problems related
to the broad variety of ships and sea structures involved in transportation, oil and gas exploration and production, marine operations, recovery of oil-spill, renewable energy, infrastructure and aquaculture is given.
Wave and current loads on floating fish farms
with circular plastic collar is discussed. Hydroelastic
effects are significant for both the floater and the netting. The fact that the netting of a fish farm may have
107 meshes limits CFD and complete structural modeling. A hydrodynamic screen-type of force model that
accounts for shielding effects of the individual twines
is recommended. Existing approximate nonlinear numerical methods cannot fully describe nonlinearities
in vertical floater accelerations.
Weakly nonlinear potential-flow problems are
traditionally solved in an inertial coordinate system. A
body-fixed coordinate system is needed to avoid failure at sharp body corners due to wrongly assumed
Taylor expansion of the velocity potential. The problems at sharp corners with an inertial coordinate system formulation occur also due to interaction between
local steady and linear unsteady flow. A perturbation
scheme for weakly nonlinear wave-body interaction is
difficult to apply for nonlinear effects higher than second order. Problems with flow singularities at the intersection between the mean free surface and non-vertical hull sides are also discussed. A new potential
flow method called the Harmonic Polynomial Cell
(HPC) method is promising both in terms of accuracy
and time efficiency and can be applied to nonlinear
free-surface problems without overturning waves.
Since current can significantly affect the wave field, it

846

should be incorporated in the analysis of stationary

ships and ocean structures. State-of-the-art blended
methods for ship springing do not properly account
for the second-order potential in second-order springing. Models for slow-drift oscillations of ships and
other floating structures with large slow-drift yaw motion should account for the slow-drift motion when solving the first-order problem. The importance of the
second-order potential in analyzing slow-drift motions
of floating structures in shallow water is emphasized.
Importance of dynamic instabilities of ships increases with increasing speed. Parametric roll of ships
and heave-pitch instabilities of Spar buoys are discussed. Approximate methods cannot fully describe
broaching of ships in stern sea. Two-phase flow with
interface instabilities and examples on instabilities involving sloshing, e.g. chaos and Faraday waves are
briefly presented.
Slamming on ships and sea structures causes both
local and global structural response and ought to be
coupled with structural mechanics in order to find important time scales of the many physical effects associated with slamming. Hydroelasticity matters in local
slamming for small angles between impacting free
surface and hull surface. If the time scale of a fluid
mechanic effect such as liquid compressibility or gas
cavity oscillations is very small relative to the structural natural periods associated with maximum structural stress, the details of the fluid mechanic effect do
not matter. When there is no gas cavity, the flow and
pressure loads associated with water entry in external
flow can be well approximated by potential theory of
an incompressible liquid. Non-viscous flow separation
associated with ventilation may occur during water
entry. Both the water-entry and water-exit phase matter in describing the global load effect due to wetdeck
slamming on catamarans and offshore platforms.
Sloshing-induced slamming in prismatic LNG
tanks is perhaps the most complicated slamming problem because many fluid mechanic and thermodynamic parameters as well as hydroelasticity may matter.
Further, complicated in-flow scenarios of slamming
may appear due to violent sloshing. The consequence
is that both computational tools and model test scaling
are limited.
Acknowledgement
This work was supported by the Research Council of Norway through the Centres of Excellence funding scheme AMOS (Grant No. 223254).

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