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DEMOGRAPHY

Introduction to Demography

Indian Scenario - Issues involved

OR
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INDEX

1. Population Growth

3. Mortality
a. IMR

4. Migration
5. Child Sex Ratio
6. Literacy

GS

b. MMR (Reproductive Health)

SC

2. Fertility

7. Age Structure Related Issues

Family Planning and Population Policy

Census 2011 - Quick facts

Notes

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Introduction to Demography
a)

Meaning of Demography

Demography is the systematic study of population. The term is of Greek origin and is composed of the two
words, demos (people) and graphein (describe), implying the description of people. Demography studies the
trends and processes associated with population including - changes in population size; patterns of births,
deaths, and migration; and the structure and composition of the population, such as the relative proportions
of women, men and different age groups. There are different varieties of demography, including formal
demography which is a largely quantitative field, and social demography which focuses on the social, economic
or political aspects of populations. All demographic studies are based on processes of counting or enumeration
- such as the census or the survey - which involve the systematic collection of data on the people residing
within a specified territory.
Brief Background

OR
E

b)

SC

Demography is a field that is of special importance to sociology - in fact, the emergence of sociology and its
successful establishment as an academic discipline owed a lot to demography. Two different processes happened
to take place at roughly the same time in Europe during the latter half of the eighteenth century - the formation
of nation-states as the principal form of political organisation, and the beginnings of the modern science of
statistics. The modern state had begun to expand its role and functions. It had, for instance, begun to take an
active interest in the development of early forms of public health management, policing and maintenance of
law and order, economic policies relating to agriculture and industry, taxation and revenue generation and the
governance of cities.

GS

This new and constantly expanding sphere of state activity required the systematic and regular collection of
social statistics - or quantitative data on various aspects of the population and economy. The practice of the
collection of social statistics by the state is in itself much older, but it acquired its modern form towards the
end of the eighteenth century. The American census of 1790 was probably the first modern census, and the
practice was soon taken up in Europe as well in the early 1800s. In India, censuses began to be conducted by
the British Indian government between 1867-72, and regular ten yearly (or decennial) censuses have been
conducted since 1881. Independent India continued the practice, and six decennial censuses have been conducted
since 1951, the most recent being in 2001. The Indian census is the largest such exercise in the world (since
China, which has a slightly larger population, does not conduct regular censuses).
c)

Importance of Demographic Data

Notes

Demographic data are important for the planning and implementation of state policies, specially those for
economic development and general public welfare. But when they first emerged, social statistics also provided
a strong justification for the new discipline of sociology. Aggregate statistics - or the numerical characteristics
that refer to a large collectivity consisting of millions of people - offer a concrete and strong argument for the
existence of social phenomena. Even though country-level or state-level statistics like the number of deaths
per 1,000 population - or the death rate - are made up by aggregating (or adding up) individual deaths, the death
rate itself is a social phenomenon and must be explained at the social level. Emile Durkheim's famous study
explaining the variation in suicide rates across different countries was a good example of this. Durkheim argued
that the rate of suicide (i.e., number of suicides per 100,000 population) had to be explained by social causes
even though each particular instance of suicide may have involved reasons specific to that individual or her/
his circumstances.

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d)

Formal Demography and Social Demography

Sometimes a distinction is made between formal demography and a broader field of population studies. Formal
demography is primarily concerned with the measurement and analysis of the components of population
change. Its focus is on quantitative analysis for which it has a highly developed mathematical methodology
suitable for forecasting population growth and changes in the composition of population.
Population studies or social demography, on the other hand, enquires into the wider causes and consequences
of population structures and change. Social demographers believe that social processes and structures regulate
demographic processes; like sociologists, they seek to trace the social reasons that account for population
trends.

The Malthusian Theory of Population Growth

SC

OR
E

Among the most famous theories of demography is the one associated with the English political economist
Thomas Robert Malthus (1766-1834). Malthus's theory of population growth - outlined in his Essay on
Population (1798) - was a rather pessimistic one. He argued that human populations tend to grow at a much
faster rate than the rate at which the means of human subsistence (specially food, but also clothing and other
agriculture-based products) can grow. Therefore, humanity is condemned to live in poverty forever because the
growth of agricultural production will always be overtaken by population growth. While population rises in
geometric progression (i.e., like 2, 4, 8, 16, 32 etc.), agricultural production can only grow in arithmetic
progression (i.e., like 2, 4, 6, 8, 10 etc.). Because population growth always outstrips growth in production of
subsistence resources, the only way to increase prosperity is by controlling the growth of population.
Unfortunately, humanity has only a limited ability to voluntarily reduce the growth of its population (through
'preventive checks' such as postponing marriage or practicing sexual abstinence or celibacy). Malthus believed
therefore that 'positive checks' to population growth - in the form of famines and diseases - were inevitable
because they were nature's way of dealing with the imbalance between food supply and increasing population.

GS

Malthus's theory was influential for a long time. But it was also challenged by theorists who claimed that
economic growth could outstrip population growth.
However, the most effective refutation of his theory was provided by the historical experience of European
countries. The pattern of population growth began to change in the latter half of nineteenth century, and by
the end of the first quarter of the twentieth century these changes were quite dramatic. Birth rates had declined,
and outbreaks of epidemic diseases were being controlled. Malthus's predictions were proved false because
both food production and standards of living continued to rise despite the rapid growth of population.
Malthus was also criticized by liberal and Marxist scholars for asserting that poverty was caused by population
growth. The critics argued that problems like poverty and starvation were caused by the unequal distribution
of economic resources rather than by population growth. An unjust social system allowed a wealthy and
privileged minority to live in luxury while the vast majority of the people were forced to live in poverty.

Demographic Transition Theory

a) Meaning

Notes

Demographic transition (DT) refers to the transition from high birth and death rates to low birth and death rates
as a country develops from a pre-industrial to an industrialized economic system. This is typically demonstrated
through a demographic transition model (DTM). The theory is based on an interpretation of demographic
history developed in 1929 by the American demographer Warren Thompson (1887-1973) who observed changes,
or transitions, in birth and death rates in industrialized societies over the previous 200 years.

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As with all models, this is an idealized picture of population change in these countries. The model is a
generalization that applies to these countries as a group and may not accurately describe all individual cases.

SC

OR
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b) Stages -

The transition involves four stages, or possibly five.

Stage 1

In stage one, pre-industrial society, death rates and birth rates are high and roughly
in balance.

GS

All human populations are believed to have had this balance until the late 18th
century, when this balance ended in Western Europe. In fact, growth rates were less
than 0.05% at least since the Agricultural Revolution over 10,000 years ago.
Because birth and death rates are approximately in balance, population growth is
typically very slow in stage one.

Stage 2

In stage two, that of a developing country, the death rates drop rapidly due to
improvements in food supply and sanitation, which increase life spans and reduce
disease. The improvements specific to food supply typically include selective breeding
and crop rotation and farming techniques.
Other improvements generally include access to technology, basic healthcare, and
education. For example, numerous improvements in public health reduce mortality,
especially childhood mortality.
Prior to the mid-20th century, these improvements in public health were primarily
in the areas of food handling, water supply, sewage, and personal hygiene.

Notes

One of the variables often cited is the increase in female literacy combined with
public health education programs which emerged in the late 19th and early 20th
centuries.

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In Europe, the death rate decline started in the late 18th century in northwestern
Europe and spread to the south and east over approximately the next 100 years.
Without a corresponding fall in birth rates this produces an imbalance, and the
countries in this stage experience a large increase in population.
Stage 3

In stage three, birth rates fall due to access to contraception, increases in wages,
urbanization, a reduction in subsistence agriculture, an increase in the status and
education of women, a reduction in the value of children's work, an increase in
parental investment in the education of children and other social changes. Population
growth begins to level off.

OR
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The birth rate decline in developed countries started in the late 19th century in
northern Europe. While improvements in contraception do play a role in birth rate
decline, it should be noted that contraceptives were not generally available nor
widely used in the 19th century and as a result likely did not play a significant role
in the decline then.
It is important to note that birth rate decline is caused also by a transition in values;
not just because of the availability of contraceptives.
During stage four there are both low birth rates and low death rates. Birth rates may
drop to well below replacement level as has happened in countries like Germany,
Italy, and Japan, leading to a shrinking population, a threat to many industries that
rely on population growth.

SC

Stage 4

As the large group born during stage two ages, it creates an economic burden on the
shrinking working population.

Stage 5

GS

Death rates may remain consistently low or increase slightly due to increases in
lifestyle diseases due to low exercise levels and high obesity and an aging population
in developed countries. By the late 20th century, birth rates and death rates in
developed countries leveled off at lower rates.
The original Demographic Transition model has just four stages, but additional
stages have been proposed. Both more-fertile and less-fertile futures have been claimed
as a Stage Five.
Some countries have sub-replacement fertility (that is, below 2.1-2.2 children per
woman). Replacement fertility is typically 2.1-2.2 because this replaces the two
parents and boys are born more often than girls (somewhat 1.05-1.1 to 1) and adds
population to compensate for deaths (i.e., members of the population who die
without full reproducing, for example, in the age of 30-35, giving birth to just one
baby) with approx. 0.1 additional. Many European and East Asian countries now
have higher death rates than birth rates. Population aging and population decline
may eventually occur, assuming that the fertility rate does not change and sustained
mass immigration does not occur.
c) Present status

Notes

Most developed countries are in stage 3 or 4 of the model; the majority of developing countries have reached
stage 2 or stage 3.

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Common Concepts and Indicators

Birth Rate

Birth rate is the total number of live births in a particular area (an entire country, a state,
a district or other territorial unit) during a specified period (usually a year) divided by the
total population of that area in thousands.
In other words, the birth rate is the number of live births per 1000 population.
The death rate is a similar statistic, expressed as the number of deaths in a given area
during a given time per 1000 population.

Growth Rate of
population

The rate of natural increase or the growth rate of population refers to the difference
between the birth rate and the death rate. When this difference is zero (or, in practice,
very small) then we say that the population has 'stabilized', or has reached the 'replacement
level', which is the rate of growth required for new generations to replace the older ones
that are dying out.

OR
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Death Rate

Sometimes, societies can experience a negative growth rate - that is, their fertility levels
are below the replacement rate. This is true of many countries and regions in the world
today, such as Japan, Russia, Italy and Eastern Europe.
On the other hand, some societies experience very high growth rates, particularly when
they are going through the demographic transition described on the previous page.
The fertility rate refers to the number of live births per 1000 women in the child-bearing
age group, usually taken to be 15 to 49 years.

SC

Fertility Rate

But like the other rates discussed above (the birth and death rates) this is a 'crude' rate- it is
a rough average for an entire population and does not take account of the differences across
age-groups. Differences across age groups can sometimes be very significant in affecting the
meaning of indicators. That is why demographers also calculate age-specific rates.

GS

The total fertility rate refers to the total number of live births that a hypothetical woman
would have if she lived through the reproductive age group and had the average number
of babies in each segment of this age group as determined by the age-specific fertility
rates for that area. Another way of expressing this is that the total fertility rate is the 'the
average number of births to a cohort of women up to the end of the reproductive age
period (estimated on the basis of the age-specific rates observed during a given period).

Mortality Rates

The infant mortality rate is the number of deaths of babies before the age of one year
per 1000 live births.
Likewise, the maternal mortality rate is the number of women who die in child birth per
1000 live births.
High rates of infant and maternal mortality are an unambiguous indicator of backwardness
and poverty; development is accompanied by sharp falls in these rates as medical facilities
and levels of education, awareness and prosperity increase.

Notes

Life expectancy

This refers to the estimated number of years that an average person is expected to
survive. It is calculated on the basis of data on age-specific death rates in a given area
over a period of time.

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Sex ratio

The sex ratio refers to the number of females per 1000 males in a given area at a
specified time period.
Historically, all over the world it has been found that there are slightly more females
than males in most countries. This is despite the fact that slightly more male babies
are born than female ones; nature seems to produce roughly 943 to 952 female babies
for every 1000 males. If despite this fact the sex ratio is somewhat in favour of
females, this seems to be due to two reasons. First, girl babies appear to have an
advantage over boy babies in terms of resistance to disease in infancy. At the other
end of the life cycle, women have tended to outlive men in most societies, so that
there are more older women than men. The combination of these two factors leads
to a sex ratio of roughly 1050 females per 1000 males in most contexts.

Age structure of
the population

OR
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However, it has been found that the sex ratio has been declining in some countries
like China, South Korea and specially India. This phenomenon has been linked to
prevailing social norms that tend to value males much more than females, which
leads to son preference and the relative neglect of girl babies.
The age structure of the population refers to the proportion of persons indifferent age
groups relative to the total population.

SC

The age structure changes in response to changes in levels of development and the
average life expectancy. Initially, poor medical facilities, prevalence of disease and
other factors make for a relatively short life span. Moreover, high infant and maternal
mortality rates also have an impact on the age structure. With development, quality
of life improves and with it the life expectancy also improves. This changes the age
structure: relatively smaller proportions of the population are found in the younger
age groups and larger proportions in the older age groups. This is also refered to as
the aging of the population.
The dependency ratio is a measure comparing the portion of a population which is
composed of dependents (i.e., elderly people who are too old to work, and children
who are too young to work) with the portion that is in the working age group,
generally defined as 15 to 64 years.

GS

Dependency ratio

The dependency ratio is equal to the population below 15 or above 64, divided
by population in the 15-64 age group; the ratio is usually expressed as a percentage.
Or in other words, Dependency Ratio = Population in the age group 0-14 +
Population in the age group 60 + or 65 + Population in the age group 15-59 or
15-64.

Notes

It should be remembered that, the dependency ratio gives us only a broad idea of
economic dependency in any population, and it is not a full measure for assessing the
dependency burden. It needs to be noted that not all persons in the working age group
(15-59 or 15-64) are employed and not all those in the dependent age groups (0-14
and 60+ or 65 +) are economic dependents. In a country like India, children start
working at a very early age as helping hands to the parents among craftsmen, poor
agriculturalists or newspaper hawkers or as hotel boys. In rural areas, old people
continue to engage themselves in some kind of economic activity, as there is no
retirement age in an agricultural economy. Then there are activities like those of
doctors, lawyers, traders and other self-employed persons for whom the age factor
does not lead to retirement from economic activity.

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A rising dependency ratio is a cause for worry in countries that are facing an aging
population, since it becomes difficult for a relatively smaller proportion of workingage people to carry the burden of providing for a relatively larger proportion of
dependents.
On the other hand, a falling dependency ratio can be a source of economic growth
and prosperity due to the larger proportion of workers relative to non-workers. This
is sometimes referred to as the 'demographic dividend', or benefit flowing from the
changing age structure. However, this benefit is temporary because the larger pool of
working age people will eventually turn into non-working old people.

Indian Scenario - Issues Involved

1) Growth of Population
a) Introduction

In the last few decades our TFR or population growth rate has declined.

b.

But this progress has been uneven. Southern states and states like Maharashtra and Punjab have
achieved TFR of 2.1 but northern and central states are way behind.

TFR is greater than 2.1

a.

3.

And thus our growth rate is still one of the highest in the world. (In 2010 our Total Fertility Rate
(TFR) was at 2.8 %)

2nd highest population

a.

4.

OR
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a.

SC

2.

Progress is uneven

With 1.2 billion India is the 2nd populous country in the world and in near future it will overtake
China. Indias population will stabilize at 1.7 billion in 2070.

GS

1.

According to census 2011 India adds a Brazil in 10 years.

b) Reasons for High Population

1.

High IMR
a.

2.

Notes

3.

Due to high IMR there is threat of parents living childless. So they reproduce more to acts as
insurance against early child birth.

Poverty dependent on agriculture

a.

More kids, thus more hands to earn and thus more income, that's the mindset of people

b.

Huge population is still dependent on agriculture which is a labor intensive sector and thus more
hands.

Early marriage
a.

Not only does early marriage increase the likelihood of more children,

b.

It also puts the woman's health at risk.

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4.

Male child preference

a.

There is preference to male child due to various reasons

i.

Age old support

ii.

Dowry

iii. Religious scriptures also give preference to male child

b.

Social sanction norm

7.

8.

Low use of Contraceptives

a.

According to NFHS III (2005-06), only 56% of currently married women use some method of
family planning in India.

b.

Its because either contraceptives are not available or low awareness or even if awareness then also
due to values and mentality they don't use it.

Benefits of small family not realized

a.

Low awareness about the benefits of small family

b.

And it is the failure of govt. in reaching to people.

c.

And it is compounded by the fact that still many people are illiterate.

Women's education
a.

Fertility usually declines with increase in education levels of women.

b.

View of Ranganathan Mishra commission

i.

9.

SC

6.

In rural areas even now not having a kid is still seen as a social stigma.

OR
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a.

GS

5.

Thus either they resort to sex selective abortion if it's a girl fetus or if they are not aware of it or
can't afford it then other people continue to give births till the time they get a male child.

Among Jains high female literacy rate and lowest proportion of child population (0-6 years) and
among Muslims low female literacy rate and higher proportion of children in the age group (06 years) support this contention.

Huge size of population in reproductive age

a.

At present a large size of population is in reproductive age. Thus even if we make dedicated efforts
then also population will increase in near future.

10. Cultural lag

Notes

11. Govt and parliament not taking it seriously. These issues are not debated in Parliament. We keep pushing
our population stabilization target from 2010 to 2045 to 2070.

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C) Consequences a)

Positive consequences

1.

Advantage of India's demographic dividend

3.

At present India is in 3rd stage of demographic transition and thus its of huge advantage

b.

i.e., we have a huge young population who if properly educated and skilled can create a huge
workforce and can make India a superpower.

Outsourcing
a.

Due to supply of large workforce their bargaining power is less and thus labor is cheap (Karl Marx
point)

b.

So due to this cheap labor in India USA is outsourcing its work to India and thus we are earning
revenue.

Huge consumer base foreign relations

OR
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2.

a.

a.

India is a country of 1.2 billion population which means 120 crore consumers, 120 crore mouth,
with multiple demands and thus a huge consumer base for the companies to sell their product.

b.

That's why, all major companies of the world are coming to India.

Negative consequences

1.

Strain on resources - India sustaining 16.7% of the world's population on 2.4% of the world's surface
area and thus

Notes

3.

10

a.

Land acquisition- for more houses and projects and all challenges of land acquisition.

b.

Food security- due to more LA less land is available for agriculture

c.

Water- also due to huge demand of water table is declining

d.

Energy- Depletion of natural resources, especially fossil fuels.

e.

For the sustainability of our resources, the world will have to control the rapid population increase

GS

2.

SC

b)

Competition for seats - there is always a huge Que/line for '

a.

Seats in schools and colleges (engineering, medical college)

b.

Huge number of application for a job and this is the reason for unemployment.

c.

In govt. hospitals there is always a huge line.

Environmental affect
a.

Forest cover declining.

b.

This affects biodiversity as large number of species becoming extinct, and it leads to man animal
conflict

c.

Climate change as they are store-house of carbon-dioxide and thus global warming

d.

Increased levels of air pollution, water pollution, soil contamination and noise pollution.

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4.

Youth Frustration
a.

Due to this strain on resources and unemployment there is youth frustration which further leads to
i.

Alcoholism, drug addiction (and engages in consequent illegal activities like drugs etc.)

ii.

Law and order issues - become part of LWE organized crimes

iii. Social movements - mainly unemployed people are part of it.

Migration is happening from north to south as in north the population is rising and thus more resource
crunch.

b.

Rapid urbanization and all its challenges esp. of slums

Health issues
a.

Due to food shortage there is malnutrition; also due to pollution esp. water pollution various types
of diseases; all this leads to high IMR, MMR.

b.

Due to overcrowding the chances of epidemics, i.e., spreading of infectious diseases are high.

Inflation
a.

8.

9.

OR
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7.

a.

And this rising huge populations is the cause of rising prices, i.e., inflation.

Nullifies government steps

SC

6.

Migration

a.

Also whatever the steps are taken by govt. in every aspects is nullified by the huge increase in
population and thus whatever we do is short of the rising population.

b.

India's current annual increase in population of 15.5 million is large enough to neutralize efforts made
by government.

Seats in Parliament

GS

5.

a.

These are at present frozen according to the census of 1971

b.

Its because southern states have been successful in controlling the population, but northern states
have not. And if we don't set 1971 as the benchmark then the failure to control population by
northern states will be rewarded by giving more seats in Lok Sabha, i.e., Kerala which has made
tremendous effort in controlling population will be punished by reducing its seats in parliament.

10. Alienation 'Karl Marx

a.

Karl marx said that there is huge reserved pool of people waiting to get employed and thus a person
can be easily removed from his job and this is the reason for alienation.

c)

Solution -

1.

Take steps to control the size

a.

Do opposite of all reasons, i.e., spread awareness etc, remove IMR, remove poverty, etc.

b.

Some suggestions:
Increased Participation of Men in Planned Parenthood

Notes

i.

11

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ii.

Contraceptives - deliver them on the doorstep at the village level through ASHA (Accredited
Social Health Activists)

iii. Contraception is important, but alone it can't play any important role. It is important to note that
birth rate decline is caused also by a transition in values
Spread awareness by using all medias like Street plays, Tamasha, Print and electronic media,
Civil society, Anganwadis's network

v.

DINK - Empowering women and enhancing their employment opportunities; phenomenon of

DINK (double income no kids)

Deal with existing population

a.

i.e., take steps to ensure our people basic amenities like food security, safe drinking water, sanitation
etc.

b.

Open more schools, hospitals

c.

Create more jobs and do skill development.

OR
E

2.

iv.

Increased Participation of Men in Planned Parenthood

In the past, population programs have tended to exclude men folk.

Gender inequalities in patriarchal societies ensure that men play a critical role in determining the
education and employment of family members,

age at marriage,

besides access to and utilisation of health, nutrition, and family welfare services for women and
children.

SC

The active involvement of men is called for in planning families, supporting contraceptive use,
helping pregnant women stay healthy, arranging skilled care during delivery, avoiding delays in seeking
care, helping after the baby is born and, finally, in being a responsible father.

In short, the active cooperation and participation of men is vital for ensuring programme acceptance.
Further, currently, over 97 percent of sterilisations are tubectomies and this manifestation of gender
imbalance needs to be corrected. The special needs of men include re-popularising vasectomies, in
particular noscalpel vasectomy as a safe and simple procedure, and focusing on men in the information
and education campaigns to promote the small family norm.

GS

China's Family Planning Restrictions

(China's one child policy)
1.

Evolution

Notes

a.

12

Late 1970's
i.

China's family planning restrictions - widely known as the "one-child policy," though the measures
include a complicated system of regulations - were enforced in the late 1970s.

ii.

It permitted couples in cities to have only one child and those in the countryside to have a
second child if their first born was a girl.

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2007
i.

2.

Nov 2013
i.

In Nov 2013 the rules were further relaxed when a meeting of China's top leadership said that it
would relax family planning restrictions

ii.

Under the new rules, couples can now have two children if one parent is an only child.

Critical aspect
a.

Achievements
i.

b.

Government says the policy prevented at least 300 million additional births over the past three
decades,

OR
E

c.

The rules were relaxed in 2007, when the government said couples could have a second child if both
parents were only children.

Criticism
i.

Critics say the widely unpopular restrictions have infringed upon fundamental human rights.

ii.

Violators face heavy fines, which most cannot afford, and innumerable violations of the law, such
as forced abortions, have been committed on account of the policy, as local officials aimed to
meet prescribed targets.

SC

b.

iii. Also its population is ageing that's why it is reversing the policy.
Should We Emulate China?
a.

Chinas success in reducing population has led to suggestion that India should copy it

b.

Arguments against

c.

d.

GS

3.

i.

Lack of freedom; against human rights; womens lack of reproductive right

ii.

In South Asia region, there is male preference so one-child norm will increase female foeticide

Keralas case
i.

Kerala's fertility rate of 1.8 is lower then that of China's 1.9 and is achieved without any
compulsion

ii.

Reason - High levels of basic education, health care etc.

So, India has many lessons to learn from China, but the need for coercion and violation of democracy
is not one of them.

2-child norm for local bodies skews sex ratio- September, 2014
India's attempt at a China-type population control policy appears to have had drastic but unintended
consequences. Laws enacted by State governments in the late 1990s and 2000s restricting political eligibility
to candidates with two or less children did reduce family sizes in those States, but severely affected the
sex ratio, a new research has found.

Over the period, 11 Indian States passed laws disqualifying persons with more than two children from
contesting panchayat elections. Some States like Bihar, Gujarat and Uttarakhand enacted such laws later,

Notes

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while Himachal Pradesh, Madhya Pradesh and Chhattisgarh repealed their laws after 2005. Uttarakhand
and Bihar implemented the law only for municipal elections.

In a working paper, economists S. Anukriti from Boston College and Abhishek Chakravarty of the University
of Essex looked at seven States - Rajasthan, Haryana, Andhra Pradesh, Orissa, Himachal Pradesh, Madhya
Pradesh, and Maharashtra - in which such laws were in effect between 1992 and 2005.

Using data from various rounds of National Family Health Survey (NFHS) and District-Level Household
Survey (DLHS), the researchers found that there was a marked decline in the number of women in the
general population reporting third births exactly one year after the new policy was announced; the first year
was a "grace period" in all of the State laws.

This decline was relative to that State's own history of decline in fertility as well as other States which
didn't enact such laws.

2) Fertility in India

OR
E

a) Measurement of Fertility At the outset, it is necessary to differentiate between fecundity and fertility. Fecundity refers to the physiological
capacity to reproduce. Fertility, on the other hand, refers to the actual reproductive performance of an individual
or a group.
While there is no direct measurement of fecundity, fertility can be studied from the statistics of births.

SC

The crude birth rate is an important measure of fertility for which only live births, that is, children born alive
are taken into account. The crude birth rate is calculated by dividing the number of live births occuring during
a calender year in a specified areas by the mid year population of that year. The crude birth rate is generally
expressed per thousand of population. It is computed in the following manner:
Total number of live births during a year x 1000
Total population in the middle of that year

GS

The crude birth rate directly points to the contribution of fertility to the growth rate of the population. It suffers
from certain limitations mainly because it has in the denominator the total population which includes males
as well as very young and very old women who are biologically not capable of having babies. There are other
more refined fertility measures like the general fertility rate, the age-specific fertility rates, etc., that overcome
these limitations, but these do not concern us here.
b) Levels and Trends of Fertility in India As in other developing countries, the crude birth rate has been quite high in India. In the first decade of the
twentieth century, the estimated birth rate for India was as high as 49.2 per thousand population. In the decade
1951-61, that is, the decade immediately following independence, the birth rate declined by only four points,
and was around 45 per thousand population. Since 1961, however, the birth rate has been progressively
declining, though not at a very fast pace. The Crude Birth Rate (CBR) at the national level during 2013 stands
at 21.4, a decline of 0.2 points over 2012.
c) Determinants of High Fertility Several factors contribute to the high fertility of Indian women. Let us examine some of these factors:
All the religions of the world, except Buddhism, contain injunctions to their followers to breed and
multiply. It is, therefore, not surprising that belief in high fertility has been strongly supported by religions
and social institutions in India, leading to appropriate norms about family size.

Notes

i)

14

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ii)

Another factor contributing to high fertility is the universality of the institution of marriage. Amongst the
Hindus, a man is expected to go through the various stages of his life (Ashramas), performing the duties
attached to each stage. Marriage is considered one such duty. For the Hindu woman, marriage is considered
essential, because it is the only sacrament she is entitled to, though the Hindu man goes through several
sacraments throughout his life.

iii) Till recently, the custom in India required the Hindu girls to be married off before they entered puberty.
Even today, despite legislation forbidding the marriage of girls before they are 18 years of age, many girls
are married off before they attain that age. In India, traditionally women start childbearing at an early age,
and continue to do so till they cross the age at which they are no longer biologically capable of bearing
children.

The preference for sons is deeply ingrained in the Indian culture. Sons are required for extending the family
line and for looking after the parents in their old age. Among the Hindus, a son is desired not only for
the continuation of the family line and for providing security in old age, but also for ceremoniously
kindling the funeral pyre and, thus, effecting the salvation of his father's soul. The preference for sons is
so high in the Indian society that a couple may continue to have several daughters and still not stop childbearing in the hope of having at least one son.

SC

v)

OR
E

iv) As in all traditional societies, in India too, great emphasis is laid on bearing children. A woman, who does
not bear children, is looked down upon in society. In fact, the new daughter-in-law attains her rightful status
in the family only after she produces a child, preferably a son.

GS

vi) In Indian society, a fatalistic attitude is ingrained and fostered from childhood. Such an attitude acts as
a strong influence against any action that calls for the exercise of the right of self-determination with
reference to reproduction. Children are considered to be gifts of God, and people believe that it is not upto
them to decide on the number of children. High infant and child mortality rates also contribute to a large
family size. A couple may have a large number of children in the hope that at least a few of them will
survive upto adulthood. The low status of women is also a contributing factor to high fertility. Women,
unquestioningly, accept excessive childbearing without any alternative avenues for self-expression.
vii) Children in the Indian society have a great economic, social, cultural as well as religious value. Fertility
of Indian women is, therefore, high. Often, there is no economic motivation for restricting the number of
children, because the biological parents may not necessarily be called upon to provide for the basic needs
of their own children since the extended family is jointly responsible for all the children born into it.
viii) Again in the absence of widespread adoption of methods of conception control, the fertility of Indian
women continues to remain high.

Notes

It is important that none of these factors is to be seen in isolation. Indeed, it is the combination of several
factors, that contribute towards the high fertility rate in India. While considering the factors contributing to high
fertility, it is necessary also to consider traditional Indian norms which regulate the reproductive behaviour of
couples. Breast-feeding is universally practiced in Indian sub-continent and this has an inhibiting influence on
conception. Certain taboos are also practiced during the postpartum period when the couple is expected to
abstain from sexual activity. The practice of going to the parental home for delivery, specially the first one,
common in some parts of the country also ensures abstinence after childbirth leading to postponement of the
next pregnancy. Cohabitation is also prohibited on certain specified days in the month. It is also common
knowledge that a woman would be ridiculed if she continued to bear children after she had become a
grandmother.

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d) Implications of High Fertility Apart from contributing in a big way to the population problem of the country, high fertility affects the family
and, in turn, society in many ways.
Women are tied down to child-bearing and child-rearing for the best years of their productive lives. They
are, therefore, denied the opportunity to explore other avenues for self-expression and self-development.
This could lead to frustration. Excessive child-bearing affects their own health and that of their children.
Looking after a large number of children puts a further strain on the slender physical and emotional
resources of such women.

The burden of providing for a large family sits heavily on the bread-winner of the family. The constant
struggle to maintain a subsistence level is exhausting. To escape from the problems of everyday life, he
may take to drinking. This would lead to further deterioration of the economic and emotional well-being
of the family.

The children, often unwanted, unloved and neglected, are left to their own devices to make life bearable.
Indulgence in delinquency is sometimes the result. The children in large families often have to start
working at a very early age to supplement the slender financial resources of the family. They are,
therefore, denied the opportunity to go to school and get educated. The girl child is the worst sufferer.
She is often not sent to school at all, or is withdrawn from school at an early age to help her mother
in carrying out domestic chores and to look after her younger siblings when the mother is at work. Early
marriage pushes her into child-bearing, and the vicious cycle continues. The children, both boys and
girls, in a large family are thus often denied the joys of childhood, and are pushed into adult roles at
a very early age.

SC

OR
E

GS

Happy and healthy families are the very foundation on which a healthy society is built. Excessive fertility, as
one of the factors leading to family unhappiness and ill health, needs to be curbed in order to build up a healthy
society.

3)(A) IMR - Infant mortality rate

a) Introduction
Definition
a.

b.

Notes

c.

16

IMR
i.

Infant mortality means death of a child within 1 year of birth

ii.

IMR means number of infant deaths per 1,000 live births

Neo-natal mortality rate

i.

Neo-natal means death of a child within 28 days of birth.

ii.

NNMR means number of neo-natal death per 1,000 live births.

Under 5 mortality-number of children aged 0-4 years

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b) Reasons i) For neo-natal mortality Age of marriage

b.

Below the age of 18, i.e., child marriage

ii.

Above the age of 35 yrs.

They are more prone to give birth to babies having

i.

Low weight at birth or

ii.

Premature births.

Spacing
a.

3.

i.

If the interval between two births is less than one year then chances of IMR are high

Women's health + Low weight at birth a.

A weak, anemic mother gives birth to a low-weight baby with slender chances of survival.

b.

Low weight baby is the leading cause of IMR.

c.

Now a women's can be weak due to various reasons:

SC

2.

It is known that neonatal mortality rates are higher when the mother is

OR
E

a.

i.

Attitude of other family members i.e., in-laws don't cooperate with the women and she continues
to do all household work even during her pregnancy.

ii.

Women herself is not aware, i.e., she herself is not aware of what and what not to do and eat
during the pregnancy.

GS

1.

iii. Carelessness - some women's continues to smoke beedi, paan-supari, gutka, cigarettes and alcohol
during pregnancy period and this also affects the womb.
4.

Lack of medical facilities

a.

Ante-natal care
i.

Ante-natal care is generally concerned with the pregnant woman's well-being is lacking in our
country.

ii.

It is, therefore, not possible to identify high risk cases requiring special care, to administer
tetanus toxoid injections for immunizing the unborn child against tetanus, and to provide iron
and folic acid tablets to prevent anaemia among pregnant women.

iii. An anemic mother gives birth to a low-weight baby with slender chances of survival.
b.

Care after the baby is born

While the standards laid down by the World Health Organization specify that babies with a birth
weight of less than 2,500 grams should be considered as "high risk" babies, needing special care,

Notes

i.

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24 to 37 per cent of Indian babies have a birth weight below 2,500 grams without the possibility
of receiving any special care.
c.

Post-natal care
i.

a.

Research shows that a strong culture of silence, specially related to reproductive or sexual health due
to social norms, makes it difficult to engage women and families in birth planning and emergency
mitigation.

b.

Lack of access to medical facilities - Environmental and social barriers prevent access to basic
medical resources and thus contribute to an increasing infant mortality rate.

Delivery of child
a.

Delivery by untrained person

i.

b.

c.

Proper hygienic conditions and medical care during delivery are not ensured, specially in the rural
areas.

Transportation and road infrastructure

i.

Due to poor conditions of road, women might face complications while being taken away to
hospital for delivery of child. Its too risky for both women and the child.

Women's education
a.

Poor education means less awareness thus more superstitious and thus less reliance on healthcare and
advice then more educated women willing;

b.

And this affects in both - while the child is in the womb and after delivery and care

GS

7.

The delivery is generally conducted by an untrained traditional birth attendant (dai) or an elderly
relative. The scheme of providing dais with training has not yet reached all parts of the country.

Delivery in unhygienic conditions

i.

OR
E

6.

Cultural barriers - Social barriers to access the medical facilities

SC

5.

It's the care of women after the birth of baby.

ii) For post neo-natal mortality - (i.e. period from post-neonatal till age of 5)
8.

9.

Unhygienic environment
a.

Children's which are born and raised in unhygienic environment are more prone to get infectious
diseases.

b.

Also poor drinking water and the consequent water born diseases is the cause. Lack of sanitation
facilities.

c.

And especially its more in case of slums which are unhygienic and over-crowded, i.e., chances of
spreading of infection are very high.

Immunisation Issue

Notes

a.

18

Common childhood diseases, such as, diptheria, pertusis (whooping cough), measles and polio as well
as tuberculosis contribute substantially to the post-neonatal and child mortality.

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b.

Deaths due to these diseases can be prevented by immunization but

i.

Immunization services are either not available or easily accessible in the rural areas,

ii.

Or if available then may not be accepted by the rural population because of either
1.

Ignorance,

2.

Superstition or

3.

Sheer apathy.

10. Malnutrition itself causes death. And malnourished childrens are more prone to death.
11. Infectous diseases like pneumonia, diarrohea and malaria.

OR
E

12. Accidents and unintentional injuries.

c) Consequences -

2.

Cause of Over-population

It has been observed that wherever infant and child mortality is high, fertility is also high and viceversa.

b.

A couple is interested in the number of surviving children and not in the number of children born.
Because of the high levels of infant and child mortality, a couple may go in for a large number of
children in the hope that at least a few would survive to adulthood.

c.

Due to high IMR the people produce more as an insurance against future deaths.

d.

And it is also suggested by empirical data. IMR is the lowest at 15 in Kerala and the highest at 73
in Uttar Pradesh.

Emotional trauma
a.

3.

Emotional trauma caused to parents.

Financial burden
a.

4.

SC

a.

GS

1.

Looking after these children, who die before they can start contributing to the country's well being,
also places a heavy burden on the country's meager resources.

Indicator of development
a.

It needs to be reiterated that the level of the infant mortality rate of a country is considered as an
important indicator of the socio-economic status of that country and the quality of life in it.

3) MMR - Maternal Mortality Rate

1) Introduction
1.

Definition of MMR (Maternal Mortality Ratio)

Number of women dying due to maternal causes per 1,00,000 livebirths

Notes

a.

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2.

Present status
a.

According to economic survey2014-15, India is set to reach the UN Millennium Development Goals
(MDG) with respect to maternal and child survival. The MDG for maternal mortality ratio (MMR)
is 140 per 100,000 live births, while India had achieved 178 by 2010-12 and is estimated to reach
141 by 2015. The under-5 mortality rate (U5MR) MDG is 42, while India has an U5MR of 52 and
is expected to reach 42 by 2015.

b.

But still there is no need to be complacent as its still high compared to other regions and this national
figure hides the regional variations

2) Reasons Factors that increase maternal death can be direct or indirect. Generally, there is a distinction between a
direct maternal death that is the result of a complication of the pregnancy, delivery, or management of
the two, and an indirect maternal death, that is a pregnancy-related death in a patient with a pre-existing
or newly developed health problem unrelated to pregnancy. Fatalities during but unrelated to a pregnancy
are termed accidental, incidental, or non-obstetrical maternal deaths.

The most common causes are post partum bleeding, complications from unsafe abortion, hypertensive
disorders of pregnancy, postpartum infections, and obstructed labor. Other causes include blood clots and
pre-existing conditions (28%). Indirect causes are malaria, anemia, HIV/AIDS, and cardiovascular disease,
all of which may complicate pregnancy or be aggravated by it.

Socio-demographic factors such as age, access to resources and income level are significant indicators of
maternal outcomes. Young mothers face higher risks of complications and death during pregnancy than
older mothers, especially adolescents aged 15 years or younger. Adolescents have higher risks for postpartum
hemorrhage, puerperal endometritis, operative vaginal delivery, episiotomy, low birth weight, preterm
delivery, and small-for-gestational-age infants, all of which can lead to maternal death. Structural support
and family support influences maternal outcomes. Furthermore, social disadvantage and social isolation
adversely affects maternal health which can lead to increases in maternal death. Additionally, lack of
access to skilled medical care during childbirth, the travel distance to the nearest clinic to receive proper
care, number of prior births, barriers to accessing prenatal medical care and poor infrastructure all increase
maternal deaths.

Unsafe abortion is another major cause of maternal death. According to the World Health Organization,
every eight minutes a woman dies from complications arising from unsafe abortions. Complications
include hemorrhage, infection, sepsis and genital trauma Globally, preventable deaths from improperly
performed procedures constitute 13% of maternal mortality, and 25% or more in some countries where
maternal mortality from other causes is relatively low, making unsafe abortion the leading single cause of
maternal mortality worldwide.

GS

SC

OR
E

3) Prevention
Four elements are essential to maternal death prevention
First, prenatal care. It is recommended that expectant mothers receive at least four antenatal visits to
check and monitor the health of mother and foetus.

2.

Second, skilled birth attendance with emergency backup such as doctors, nurces and midwives who have
the skills to manage normal deliveries and recognize the onset of complications.

3.

Third, emergency obstetric care to address the major causes of maternal death which are haemorrhage,
sepsis, unsafe abortion, hypertensive disorders and obstructed labour.

Notes

1.

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4.

Lastly, post-natal care which is the six weeks following delivery. During this time bleeding, sepsis and
hypertensive disorders can occur and newborns are extremely vulnerable in the immediate aftermath of
birth. Therefore, follow-up visits by a health worker is assess the health of both mother and child in the
postnatal period is strongly recommended.

4) Schemes for preventing IMR and MMR

Janani Suraksha Yojana (JSY) -

Janani Suraksha Yojana (JSY) is a safe motherhood intervention under the National Rural Health Mission
(NHM).

It is a 100% centrally sponsored scheme it integrates cash assistance with delivery and post-delivery care.

It is being implemented with the objective of reducing maternal and neonatal mortality by promoting
institutional delivery among poor pregnant women. The scheme is under implementation in all states and
Union Territories (UTs), with a special focus on Low Performing States (LPS).

Janani Suraksha Yojana was launched in April 2005 by modifying the National Maternity Benefit Scheme
(NMBS). The NMBS came into effect in August 1995 as one of the components of the National Social
Assistance Programme (NSAP). The scheme was transferred from the Ministry of Rural Development to
the Department of Health & Family Welfare during the year 2001-02.

b)

Janani Shishu Suraksha Karyakaram (JSSK) -

OR
E

a)

SC

Government of India has launched Janani Shishu Suraksha Karyakaram (JSSK) on 1st June, 2011.

GS

The scheme is estimated to benefit more than 12 million pregnant women who access Government health
facilities for their delivery. Moreover it will motivate those who still choose to deliver at their homes to opt
for institutional deliveries. It is an initiative with a hope that states would come forward and ensure that
benefits under JSSK would reach every needy pregnant woman coming to government institutional facility. All
the States and UTs have initiated implementation of the scheme.
The following are the Free Entitlements for pregnant women:

Free and cashless delivery

Free C-Section

Free drugs and consumables

Free diagnostics

Free diet during stay in the health institutions

Free provision of blood

Exemption from user charges

Free transport from home to health institutions

Free transport between facilities in case of referral

Free drop back from Institutions to home after 48 hrs stay

Notes

The following are the Free Entitlements for Sick newborns till 30 days after birth. This has now been expanded
to cover sick infants:

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Free drugs and consumables

Free diagnostics

Free provision of blood

Exemption from user charges

Free Transport from Home to Health Institutions

Free Transport between facilities in case of referral

Free drop Back from Institutions to home

c)

Matritva Sahyog Yojana, 2014 -

1.

It was launched in 2010; Earlier it was known as Indira Gandhi Matritva Sahyog Yojana (IGMSY), but
NDA govt changed the name.

2.

Like JSY it is also a conditional cash transfer scheme. (maternity benifits)

3.

It is a Centrally Sponsored Scheme for pregnant and lactating women aged 19 years and above for first
two live births in 53 districts.

4.

How it works - Like JSY it is also a Conditional Cash Transfer scheme covered under Direct Benefit
Transfer (DBT) program. Under this each pregnant and lactating mother will receive Rs. 6,000 in 3
installments between 2nd trimesters of pregnancy unstill the child is 3 months.

5.

Background of scheme - Scheme is launched to address the issue that working womens work right upto
the last stage of pregnancy and resumes work immediately after child birth. Thus it affects both mother
and child's health. So this scheme is a measure to provide some compensation of wage loss at maternity
benefits.

d)

Mother and Child Tracking System (MCTS) -

Mother and Child Tracking System (MCTS) is a web enabled name based system to monitor and ensure
delivery of full spectrum of services to all pregnant women and children.

The system was introduced about in 2010. It is currently being implemented throughout the country with
active involvement of States/UTs. More than 4.06 crore pregnant crore pregnant women 3.3 crore children
have been registered in the system since its inception.

Over 99.5% districts, 96% health blocks, 88% health facilities (other than Sub Health Centres (SHCs) and
94% SHCs are reporting data in MCTS. Total 2.3 lakh ANMS are registered in MCTS, of which 2.2 lakh
(96.6%) ANM are registered with Phone Number. Total 8.4 lakh ASHAs are registered in MCTS, out of
which 6.9 lakh (82.9%) ASHAs are registered with Phone number.

Everyday approximately 7-8 lakh SMSes are being sent to the beneficiaries carrying useful IEC messages
related to maternal and child care, schemes like JSY, JSSK and Direct Benefit Transfer. Regular Work
plants are being sent to ANMs/ASHAs through SMS.

Daily SMSes are also being sent to senior officials of GOI and State Governments, Regional Directors,
State Coordinators, District Collectors, Chief Medical Officers, District Programme Managers etc. regarding
mother and child registration status, service due and delivery status.

22

GS

SC

OR
E

Free treatment

Notes

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MCTS system has been synchronised to Central Plan Schemes Monitoring System to make JSY payments
online directly into the beneficiary's bank account in select pilot districts where the Director Benefits
Transfer scheme is being rolled.

e)

Integrated Child Development Services (ICDS) -

Integrated Child Development Services (ICDS) is an Indian government welfare programme which provides
food, preschool education, and primary healthcare to children under 6 years of age and their mothers.
These services are provided from Anganwadi centres established mainly in rural areas and staffed with
frontline workers. In addition to fighting malnutrition and ill health, the programme is also intended to
combat gender inequality by providing girls the same resources as boys.

A 2005 study found that the ICDS programme was not particularly effective in reducing malnutrition,
largely because of implementation problems and because the poorest states had received the least coverage
and funding.

f)

Rashtriya Bal Swasthya Karyakram (RBSK) -

Rashtriya Bal Swasthya Karyakram (RBSK) is a new initiative aiming at early identification and early
intervention for children from birth to 18 years to cover 4 'D's viz. Defects at birth, Deficiencies, Diseases,
Development delays including disability. The launch of this programme assumes great significance as it
corresponds to the release of Reproductive, Maternal, Newborn, Child Health and Adolescent Health
strategy (RMNCH+A)

Comprehensive child health care implies assurance of extensive health services for all children from birth
to 18 years of age for a set of health conditions. These conditions are Diseases, Deficiencies, Disability
and Developmental delays - 4 Ds. Universal screening would lead to early detection of medical conditions,
timely intervention, ultimately leading to a reduction in mortality, morbidity and lifelong disability.

Background to its launch - Under National Rural Health Mission, significant progress has been made in
reducing mortality in children over the last seven years (2005-12). Whereas there is an escalation of
reducing child mortality there is a dire need to improve survival outcome. This would be reached by early
detection and management of conditions that were not addressed comprehensively in the past.

g)

NSSK - Navjat Shishu Suraksha Karyakaram -

NSSK is a program launched in 2009 with the aim to train health personnel in basic newborn care and
resuscitation, has been launched to address care at birth issues i.e. Prevention of Hypothermia, Prevention
of Infection, Early initiation of Breast feeding and Basic Newborn Resuscitation.

Newborn care and resuscitation is an important starting-point for any neonatal program and is required to
ensure the best possible start in life. The objective of this new initiative is to have a trained health personal
in Basic newborn care and resuscitation at every delivery point. The training is for 2 days and is expected
to reduce neo-natal mortality significantly in the country.

h)

INAP - India Newborn Action Plan

The India Newborn Action Plan (INAP) is India's committed response to the Global Every Newborn
Action Plan (ENAP), launched in June 2014 at the 67th World Health Assembly, to advance the Global
Strategy for Women s and Children's Health.

The ENAP sets forth a vision of a world that has eliminated preventable newborn deaths and stillbirths.
INAP lays out a vision and a plan for India to end preventable newborn deaths, accelerate progress, and

Notes

GS

SC

OR
E

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scale up high-impact yet cost effective interventions. INAP has a clear vision supported by goals, strategic
intervention packages, priority actions, and a monitoring framework. For the first time, INAP also articulates
the Government of India's specific attention on preventing stillbirths. INAP is guided by the principles of
Integration, Equity, Gender, Quality of Care, Convergence, Accountability, and Partnerships. It includes
six pillars of intervention packages across various stages with specific actions to impact stillbirths and
newborn health.
i)

Universal Immunization Programme (UIP)

India's Universal Immunisation Programme (U.I.P.) is one of the largest in the world in terms of quantities of
vaccine used, the number of beneficiaries, the number of Immunisation session organised, the geographical
spread and diversity of areas covered. Universal Immunisation programme UIP was lunched in 1985 in a
phased manner. The measles vaccine was added in 1985 and in 1990 Vitamin A supplementation was added
to the program.

OR
E

The Vaccination Schedule under the UIP is:

2.

DPT (Diphtheria, Pertussis and Tetanus Toxoid) 5 doses; Three primary doses at 6, 10, 14 weeks and two
booster doses at 16-24 months and 5 Years of age

3.

OPV (Oral Polio Vaccine) 5 doses; 0 dose at birth, three primary doses at 6, 10 and 14 weeks and one
booster dose at 16-24 months of age

4.

Hepatitis B vaccine 4 doses; 0 dose within 24 hours of birth and three doses at 6, 10 and 14 weeks of
age.

5.

Measles 2 doses; first dose at 9-12 months and second dose at 16-24 months of age

6.

TT (Tetanus Toxoid) 2 doses at 10 years and 16 years of age

7.

TT - for pregnant woman two doses or one dose if previously vaccinated within 3 Year

8.

In addition, Japanese Encephalitis (JE vaccine) vaccine was introduced in 112 endemic districts in campaign
mode in phased manner from 2006-10 and has now been incorporated under the Routine Immunisation
Programme

j)

Mid-day meal scheme

The Mid-day Meal Scheme is a school meal programme of the Government of India designed to improve
the nutritional status of school-age children nation-wide. The programme supplies free lunches on working
days for children in Primary and Upper Primary Classes in Government, Government Aided, Local Body,
Education Guarantee Scheme, and Alternate Innovative Education Centres, Madarsa and Maqtabs supported
under Sarva Shiksha Abhiyan, and National Child Labour Project schools run by the Ministry of Labour.

Serving 120,000,000 children in over 1,265,000 schools and Education Guarantee Scheme centres, it is the
largest such programme in the world

The programme entered the planning stages in 2001 and was implemented in 2004. The programme has
undergone many changes and amendments since its launch.

24

GS

SC

BCG (Bacillus Calmette Guerin) 1 dose at Birth (upto 1 year if not given earlier)

Notes

1.

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4) Migration
Meaning

In a layman's language, the world 'migration' refers to the movements of the people from one place to
another. According to Demographic Dictionary, "migration is a form of geographical mobility or spatial
mobility between one geo graphical unit and another, generally involving a change in residence from the
place of origin or place of departure to the place of destination or place of arrival."

Such migration is called permanent migration, and should be distinguished from other forms of movement,
which do not involve a permanent change of residence.

b)

Sociological Significance of Migration -

It is one of the three components of the population change the other two being mortality and fertility.

Migration is the third component of population change, the other two being mortality and fertility.
However, migration is different from the other two processes, namely, mortality and fertility in the sense
that it is not a biological factor like the other two, which operate in a biological framework, though
influenced by social, cultural and economic factors. Migration is influenced by the wishes of persons
involved. Usually each migratory movement is deliberately made, though in exceptional cases this may
not hold true. Thus migration is a response of human organisms to economic, social and demographic
forces in the environment.

The study of migration occupies an important place in population studies, because, along with fertility and
mortality, it determines the size and rate of population growth as well as its structure and characteristics.
Migration also plays an important role in the distribution of the population of any country, and determines
the growth of labour force in any area. Migration is thus an important symptom of social change in
society.

c)

(i) Types of migration

GS

SC

OR
E

a)

a.

The movement of people from one region to another within the country.

b.

In-migration and Out-migration :

i.

These are used only in connection with internal migration.

ii.

'In-migration' refers to migration into a particular area while 'out-migration' refers to movements
out of a particular area. The term 'in-migration' is used with reference to the area of destination
of the migrants and the term 'out-migration' is used with reference to the area of origin or place
of departure of the migrant.

iii. Thus, migrants who come from Bihar or Uttar Pradesh to Punjab are considered to be immigrants for Punjab and out-migrants for Bihar and Uttar Pradesh.
c.

In internal migration there are different forms of migration such as

i.

Rural-to-rural,

ii.

Urban-to-urban migration,

iii. Rural to urban migration and

Urban to rural migration.

Notes

iv.

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2.

International migration:
a.

It means migration from one country to another country.

b.

Immigration and Emigration :

i.

'Immigration' refers to migration into a country from another country and 'emigration' refers to
migration out of the country. These terms are used only in connection with international
migration.

ii.

For example migrants leaving India to settle down in the United States or Canada are immigrants
to the United States or Canada and emigrants from India.

Type of Internal Migration Prevelant in India

OR
E

In India, rural to rural migration formed the dominant migration stream in the 1961, 1971, 1991 and 2001
Census. However, there have been substantial increases in the proportion of rural to urban and urban to urban
migration with the passage of time, the increase being much more during the decades of 1970s, 1980s and
1990s than of the 1960s. However the dominant form of internal migration in the country is rural to rural.
In all other streams (rural to urban, urban to urban and urban to rural) there is dominance of rural to urban
migration among the males could be due to better developed agriculture in certain states and districts, which
may attract migrants from other parts of the country.
Development of industries in certain states or cities may be another important factor in rural to urban
migration. Rural to rural migration is mostly dominated by the females. The female migration is largely
sequential to marriage, because it is a Hindu custom to take brides from another village (village exogamy).

Reasons for Migration

SC

According to the National Sample Survey, more than 46 per cent migration to urban areas is also caused by
marriage. The custom of women returning to urban areas is also caused by marriage. The custom of women
returning to her parents to deliver her first child also accounts for significant internal migration.

i) Economic Factors

GS

It is important to know why some migrate while others do not. The important factors, therefore, which cause
migration or which motivate people to move may broadly be classified into 3 categories: economic factors,
socio-cultural factors, and political factors.

The major reason of voluntary migration is economic. In most of the developing countries, low agricultural
income, agricultural unemployment and under-employment are the major factors pushing the migrants towards
areas with greater job opportunities. Even the pressure of population resulting in a high man-land ratio has been
widely recognised as one of the important causes of poverty and rural outmigration. Thus, almost all studies
indicate that most of the migrants have moved in search of better economic opportunities. This is true of both
internal as well as international migration.
The most important economic factors that motivate migration may be termed as 'Push Factors' and 'Pull
Factors'. In other words it is to see whether people migrate because of the compelling circumstances at the
place of origin which pushed them out, or whether they are lured by the attractive conditions in the new place.
Now we shall discuss these factors.
Push Factors
The push factors are those that compel or force a person, due to various reasons, to leave that place and
go to some other place.

Notes

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For example, adverse economic conditions caused by poverty, low productivity, unemployment, exhaustion
of natural resources and natural calamities may compel people to leave their native place in search of
better economic opportunities. An ILO study reveals that the main push factor causing the worker to leave
agriculture is the lower levels of income, as income in agriculture is generally lower than the other sectors
of the economy.

According to the estimates of the Planning Commission over one-third of the rural population is below
the poverty line. Due to rapid increase in population, the per capita availability of cultivable land has
declined, and the numbers of the unemployed and the underemployed in the rural areas have significantly
increased with the result that the rural people are being pushed to the urban areas.

The non-availability of alternative sources of income in the rural area is also another factor for migration.
In addition to this, the existence of the joint family system and laws of inheritance, which do not permit
the division of property, may also cause many young men to migrate to cities in search of jobs. Even sub
division of holdings leads to migration, as the holdings become too small to support a family.

OR
E

Pull Factors

Pull factors refer to those factors which attract the migrants to an area, such as, opportunities for better
employment, higher wages, better working conditions and better amenities of life, etc.

There is generally cityward migration, when rapid expansion of industry, commerce and business takes
place. In recent years, the high rate of movement of people from India as well as from other developing
countries to the USA, Canada and now to the Middle-East is due to the better employment opportunities,
higher wages and better amenities of life, variety of occupations to choose from and the possibility of
attaining higher standard of living.

Sometimes the migrants are also attracted to cities in search of better cultural and entertainment activities
or bright city lights. However, pull factors operate not only in the rural-urban migration, but also in other
types of internal as well as international migration.

GS

SC

Sometimes a question is asked which factors are more important, push or pull? Some argue that the push factor
is stronger than the pull factor as they feel that it is the rural problems rather than the urban attractions that
play a crucial role in the shift of the population. On the other hand, those who consider the pull factors as
more important emphasise high rates of investment in urban areas leading to more employment and business
opportunities and greater attraction for the city way of life. This classification of motives for migration into
push and pull factors is very useful in analysing determinants of migration, but all migratory movements
cannot be explained by these factors alone. Moreover, sometimes migration may occur not by push or pull
factors alone but as a result of the combined effect of both.
ii) Social factors

Besides these push and pull factors, social and cultural factors also play an important role in migration.

Sometimes family conflicts also cause migration. Improved communication facilities, such as, transportation,
impact of the radio and the television, the cinema, the urban-oriented education and resultant change in
attitudes and values also promote migration.

iii) Political factors Sometimes even political factors encourage or discourage migration. For instance, in our country, the
adoption of the jobs for 'sons of the soil policy' by the State governments will certainly affect the
migration from other states.

Notes

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The rise of Shiv Sena in Bombay, with its hatred for the migrants and the occasional eruption of violence
in the name of local parochial patriotism, is a significant phenomena. Even in Calcutta, the BengaliMarwari conflict will have far reaching implications. And now Assam and Tamil Nadu are other such
examples. Thus the political attitudes and outlook of the people also influence migration to a great extent.
There have also been migrations from Kashmir and Punjab because of the terrorist activities.

d) Consequences of migration The consequences of migration are diverse. However, some of the important consequences discussed in this
unit are economic, demographic, social and psychological. These consequences are both positive as well as
negative. Some of these affect the place of departure while others influence the place of destination.
Economic -

Migration from a region characterized by labor surplus helps to increase the average productivity of labor
in that region, as this encourages labour-saving devices and/or greater work participation by the remaining
family workers.

On the other hand, there is a view that migration negatively affects the emigrating region and favours the
immigrating region, and that migration would widen the development disparity between the regions,
because of the drain of the resourceful persons from the relatively underdeveloped region to the more
developed region. But the exodus of the more enterprising members of a community cannot be considered
a loss, if there is lack of alternative opportunities in the rural areas. As long as migration draws upon the
surplus labour, it would help the emigrating region. It will have adverse effects only if human resources
are drained away at the cost of the development of the region.

Another important point is that when migration draws away the unemployed or underemployed, it would
enable the remaining population of the region to improve their living conditions as this would enable the
remaining population to increase the per capita consumption, since the total number of mouths to be fed
into is reduced as a result of emigration.

However, the labour-sending regions may gain economically by the money brought in by the emigrants.
In India, the influx of the rural migrants to cities and towns has resulted in a steady outflow of cash from
the urban to rural areas. Most migrants are single males, who after securing urban employment generally
send a portion of their income to their village homes to supplement the meagre incomes of their families.
At the same time, it also affects the savings of the family as sometimes the migrants take money (family
savings) with them, which is necessary for their travel and stay in a new place. In recent times, a sudden
increase in migration to the Middle East has resulted in steep rise in the remittances of foreign money
in our country. In 1979, it was found that the annual remittances to the tiny state of Kerala were estimated
to Rs. 4000 million.

The rising inflow of money from the Gulf countries has resulted in the building of houses and buying of
agricultural land, and even investments in business and industry. This has also resulted in the rise in the
levels of consumption in the family. Money is also being spent on children's education. On the other hand,
the outflow of men has caused labour shortages and has pushed wages upwards.

ii)

Demographic -

Migration has a direct impact on age, sex and occupational composition of the sending and receiving
regions. Migration of the unmarried males of young working age results in imbalances in sex ratio. The
absence of many young men from the villages increases the proportion of other groups, such as, women,
children and old people. This tends to reduce the birth rate in the rural areas.

Notes

GS

SC

OR
E

i)

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Further the separation of the rural male migrants from their wives for long durations also tends to reduce
the birth rate.

iii) Social and Psychological Urban life usually brings about certain social changes in the migrants. Those migrants who return occasionally
or remain in direct or indirect contact with the households of their origin are also likely to transmit some
new ideas back to the areas of origin. Several studies attribute technological change to the dynamism of
the return migrants, who bring money as well as knowledge and experience of different production
techniques, and this may lead to mechanisation and commercialisation of agricultural activity. A number
of ex-servicemen, on retirement go back to their native areas and promote such practices in the villages.
Contact with the urban and different cultures also brings attitudinal change in the migrants, and helps them
to develop more modern orientation, including even the consumerist culture in their own areas.

On the other hand, migration which results in the absence of the adult males for long periods of time may
cause dislocation of the family, and, under such circumstances, women and children often have to take
over more and different types of work and other more important roles in household decision-making.
Studies have revealed very disturbing effects of the male migration from Kerala. Neurosis, hysteria and
depression are said to be on the increase among the emigrant workers' wives in Kerala. The gulf boom
has also taken a toll of mental health of the families.

e)

Migration Policy -

At the national level, the government has not shown any concern for the problems relating to internal
migration, and has, therefore, not formulated any policy. Although rural to rural migration, as indicated
earlier, constituted the dominant migration stream among both the males and the females, very little is
known about the factors that govern this migration except through Census data. Since major part of rural
to rural migration is associational or for unspecified reasons, it is necessary to understand it more clearly.

There has been significant seasonal migration of agricultural labourers in different parts of the country,
especially those parts which are experiencing the green revolution. Not much information is available
about the volume of this stream of the migrants or their duration of stay.

As rural to urban migration is next only to rural to rural migration, and is quite sizeable, it is influenced
by the urbanisation policies and programmes. In the Fourth and Fifth Five Year Plans, the need for a
balanced spatial distribution of economic activities was emphasised, and stress was laid on the need to
prevent the unrestricted growth of big cities.

Recognising the problems associated with the rapid growth of big cities (million plus), the government is
now trying to adopt policies which would help in controlling migration to big cities and metropolises.
During the 1980s, emphasis was on the provision of adequate infrastructural and other facilities in the
small, medium and intermediate towns so that they could serve as growth and service centers for the rural
region. The Planning Commission emphasised the needs for positive inducements to establish new industries
and other commercial and professional establishments in small and medium towns.

Thus, in the absence of any specific migration policy, it is difficult to predict the major directions of future
migration flows. However, considering government's emphasis on developing small, medium and
intermediate cities, it is expected that intermediate cities and medium towns will attract more migrants
in the future. Although industrial cities, with expanding industries, will continue to attract new migrants,
the young educated males and females may have a greater tendency to seek white collar employment in
small towns and cities.

Notes

GS

SC

OR
E

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f) Impact of Gulf Migration on States in India The presence of about 6 million Indian migrants in the Gulf has socio-cultural and economic ramifications for
the states that contribute sizeable numbers. Since all migrants to the region go on temporary work contracts
and not many can afford to take their families along with them, they retain strong links with India and their
home states. There is also a strong community feeling among migrants in the Gulf states. A portion of the
money they remit back home, in turn, is injected into the local economy.

OR
E

Kerala is the prime example of Gulf migration's reverse impact. Emigration to the Gulf has "totally changed
the socio-economic conditions of certain [districts] in Kerala like Malappuram, Kasargod and Thrissur. The
migration has changed the consumption and investment patterns, lifestyle, religion and education" in these
districts, so much so that "economically and culturally, some parts of the state simulate the Gulf countries."
Given the state's established connection with the Gulf region, which is both a contribution to and a consequence
of migration, various needs-based institutes have opened up, including those providing construction workrelated courses, computer education, motor and machine operations, catering, paramedical courses, etc. Outward
migration from the state has, in turn, fuelled a significant shortages in the state's labour market, particularly
in semi-skilled workers. The shortage is compounded by the buoyant housing and construction work facilitated
by foreign earnings, and the reluctance of young people to engage in manual work due to increased education
levels and standard of living through the earnings of their parents working in the Gulf. This shortage has been
hitherto addressed by a corresponding wave of internal migration from Tamil Nadu and Karnataka and even
from the northern states. Taking the example of Nitaqat, it still remains to be seen how the return, and
consequent rehabilitation, of a large number of migrants from Saudi Arabia would affect the unskilled/semiskilled job market in the states in the long run.

SC

There would be a corresponding dip in remittances as well - Saudi Arabia accounts for around 26 per cent of
total Gulf remittances to India
For aspirational and upper middle-class migrants, the Gulf states serve as a stepping stone to further diasporisation,
with Canada, England, New Zealand, Australia and the United States (US) as typical destinations.

GS

The poor unskilled or semi-skilled migrant, on the other hand, often risks life-long and familial savings to
merely migrate to the Gulf states. Such desperation has facilitated the "proliferation of recruitment and
placement agencies, sometimes colluding with prospective employers and exploiting illiterate job seekers." In
these circumstances, migrants are exploited in many ways ranging from "passport withholding, denial of
remuneration or promised jobs, denial of legal rights for redressal of complaints, use of migrants as carriers
of smuggled goods, victimization and harassment of women recruits to household work, etc." There have been
many recorded and unrecorded cases where women employed as domestic workers or governesses face ill
treatment in some Gulf countries, at times even being subjected to sexual abuse. The requirement to periodically
renew work contracts, and the need to obtain the requisite sponsorship, very often does not favour the migrant,
and s/he stays on illegally. These then are the reasons why migrants often survive the most adverse conditions
without being activist or assertive in the light of their negligible rights; awareness of their rights too is quite
low. While mitigating measures are in place much more can and should be done to alleviate this problem.

Notes

A migrant's work profile in the Gulf essentially dictates the stratum of migrant society s/he belongs to, the
living conditions and the levels of vulnerability in the face of limited human rights. Class, community,
ethnicity and nationality also shape the way the migrants live. Whilst unskilled workers live in dormitory-like
labour camps in the semi-urban and industrial hinterlands of cities with varying degrees of basic facilities
provided, the skilled/professional migrant is fortunate to live in rented apartments or high-rise buildings, if not
in privileged and secure compounds. Western migrant workers often have access to luxurious villas or live in
gated communities. Consequently, it is the balance between social conditions and economic sustenance that

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shapes the experience of these migrant workers. A fortunate few can afford to live and work in the Gulf with
their families; however, for those migrant workers unable accommodate their families, life can be quite difficult.
Most evident in the case of unskilled workers, it also affects the qualitative living of the region's plethora of
bachelor labour migrants (many of whom have wives and children back home). Little to no ability to participate
in social and cultural activities, unfriendly weather conditions, nature of working environment and long periods
of separation from families lead to emotional and psychological deprivation. Such isolation and social exclusion
from the social structure of host countries consolidates the religious space for migrant workers. Irrespective of
the faith they belong to, migrants often turn to religious spaces and symbols to deal with hardships and
challenges.

5) Child Sex Ratio - Declining

GS

SC

OR
E

Ginu Zacharia Oomen has studied how diasporic religious practices play an important role in sustaining the
transnational links between home and host settings, and create an alternative sense of belonging to the
destination state. While his analysis pertains primarily to Keralite Syrian Christians in Kuwait and their
espousal of more stringent sects such as Pentecostalism, a similar overt conservatism is also spreading in
Muslim majority districts in the state-among the Mappilas in Malappuram district and the Koyas in Kozhikode.
By embracing an overtly Islamic and a "Gulf oriented modernity and way of life, Muslim migrants re-nourish
themselves at an imagined and sentimentalised heartland of Islamintensifying processes of communalisation
and community closure", both in the host country and in the home country. This proclivity has further been
reinforced by world and Indian political events - as a reaction to popular Hindu and Christian (in the case of
Kerala) communal and caste organisations, the rise of Hindutva, and perceptions of comparable inequality as
well as the widely prevalent Islamophobia due to current global events creating a sense of being a "community
under siege". Nevertheless, the community does not assert its exclusive Islamic identity that could expose them
to accusations of being foreign to the nation. Yet, at the same time, the rise of reformist Islamic discourses
has enhanced the religious orthodoxy. Reformist literature and orthodox believers advise Muslims against
participating in what are considered un-Islamic practices. For instance, joining in Onam, or Christmas celebrations
or lighting the lamp onstage that is seen to be marked with a "Hindu flavour". In this way, Orthodox Muslims
in Kerala form their relationships with other communities on the basis of accommodation or "unity in diversity",
under the protection of the secular state that guarantees the rights of minorities.

(Female Feticide; Sex Selective Abortion)

a) Introduction 1.

What is CSR (child sex ratio) - number of girls per 1000 boys in the age group of 0-6 years.

2.

Low CSR means girls are being killed. Now this happens at 3 stages
1 Before birth

i.e., Female feticide

i.e., sex of the fetus is determined and if it's a female fetus then it is aborted

2 Immediately after birth i.e., infanticide

till the age of 6
i.e., if girls child is born then she is killed by throwing down or burying alive
in the ground although still happens in Salem in TN and some part of Rajasthan,
but now it is becoming less as infanticide is being replaced by feticide.
i.e., neglect of girl child by not giving her proper food and care as compared to
her male sibling or due to lack of immunization

Notes

3 In subsequent years

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Indian scenario
a.

CSR is continuously declining since independence. It was 983 n 1951 and in 2011 it reached at 919
in 2011 (provisional data of census said 914, later it was corrected) (lowest since independence).

b.

According to 2011 census, CSR has declined in 27 States and UT's (including in Kerala & Pondicherry).
i.e., CSR fell practically in the whole country and thus shows that patriarchal mindset of female
selective abortion is spreading to even those parts of the country where it was not noted earlier.

c.

Now this practice of is more prevalent Northern and western part of India as compared to rest of
the India. And the 2 states at the forefront are:
i.

Haryana - 830 and

ii.

Punjab - 846

b) Reasons for low CSR (or female feticide) -

Low CSR means a "GIRL CHILD IS UN-WANTED and therefore not allowed to be born". Now why
is this obsession with male child and rejection of girl child
a.

Girl child is seen as a liability due to dowry, hosting marriage ceremony for big fat indian wedding.but
a male child will bring dowry

b.

Money invested on girl child will go away, i.e., girls are Paraya dhan. But Male child is seen as an
investment as he will stay with us,
i.

Notes

2.

32

SC

1.

OR
E

3.

So practically having a girl child is not a good investment deal.

There will be continuation of family name

d.

Support in old age as male child will stay with us (although we have seen that so many old age homes
would not have come up in the last 50 years; countless parents are unhappy despite having sons)

e.

This notion of who will perform my last rites

f.

And even women have internalized this patriarchy as they feel that they will get proper attention in
their in-laws only if they bear a male child (because inspite of scientific findings, gender is still
generally associated with women).

g.

Also this practice is highly prevalent in educated upper and middle class people. This shows that
having a college degree and modernization are not synonymous.

GS

c.

Small family norm

a.

Now educated urban middle class people want a small family because its too expensive to rear many
children's.

b.

But due to this obsession with male child, this ideal small family is built at the expense of dead
female fetus.

www.iasscore.in

(earlier if the 1st child is girl then they will keep on having children until they give birth to son (e.g.
BOL); but now if the 1st child is a girl they keep on aborting the fetus till they gave birth to son)

d.

According to a a research paper published in september 2014 by economists of Univ. of Boston and
Essex, making 2 child norm as a eleigibity criteria to contest Panchayat elections has led to decline
in child sex ratio in 11 states.

Technology issue Easily available - All the doctors need is an ultrasound machines which is affordable. Also newer
medical technologies are increasingly being used in the name of 'genetic testing'.

b.

Marketing by doctors ' nursing home carry an advertisement that how an expenditure of few thousands
(at aborting a female) would eventually save many lakhs in the future, i.e.,promoted as an investment
scheme.

c.

Rising income and education level among the masses who are aware of it and can afford it. Thus,
this practice of feteicide is more common in educated and rich people as compared to so-called
illiterate and poor people.

4.

This is an example of uneven modernization - at materialistic level they are modernized, but at
intellectual level they are not.

Failure of government a.

Failure to create awareness about it.

b.

Non-implementation of law
i.

Govt. has enacted PC-PNDT Act, 1994 to check female feticide. And it was amended in 2003
to make it more stringent.
1.

ii.

SC

i.

OR
E

a.

GS

3.

c.

Pre-conception and pre-natal diagnostic techniques (prohibition of sex selection) act 1994

Under the act, doctors and radiologists conducting, or soliciting parents for, sex determination
tests can be imprisoned up to five years and fined up to Rs. 50,000.

iii. But the law has failed to act as a deterrent

1.

Its awareness is low. People don't know that it is illegal.

2.

Conviction rate of registered cases is low (doctors haven't been punished).

3.

Even the vigilance authorities in the government don't know what action they have to take.

c) Consequences of low CSR Matter of shame a.

Firstly it is a matter of shame for a country which calls itself as the oldest civilization. This shows
our hypocrisy that females are only worshipped in the form of goddess. but not in reality.

b.

PM Modi righty called female foeticide as a sign of 'mental illness'.

Notes

1.

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Social implications a.

If the decline in CSR continues for another 20-30 years, the number of marriageable females will be
far less than that of marriageable males.

b.

This will lead to the disappearance of the dowry problem and the old practice of giving and taking
a bride price will come back into vogue.
i.

Bride purchase - It is a increasing phenomenon in Punjab and Haryana under whcih

1.

Women from Bihar, Jharkhand, north-east and other places are purchased for sexual
gratification and having a son

2.

After that they are sold to brothel to recover back money.

Polyandry (a woman having more than one husband at a time) may also emerge.

d.

Since monogamy is the ideal in India, many men may be required to embrace celibacy.

e.

Will increase violence, including rape, against women.

f.

With many men remaining unmarried, prostitution will increase substantially.

g.

In short, what was depicted in the 2003 movie, Matrabhoomi will become a reality.

h.

As rightly said by PM that countless Kalpana Chawlas are killed in the wombs of their mother".
(Kalpana Chawla was from Haryana, the first Indian woman to have travelled in space)

OR
E

c.

d)

Solution -

1.

Change the value system

SC

2.

Firstly, change this patriarchal mindset, girls should be treated equally as men

b.

Increase awareness about female feticide and make them aware of its negative impact.

c.

The government should offer incentives of free education, extra PDS ration and, perhaps, even tax
concessions for parents of girl children.

d.

Secondly change this underlying cause i.e.

e.

GS

a.

i.

Dowry - As this is the main cause; Dowry Prohibition Act should be implemented more
effectively than before.

ii.

Marriages -Mass marriages should be popularized where on a single auspicious day hundred of
couples are married of in a no-frills marriage

Apart from govt. all have a equal role to play

i.

Media, e.g., Satyamave Jayate season-1 played a marvelous role in highlighting this issue; even
mainstream media especially those in regional languages should highlight it

ii.

PRIs - where 33% representatives are women; No institution is in a better position then Gram
Sabha and PRI's.

iii. Civil society

Notes

iv.

34

Ministry of HRD - Issue of low CSR should be a part of school and college curriculum
especially of medical Curriculum

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Proper Implementation of Law
a.

Medical termination of pregnancy act, 1971 (MTP Act 1971) should be amended in such a way that
it permits the abortion of only the first trimester pregnancies, and not those which are more than 1214 weeks old when the sex of the foetus will be known.

b.

Registration of all suppliers

c.

Block sex selection advertisements on websites.

d.

Setting up of monitoring cells

e.

Sting operation to be conndcured and conicting them those caught red-handed.

f.

And speedy prosecution of doctors indulging in this ' doctors need to be punished severely e.g. by
cancelling their registration immediately

g.

Technological Innovation - "SILENT OBSERVER", a technological innovation used in 4 districts of

Maharashtra to monitor and control the growing incidence iof sex pre-determination. The sex ration
in Kolhapur has improved substantially after the implementation of the project. Silent observer is a
machine. (published in The Hindu in January 2011machines were installed in 2009)

OR
E

2.

3. case studies -

1) Case study of Jhajjar district - Simple device to curb female feticide (reported in The Hindu in january 2015)
Jhajjar district had the worst sex ratio among the districts of Haryana, but it is staging a remarkable
recovery in the past 3 years.

2.

Here all ultrasound labs have to install active tracking devices with their machines by which all
recordings of the ultrasound tests would be sent online to the CMO.
a.

SC

1.

The set top box contains a GPRS-based SIM card which sends a message to the CMO.

This would help the administration monitor how the equipment was being used and what tests were
being done.

4.

This helps to track ultrasound machines to curb their misuse for sex determination tests and to
improve the sex ratio.

5.

Following it, in mid Jan 2015, Jind district also made it mandatory for all ultrasound labs.

GS

3.

2) Least literate M.P. district has the highest child sex ratio - April 2011
Does higher literacy translate into better human development indicators? Not necessarily; certainly not
when it comes to gender equality among children.

The Census figures for Madhya Pradesh show that the Child Sex Ratio (CSR) in the State is the highest
in Alirajpur, the district with the lowest level of literacy. Alirajpur drew a lot of flak from the media for
being an embarrassment to the State on account of its abysmal literacy level of 37.22% -- among the
worst in the country.

However, the CSR in Alirajpur stands at 971, the highest in the State, and among the best across the
country. The district also has an impressive overall sex ratio of 1,009 females for 1,000 males.

Alarmingly, however, CSR has declined in 49 of 50 districts in the State compared to 2001 Census figures,
with the State recording a CSR of 912 as opposed to 932 in 2001, registering a 20 point decline.

Notes

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f) With Respect to 2015 a)

With Respect to online ads -

1.

Online ads on sex determination under lens - January 2015

On January 8, 2015 the Union government filed an affidavit to SC.

b.

In that it requested the SC to direct the search engines Google and Yahoo and Microsoft, which runs
the Bing search platform, to reveal the monetary gains they made from allowing online advertisements
of pre-natal sex determination technologies in violation of the Indian law.

c.

The Centre also wants details of the measures adopted by them to block and/or filter keywords and
sponsored links that violates the Pre-conception and Pre-natal Diagnostic Techniques (Prohibition of
Sex Selection) Act.

d.

According to it, search engines did "have the relevant technology and deep-domain knowledge and
expertise to block and/or filter words, phrases, expressions and sponsored links which are in violation
of the PC-PNDT Act and amendments thereof.

SC cracks down on search engines - January 29, 2015, The Hindu

a.

SC directed the Internet search engines Google, Yahoo and Microsoft (Bing) to neither advertise nor
sponsor pre-natal sex determination advertisements.

b) (i) Beti Bachao Beti Padhao (BBBP) -

a.

b.

SC

Facts

Launched on 22nd January, 2015 at Panipat, Haryana

i.

Panipat in Haryana that has among the lowest child sex ratio in the country (837 girls to 1000
boys).

ii.

Along with it Sukanya Samridhi Yojna (girl child prosperity scheme) was launched.

GS

1.

OR
E

2.

a.

It is a joint initiative of 3 ministries

i.

Women and Child Development,

ii.

Health,

iii. Human Resource Development

c.
2.

It has been launched in 100 districts with low Child Sex Ratio.

Aim
a.

Prevention of gender biased sex selective elimination

b.

Ensuring survival & protection of the girl child

c.

Ensuring education of the girl child

b) (ii) Sukanya Samriddhi Account 1.

Facts

Notes

a.

36

Launched along with beti bachao, beti padhao on 22nd January, 2015 at Panipat, Haryana

www.iasscore.in

b.
2.

3.

It is a sub-part of it.

Aim - for meeting the following 2 needs of girls

a.

Higher education needs

b.

Marriage needs

Key feature of the scheme a.

Opening of account
i.

Account opened in girl child's name any time before she attains the age of 10.

ii.

The account can be opened in any post office or authorized branches of commercial banks
across the country by producing birth certificate of the girl child.

b.

OR
E

iii. Minimum deposit required for opening account - Rs. 1000

Deposits
i.

Subsequently, amount in multiple of 100s can be deposited in account; maximum limit of

deposit - 1.5 lakh/year.

Govt. will provide 9.1% interest rate for the saving account; No income tax will be charged

d.

Withdrawal
i.

Amount cant be withdrawn till the girl child attains the age of 18 years; this has been kept to
prevent early age marriage of girls.

ii.

50% money can be withdrawn by the girl child after she has achieved 18 years of age to meet
her higher education need

Closing of account -

GS

e.

SC

c.

i.

Account will remain operative for 21 years from the date of opening of the account or till
marriage of the girl child after attaining 18 years of age whichever is earlier.

ii.

Pre-mature closer - only in 2 cases

1.

Untimely death of the account holder

2.

Hardship to the account holder - if the central government is satisfied that operation of the
account or continuation of the account is causing undue hardship to the account holder (guardian)
in cases like need of medical support in life threatening diseases, death etc.

6) Literacy
a) Importance of Literacy Literacy as a pre-requisite to education is an instrument of empowerment. The more literate the population
the greater the consciousness of career options, as well as participation in the knowledge economy.

Notes

Further, literacy can lead to health awareness and fuller participation in the cultural and economic wellbeing
of the community.

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b) Indian scenario -(Literacy for aged 7 and above)

Literacy levels have improved considerably after independence, and almost 3/4th of our population is now
literate.
1947

14%
(Female - 8%)

2001

64.83 %

2011

74.04 %

12th plan target

80%

c) Variations Literacy varies considerably across gender, across regions, and across social groups.

Male
75

2011

82
(an increase of 6.9%)

Female

Literacy Gap

53

21.6 %

65
(an increase of 11.7%)

16.7 %

SC

2001

OR
E

Gender variations - As can be seen from Table below, the literacy rate for women is almost 17% less than the
literacy rate for men. However, female literacy has been rising faster than male literacy, partly because it started
from relatively low levels. Thus, female literacy rose by almost 12% between 2001 and 2011 compared to the
rise in male literacy of a little less than 7% in the same period.

Variation by social group - Historically disadvantaged communities likethe Scheduled Castes and Scheduled
Tribes have lower rates of literacy, and rates of female literacy within these groups are even lower.

GS

Regional variations - Regional variations are still very wide, with states like Kerala approaching universal
literacy, while states like Bihar are lagging far behind.
States high on literacy -

Literacy rate over 85% - 10 states

4 states - Kerala > Mizoram > Tripura > Goa

6 UT's - all except Dadra and Nagar Haveli

Kerala has the highest with 93.91 % followed by Lakshadweep 92.28 % (both above 90%).

States low on literacy

11 states UT's have literacy below national avgerage

Names:- Bihar + Jhrakhand, MP + Chattisgarh, UP , Rajasthan, Andhra Pradesh, Arunachal

Pradesh etc

Least literacy - Bihar 63.82 %

Notes

The inequalities in the literacy rate are specially important because they tend to reproduce inequality across
generations. Illiterate parents are at a severe disadvantage in ensuring that their childrenare well educated, thus
perpetuating existing inequalities.

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d)

Global Scenario -

India tops in adult illiteracy: U.N. report published in January, 2014

According to a report by United Nations Educational, Scientific and Cultural Organisation, India has the highest
population of illiterate adults at 287 million
India has by far the largest population of illiterate adults at 287 million, amounting to 37 per cent of the global
total, a United Nations report said highlighting the huge disparities existing in education levels of the country's
rich and poor.
The 2013/14 Education for All Global Monitoring Report said India's literacy rate rose from 48 per cent in
1991 to 63 per cent in 2006, the latest year it has available data, but population growth cancelled the gains
so there was no change in the number of illiterate adults.

OR
E

India has the highest population of illiterate adults at 287 million, the report published by United Nations
Educational, Scientific and Cultural Organisation said.
The report further said that the richest young women in India have already achieved universal literacy but the
poorest are projected to only do so around 2080, noting that huge disparities within India point to a failure
to target support adequately towards those who need it the most.
"Post-2015 goals need to include a commitment to make sure the most disadvantaged groups achieve benchmarks
set for goals. Failure to do so could mean that measurement of progress continues to mask the fact that the
advantaged benefit the most," the report added.

SC

The report said that a global learning crisis is costing governments $ 129 billion a year. Ten countries account
for 557 million, or 72 per cent, of the global population of illiterate adults.
Ten per cent of global spending on primary education is being lost on poor quality education that is failing
to ensure that children learn.

GS

This situation leaves one in four young people in poor countries unable to read a single sentence.
In one of India's wealthier states, Kerala, education spending per pupil was about $ 685.
In rural India, there are wide disparities between richer and poorer states, but even within richer states, the
poorest girls perform at much lower levels in mathematics.
In the wealthier states of Maharashtra and Tamil Nadu, most rural children reached grade 5 in 2012.
However, only 44 per cent of these children in the grade 5 age group in Maharashtra and 53 per cent in Tamil
Nadu could perform a two-digit subtraction.
Among rich, rural children in these states, girls performed better than boys, with around two out of three girls
able to do the calculations.
Despite Maharashtra's relative wealth, poor, rural girls there performed only slightly better than their counterparts
in the poorer state of Madhya Pradesh.
e) Steps by govt. 1) NLMA - (National Literacy Mission Authority)
1.

Task
Main body at the national level to promote literacy and adult education

Notes

a.

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b.
2.

Role includes - planning, implementation, monitoring/evaluation

Programs by it
a.

Saakshar Bharat Mission and

b.

Support to Voluntary Agencies for Adult Education and Skill Development.

i.

In this Financial assistance is provided to voluntary agencies inovolved in eradicating illiteracy

2) Saakshar Bharat It is a variant of the National Literacy Mission.

It is a centrally sponsored scheme

2.

When launched - 2009

3.

Implementing agency - National Literacy Mission Authority (under ministry of HRD)

4.

Focus groups - Women (SCs, STs, Minorities, LWE affected areas)

5.

Target - To provide functional literacy to 70 million adults (60 million women and 10 million men) in the
age group of 15 and above.

6.

Objectives -

OR
E

1.

Functional literacy - Impart functional literacy and numeracy to non literate

b.

Basic education - Enable the neo-literate to learn beyond basic literacy and acquire equivalency to
formal educational system.

c.

Skill development - so as to improve their living conditions.

f) Concluding remark -

SC

a.

7) Age Structure
a)

GS

Improvements in the literacy rate have to struggle to keep up with the rate of growth of the Indian population,
which is still quite high. Enormous effort is needed to ensure the literacy of the new generations - which are
only just beginning to be smaller in numbers than in the past.

Introduction

Age is the basic characteristics or the biological attributes of any population. This characteristics or attributes
affect not only the demographic structure, but also the social, economic and political structure of the population.
Age is also an important factors, because it is an indicator of social status. Each individual is ascribed a certain
status in society on the basis of age. Status and roles are culturally determined, and vary from one culture to
another. Even within the same culture, status and roles may undergo changes over a period of time. While in
traditional societies, age demands respect, modern societies may be more youth-oriented. The age structure of
a population may have implications for the status and roles of older persons.

Notes

The age structure of a population is both the determinant and consequence of birth and death rates, internal
and international migration, marital status composition, manpower, and the gross national product. Planning
regarding educational and health services, housing, etc., is done on the basis of the age structure of the
population.

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b)

Measurement of the Age Structure

It is customary to classify age data in five year age groups, such as 0-4, 5-9, 10-14, 15-19, and so on. The
simplest measure to study the age structure of any population is the percentage distribution of the population
based on the absolute numbers in various five-year age groups. This percentage distribution indicates the
number of persons in an age group, if the total number of persons considered is 100. This measure is useful
for understanding and describing the age structure of any population. It can also be used to compare the age
structure of two or more populations at a point of time, or to compare the age structure of the same population
at different points of time. Age-sex pyramids can also be constructed with the help of age-sex histograms.
c)

Age Structure in India

Percentage of Population in selected age groups India: 1991 to 2011

Census 1991*

Census 2001

Census 2011

0-4

12.2

10.7

9.3

5-9

13.3

10-14

11.8

15-59

55.4

60+

6.8

Age not stated

0.6

OR
E

Age group (years lbd)

10.5

12.1

11.0

56.9

60.3

7.4

8.6

0.3

0.4

SC

12.5

Dependency Ratio, India

1991
794

2001

2011

752

652

GS

India is an old country with a large young population belonging to the age group of 0-14 years and a growing
number of aged population in the age group of above 50 years.
According to the 2001 Census, the overall dependency ratio in India was 652, meaning that 1000 persons in
the working age group (15-59) had to support 652 people in the age group of 0-14 and 60+ years.
The age structure of any population is determined by the levels of fertility, mortality and migration. Of these
three factors, migration can affect the age structure of any population only when the migrants are concentrated
in any one age group and the volume of migration is large.

Notes

India has a large "young" population because the birth rates are high and the number of children born is large.
The sustained high level of birth rates has resulted in a large proportion of children and a small proportion of
old population. On the other hand, in economically developed countries, the birth rates are low and less
children are born. The low birth rats result in a higher proportion of old people. Compared to the role of
fertility, the role of mortality in determining the age structure of a population is limited, specially when
mortality is high. Rapid reductions in mortality and lengthening of the life-span result in a "younger" population.
This is mainly because the improvement is first experienced by the infants and children. More infants and
children survive, leading to an increase in the proportion of the young persons in the population as in the case
of India. On the other hand, when the mortality level is very low, there is no further scope for any large
increases in survivorship during infancy and early childhood, and any improvement in mortality conditions
would affect the older age group and lead to a further aging of the population, that is, increase in the proportion
of older persons in the population. Such a situation prevails in developed countries like Sweden, the United
States, the United Kingdom, Canada, Japan, France and Australia.

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A young population implies a heavy burden on the economy of the country as they have to be educated,
clothed and provided shelter, while they themselves are not expected to contribute immediately to the family
or national economy.
One other implication of the young age structure of the Indian population is that it also has the potential of
the high growth rates of the population in further years. Within a few years, these children will grow up, get
married and start reproducing. When the number of couples in the reproductive age group (wife in the age
group 15-44) is high, the birth rate can also be expected to be high, even with moderate fertility. This, in turn,
leads to a high population growth rate.

Population Ageing
a)

Present scenario and future projections - UN report

OR
E

A report released by the United Nations Population Fund and Help Age India to mark the International Day
of Older Persons in October, 2012 suggests that India had 90 million elderly persons in 2011, with the number
expected to grow to 173 million by 2026. Of the 90 million seniors, 30 million are living alone, and 90 per
cent work for livelihood. By 2050, India will be home to one out of every six of the world's older persons,
and only China will have a larger number of elderly people, according to estimates released by the United
Nations Population Fund.Thirty years ago, there were no "aged economies," in which consumption by older
people surpassed that of youth. In 2010, there were 23 aged economies. By 2040, there will be 89.
The report says the number of elderly women is more than that of elderly men. Nearly three out of five single
older women are very poor, and two out of three rural elderly women are fully dependants. There is also an
increasing proportion of elderly at 80-plus ages, and this pattern is more pronounced among women.
Reasons

SC

b)

The 2 main reasons are declining birth rates (i.e., few young peope are added) and declining death rate (i.e.,
rising life expectancy). This process starts from stage 3 and becomes more prominent in stage 4.
Effects on Society

1.

Government social expenditure - With the increase in age the incidence of chronic disease increases thus
the government spending on following 2 will increase (a) health care and (b) pension systems

2.

Old age home - There will be need to establish old age homes for their protection and day care.

3.

Employment - Retiring people are making way for employers to hire working age people. This has an
effect of lowering the unemployment rate as elderly generally stop working or seek work.

d)

Government interventions

GS

c)

The Ministry of Social Justice and Empowerment put in place the National Policy on Older Persons in 1999
with a view to addressing issues relating to aging in a comprehensive manner. But the programme failed at the
implementation level. The Ministry is now formulating a new policy that is expected to address the concerns
of the elderly. The idea is to help them live a productive and dignified life. There is a scheme of grant-in-aid
of the Integrated Programme for Older Persons, under which financial assistance is provided to voluntary
organisations for running and maintaining projects. These include old-age homes, day-care centres and
physiotherapy clinics. While the scheme, indeed the concept, is still alien to India, the Ministry is considering
the revision of cost norms for these projects, keeping in view the rising cost of living.

Notes

The most recent intervention has been the introduction of the National Programme for Health Care for Elderly
in 2010, with the basic aim to provide separate and specialised comprehensive health care to senior citizens.

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The major components of this programme are establishing geriatric departments in eight regional geriatric
centres and strengthening health care facilities for the elderly at various levels in 100 districts. Though the
scheme is proposed to be expanded during the Twelfth Five Year Plan, the regional geriatric centres are yet
to take off because of lack of space in the identified institutions.
The enactment of the Maintenance and Welfare of Parents and Senior Citizens Act, 2007, was a legislative
milestone. However, its implementation has been poor.

Demographic Dividend : Asset or Liability

a)

Meaning of Demographic dividend

b)

OR
E

A demographic dividend occurs when the majority of the population is of a working age and can contribute
to the country's economy, so the economy grows. So the dividend means that this surge of working people
is good for the economy. It occurs in the 3rd phase of demographic transition, i.e., when the death rate has
already declined and stabilized and birth rate starts declining.
Present scenario in India

At present we have a huge youth population and thus have a demographic advantage. In the near future India
will be the largest individual contributor to the global demographic transition.

Advantages

GS

c)

SC

The U.S. Census Bureau predicts that India will surpass China as the world's largest country by 2025, with a
large proportion of those in the working age category. According to economic survey 2014-15, by 2020, India
is projected to be the youngest nation in the world in terms of size. Population projections indicate that in
2020, the average age of India's population will be the lowest in the world - around 29 yrs compared to 37
yrs in china & US, 45 yrs in west Europe and 48 yrs in Japan. Proportion of economically active population
(15-59 yrs) or India's demographic dividend has increased from 53% in 1971 to 63% in 2013.

Changes in the age structure due to the demographic transition lower the 'dependency ratio',or the ratio of nonworking age to working-age population, thus creating thepotential for generating growth. This implies a large
and growing labour force,which can deliver unexpected benefits in terms of growth and prosperity.
A 2011 IMF Working Paper found that substantial portion of the growth experienced by India since the 1980s
is attributable to the country's age structure and changing demographics. Over the next two decades the
continuing demographic dividend in India could add about 2% points per annum to India's per capita GDP
growth.
d)

Not utilizing it, wasting it

Notes

But this potential can be converted into actual growth only if the rise in the working age group is accompanied
by increasing levels of education and employment. If the new entrants to the labour force are not educated
then their productivity remains low. If they remain unemployed, then they are unable to earn at all and become
dependents rather than earners. Thus, changing age structure by itselfcannot guarantee any benefits unless it
is properly utilised through planned development. The real problem is in defining the dependency ratio as the
ratio of the non-working age to working-age population, rather than the ratio of non-workers to workers. The
difference between the two is determined by the extent of unemployment and underemployment, which keep
a part of the labour force out of productive work. This difference explains why some countries are able to
exploit the demographic advantage while others are not.

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Now according to an Indian Labour Report (Time Lease, 2007), 300 million youth will enter the labour force
by 2025. The main issue to address then is not just providing employment but increasing theier employability
by improving their health and skills and introducing other reforms. Now india faces many challenges in these
areas and has accordingly taken various steps.
Health issues - When people are malnourished then how will they work. The difficulty of getting clean
water, the unavailability of toilets, and decrepit or non-existent sewage systems, have also meant high
incidence of preventable diseases like cholera, typhoid, and dysentery.

2.

Education - People are illiterate and even if literate then also not properly educated, high drop outs, quality
is sub-standard etc.

3.

Not skilled - Our workforce lacks soft skills as well as technical skills. According to Finance Minister in
budget 2015, less than 5% of our potential work force gets formal skill training to be employable (while
the corresponding figures are 96%, 80% and 75% respectively for Korea, Japan and Germany). As per the
Labor Bureau Report 2014, the current size of India's formally skilled workforce is small, approximately
2 per cent. And according to economic survey 2014-15, it contrasts poorly with smaller countries like
South Korea (96%) and Japan (80%). Now there are various reasons for it:

OR
E

1.

Firstly capacity is still less - Further, against 12.8 million per annum new entrants to the workforce
the existing training capacity is only 3.1 million per annum.

b.

Weak institute and industry interaction - Not in tune with the demand of market as Curriculum not
upgraded, New courses not introduced and in post reform period, they need to be more dynamic.

c.

Poor infrastructure in ITI's - laboratories etc are not equipped with modern equipment and testing
facilities.

d.

Also ITIs, more particularly the government run institutes, lack autonomy in matters like administration,
finance, academics and internal management etc.

e.

In contrast, the private institutes, though have autonomy, do not attach due importance to meeting
the quality standards in vocational training.

f.

Ignored unorganized sector - Trainings offered by them mainly cater to the needs of the organized
manufacturing sector, whereas over 90% of India's workforce is actually engaged in the unorganized
sector.

GS

SC

a.

4.

Employment generation is less - Data from the National Sample Survey studies reveal a sharp fall in the
rate of employment generation (creation of new jobs) across both rural and urban areas. This is true for
the young as well. This suggests that the advantage offered by a young labourforce is not being exploited.

e)

Steps by government

Therefore, the has put thrust on skill development as well as on 'Make in India' as the Government's endeavour
to improve employability and create large employment avenues for the youth among others.
Skill development has been given focused attention for which a dedicated Department of Skill Development
and Entrepreneurship has been created in the Central Government.
f)

Concluding remark

Notes

Since demographic predictions warn that the promise of the demographic dividend will not last long, in any
case not beyond 2050, India needs to take advantage of this demographic window in the next couple of
decades.

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There is nothing inherent in demographic patterns that guarantees economic success. Strategies exist to exploit
the demographic window of opportunity that India has today. But India's recent experience suggests that
market forces by themselves don't ensure that such strategies would be implemented. Unless a way forward
is found, we may miss out on the potential benefits that the country's changing age structure temporarily offers.

i.

Family Planning and Population Policy

Family Planning

At the level of the family, family planning implies having only the desired number of children. Thus family
planning implies both limitations of the family to a number considered appropriate to the resources of the
family as well as proper spacing between the children.

OR
E

As a social movement family planning implies an organized effort by a group of people to initiate change in
the child-bearing practices of the people by creating a favorable atmosphere. The birth control movement as
it was initially called aimed at relieving women of excessive child-bearing and was seen as a way of achieving
the emancipation of women through the right of self-determination.
A family planning programme involves a coordinated group of activities maintained over a period of time and
aimed at fostering a change in the child-bearing behavior of the females. The aim of the family planning
programme may either be to improve the health status of women and their children and or of reducing the
birth rate and thus reducing the population growth rate of the country. Most countries with a population control
policy also emphasize the health aspects of family planning.

SC

The various components of the family planning programmes are Information, education and communication activities

Contraceptives, supplies and services

Training of personnel

Research

Administrative infrastructure

GS

When the government concerns itself with promoting the total welfare of the family and the community
through family planning, the programme consists of a wide range of activities covering education, health,
maternity and childcare, family planning and nutrition.
There are many barriers to family planning in India. The methods are not always acceptable because of the
possible side effects, perceived unaesthetic attributes or the discipline their use demands. All methods are not
equally effective. While sterilization male and female can be considered one hundred percent effective a
method like IUD is considered to be 95% effective and the conventional contraceptive like the condom is
considered to be only 50% effective. Oral pills are almost 100% effective but their effectiveness depends on
taking them regularly and on following a certain regime. The easy availability of supplies and services is a
necessary condition for the practice or adoption of family planning. When supplies and services are not easily
available it becomes difficult for people to practice or adopt family planning even when they are inclined to
do so.

Notes

In the absence of family planning women are tied down to child bearing and child rearing for the best years
of their productive lives. They are denied the opportunity to explore other avenues for self-expression and selfdevelopment. This could lead to frustration as excessive child bearing affects their own health and that of their
children. Looking after a large number of children puts a further strain on the physical and emotional resources
of such women. The children often unwanted and neglected are left to their own devices to make life

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unbearable. Indulgence in delinquency is sometimes the result. The children in large families often have to start
working at a very early age to supplement the slender financial resources of the family. They are denied the
opportunity to go to school and get educated. The girl child is the worst sufferer. She is often not sent to school
at all or is withdrawn from school at an early age to help her mother in carrying out domestic chores and to
look after her younger siblings when the mother is at work. Early marriages push her into child bearing and
the vicious cycle continues. Happy and healthy families are the very foundation on which a healthy society
is built. Excessive fertility as one of the factors leading to family unhappiness and ill health needs to be curbed
in order to build up a healthy society.

ii. Population Policy - Approach By India

1950-1990

1.

Population growth has long been a concern of the government, and India has a lengthy history of explicit
population policy. In the 1950s, the government began, in a modest way, one of the earliest national,
government-sponsored family planning efforts in the developing world.

2.

Focus was only on controlling population and not on improving quality of population.

3.

For achieving this, government followed various approaches starting from passive approach to a proactive
target approach to a forceful camp approach in 70's to promote male sterilization in which various
excesses were done which was heavily criticized.

4.

Age of marriage was raised for girls to 18 and for boys to 21.

b)

ICPD, 1994

1.

International Conference on Population and Development (ICPD) was held in Cairo in 1994.

2.

It strongly condemned the:

SC

target based approach and instead said that focus should be in improving health.

Method of incentives and disincentives.

GS

3.

OR
E

a)

Now India being a signatory to it, launched a National Population Policy-2000 to achieve the same.

c) National Population Policy, 2000

1.

Objectives of NPP 2000

a.

Immediate objective - with respect to quality

i.

b.

Mid term objective

i.

c.

Notes

To attain population stabilization by 2045. (now the date has been pushed back to 2070).

Approach a.

46

To achieve a TFR of 2.1 per cent by 2010 (it was 2.8 in 2011)

Long term
i.

2.

To improve the availability of contraception, hospitals and health care personnel for basic
reproductive and child health care.

Target free approach - Earlier targets were mentioned for everything like contraception prevalence
rate, sterilization, institutional delivery, registration of births, and marriages, but not anymore

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b.

Voluntarily - Earlier we followed an Incentives (monetary benefits) and disincentive (i.e., removal
from employment, barring from contesting Panchayat election) approach along with coercion,
compulsion. But this has to be abandoned.

c.

Informed - Before accessing govt. officials and doctors should inform them about the positives and
negatives of accessing the technology).

d.

Coordinated approach - Coordination of all ministries are programs related to health, education ,
employment, and partnership with civil society and panchayats.

e.

Decentralised Planning And Program Implementation - The 73rd and 74th Constitutional Amendments
Act, 1992, made health, family welfare, and education a responsibility of village panchayats.

But still we follow the old approach

At present we still follow the target and incentive approach inspite of it being in opposition to IPCD, 1994
and NPP-2000.

Various instances have been reported in Rajasthan, MP where:

OR
E

d)

sterilization has been made a pre-condition to access development schemes

persons with more than two children are prohibited to contest for Panchayat/municipal elections in
certain States.

Millions of women are being sterilized when just 21 years or less.

SC

In October, 2014 Centre announced an 'Enhanced Compensation Scheme' for sterilization services in 11
States having high Total Fertility Rates (TFR). It also added a new component of Post Partum Sterilization
(PPS) - done soon after delivery or within 7 days - to the package for which an extra amount of Rs. 3,000
would be given

In November 2014, more than 13 women lost their lives following sterilization surgeries in a medical camp
in Bilaspur district of Chhattisgarh.

In this background health rights activists have formed a National Coalition against the two-child norm and
coercive population policies in 2011, housed in Delhi.

GS

d)(ii) Deputy sarpanch in Surat village fathers third child, suspended - March 2015
A deputy sarpanch in a village of Surat district had to quit office after he fathered third child, in keeping
with the rule banning political functionaries from having more than two children. Ajay Patel, a resident
of Allu village in Bardoli taluka had contested the gram panchayat election from Ward No. 2 on February
3, 2013, and won. He also went on to become deputy sarpanch in the gram panchayat.

According to sources, Patel's wife delivered their third child on December 21, 2014. Ajay kept the news
of his newborn hidden from the villagers to continue in the posts of deputy sarpanch and panchayat
member. However, one of the villagers, Manubhai Dodiya, learnt about it and got hold of the child's birth
certificate. Dodiya then contacted Bardoli Taluka Development Officer R. L. Patel and filed an application
to cancel Patel's membership.

Later, Patel confessed to the fact that his third child was born after his election. The two-child norm was
effected in Gujarat in 2005. The Bardoli taluka development officer said, "As per the law, we have passed
order of suspension of gram panchayat member Ajay Patel and a copy of it had also been given to the
Allu village sarpanch."

Notes

47

www.iasscore.in

e)

Female sterlisation; population control 1. Bilsapur tragedy

But the November 2014 tragedy in Bilaspur, Chhattisgarh in which 13

young women with very young children lost their lives, and forty-five
more were taken critically ill, highlights a specific and serious problem
that needs urgent attention: female sterilization.

2. Female sterlisation

The third round of the National Family Health Survey (NFHS-3, 200506) reports that even in developed states like Tamil Nadu and Maharashtra
female sterilisation accounts for 90 per cent and 76 percent of all
contraceptive use, respectively; the median age at sterilisation for women
was reported at 24.9 years in both Tamil Nadu and Maharashtra.

GS

SC

OR
E

There appears to be renewed focus on controlling the rise in population,

directed in particular at women, and through means that blur the lines
between persuasion and coercion. Persuasion takes the form of incentives
offered not just to poor couples for sterilisation but rewards to local
bodies for their performance, euphemistically described as "promotional
and motivational" measures, resulting in the organization of mass camps
for female sterilization. India's population policy seems focused on
extending family planning measures, mainly contraceptives for women,
leaving them with little reproductive choice or autonomy. Of the total
sterilisation operations performed in 2012-13, tubectomy/laproscopic
sterilizations account for 97.4 percent, while male vasectomy operations,
considered less complicated risky, account for only 2.5 percent.
Government expenditures are also skewed toward female sterilization.
Out of the budget of Rs 397 crores for family planning for 2013-14, 85
percent (Rs.338 crore) is spent on female sterilization. By contrast 1.5
percent of the total budget is spent on spacing methods and 13 percent
on infrastructure and communications.
The negative fallouts of pursuing a population policy that largely focuses
on birth control also contributes to declining child sex ratios: if every
family is to have fewer children, there is a greater anxiety that at least
one of them should be male.

4. What to do

In this instance, there may be a case for the government to undo as much
as to do for example,

Notes

3. Negative fallout

48

1.

Review the family planning program in India and reorient it such that
it is aligned with reproductive health rights of women, and needs of
India's population.

2.

Increase budgets for quality services, static family planning clinics

and quality monitoring and supervision.

3.

Address youth needs, induct more counsellors for sexual health, more
youth-friendly services, and adequate supply of spacing methods.

www.iasscore.in

Census
A) Facts regarding Census

a.

1st ever conducted in Sweden in 1749

b.

1st decennial census in USA 1790

Origin of census in India

1st conducted in 1872 done in 2 yrs under Lord Mayo
i.
b.

1st synchronous in 1881 under Lord Rippon

i.

c.
3.

The first complete census of population was, however, conducted in 1881, on a uniform basis
throughout India.

Census 2011 is 15th census

Act, rules and notifications

a.

b.

4.

Census of 1872 was not a synchronous, nor did it cover all territory possessed or controlled by
the British. It was not centrally supervised, moderated or compiled.

OR
E

a.

Census is conducted under

SC

2.

Origin of census (in other country)

i.

Act - The Census Act, 1948.

ii.

Rules - The Census Rules, 1990.

NPR is conducted under

GS

1.

i.

Act - The Citizenship Act, 1955.

ii.

Rules - The Citizenship (Registration of Citizens and Issue of National Identity Cards) Rules,
2003

Office of the Registrar General and Census Commissioner

a.

Who conducts census - Office of the Registrar General and Census Commissioner

b.

Under whom - Ministry of Home Affairs

c.

Who heads it - Registrar General (He is the ex-Officio Census Commissioner, India)

d.

When established - In 1951

e.

Under which act - Under Census Act in 1948

f.

Functions
Conducts census and data generation.

ii.

Implements Registration of Births and Deaths Act, 1969 in the country.

The present Registrar General and Census Commissioner is Sh. C. Chandramouli (I.A.S).

Notes

g.

i.

49

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5.

How is census conducted - Census is conducted in 2 rounds

1.

House - listing phase

In 2011 census It began on April 1, 2010 (i.e., started 1 yr before)

Information for National population register was also collected in the
first phase.

2.
6.

Population enumeration

In 2011 census, this phase was conducted from 9th to 28th February,
2011 all over the country.

Parliament
a.

Seats of Lok Sabha and Rajya Sabha are fixed on basis of 1971 census

b.

Seats in the Parliament reserved till 2026.

B) Census 2011
Quick facts of Census 2011

OR
E

a)

Total population

1.21 billion

Decadal growth rate

17.4%

Density

382

Sex ratio

914

Literacy

74.04 %

SC

Child sex ratio

(i) Total Population And Global Ranking

1.

Total population

GS

b)

2.

Notes

3.

50

940

1951 (Independence)

360 million

2001

1.02 billion

2011

1.21 billion

Share in world population - 17.5%

a.

India's population accounts for 17.5% of world's population.

b.

Every 6th in world is an Indian

Population wise countries

a.

China (19.4 %)

b.

India (17.%)

c.

USA (4.5%)

d.

Indonesia

e.

Brazil

www.iasscore.in

f.

Pakistan (2.7%)

g.

Bangladesh

h.

Nigeria

i.

ussia

j.

Japan (1.9%)

b)(ii)

3.

UP - 199 million; 16% of total population; population of UP is almost equal to Brazil

b.

Maharashtra,

c.

Bihar,

d.

WB

e.

AP

f.

MP - it has replaced TN. (TN was 6th in last census, now its 7threst list is same)

Least populous a.

Overall - Lakshadweep is the least populated at 65 thousand

b.

States - Sikkim (6 lakh).

c.

Ranking - Sikkim < Mizoram < AP < GOA< Nagaland

In North East a.

4.

OR
E

a.

SC

2.

Most populous -

Assam > Tripura (due to Bangladeshi migrants) > Meghalaya (due to Bangladesh) > Manipur >
Nagaland > AP > Mizoram > Sikkim

GS

1.

States & UT's population

UT's a.

Delhi > Pudduchecrry > Chandigarh > Andaman and Nicobar Islands > Dadra and Nagar Haveli >
Daman and Diu > Lakhshadweep.

b.

Delhi's population is greater then the population of

i.

J&K, HP, Uttarakhand (i.e. 3 northern states),

ii.

All NE state (except Assam) - Assam > Delhi.

iii. Goa,
iv.

All other UT's

c) Density - (No. of people per square km)

How much Year

Density

2001

325

2011

382

Notes

1.

51

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3.

States a.

Highest - WB > BIHAR > UP (east to west)

b.

Least in - AP > Mizoram

c.

If UT included then AP> A&N > Mizoram

UT's have highest a.

Delhi > Chandigarh > Puducherry > Lakhshadweep

b.

Andaman has least

Population

Density

Delhi

Delhi

Pudducherry

Chandigarh

OR
E

2.

Chandigarh

Puducherry

Growth, growth rate -

1.

Total number added in last decade - 181 million

2.

Population added in 2001-2011 is less then the population added in 1991-2001.

3.

Statistics -

SC

d)

Decade

Decadal growth of population

2001-11

17.6 %

1991-2001

21.5

4.

5.

GS

Peak - 24.8% in 1961-71 or simply in 1971

Sex composition of growth

a.

Overall - 17.64

b.

Males 17.19 and females 18.12.

c.

Note - growth rate of females > males

States (highest and lowest)

a.

Highest
i.

Overall - Dadra and Nagar Haveli overall (55%)

ii.

In states Meghalya (27%)

1. Even greater then Bihar

b.

Lowest

Notes

i.

52

Nagaland (-0.47%)

www.iasscore.in

NORTH EAST a.

Nagaland records "negative growth" in decadal population at "minus 0.40%" as compared National
average of 17.64 %
i.

b.

As opposed to this Nagaland had recorded the countrys highest decadal population growth of
64.41% in 2001 and 56.08% in 1991 respectively.

Assam and Tripura have less than national avg, despite popular perception of influx of migrants from
Bangladesh.

e)

Child population - (0-6 YRS AGE GROUP)

1.

How much - 158.8 million (= 13.1% population)

2.

Declined -

3.

a.

Declined by 5 million since 2001

b.

Child populations has declined - 15.9% in 2001 to 13.1% in 2011

State Wise Child Population

OR
E

6.

a.

Top 5 states constitutes 52% of child population

b.

Uttar Pradesh (29.7 million) > Bihar > Maharashtra > Mp > Rajasthan
Child population

SC

Overall population

1. UP (199 million)

1.

UP (29.7 million)

2. Maharshtra

2.

Bihar

3. Bihar

3.

Maharashtra

4.

MP

5.

Rajasthan

GS

4. WB
5. AP

6. MP

f)(i)

Sex Composition,

Males - 623.7 million (51.54%)

2.

Females - 586.5 million (48.46%)

f)

(ii) Sex Ratio -

1.

Year-wiseYear

Sex ratio

1951

946

1961

941

1971

930

2001

933

2011

940

Notes

1.

53

www.iasscore.in

a.

This is the highest sex ratio at the national level since Census 1971

b.

Sex ratio in 1971 - 930

State-wise
a.

Sex Ratio increased in 29 States and UTs.

b.

Sex Ratio declined in 3 major States - J&K, Bihar and Gujarat

i.

d.

Highest in
i.

Kerala 1,084

ii.

Puducherry 1038

Lowest in
i.

ii.

4.

b.

Notes

1.

54

1.

Daman and Diu at 618

2.

Dadra and Nagar Haveli at 775

Among states Lowest in

1.

Haryana 877

2.

Haryana > J&K > Punjab> Sikkim

Districts
a.

f)(ii)

Overall

OR
E

c.

Of these, the 2 are one of the best performing states in GDP

Highest in

SC

3.

Increase of 7% points

GS

2.

i.

Mahe (Puducherry) at 1,176,

ii.

Almora in Uttarakhand, where it is 1,142.

Lowest in
i.

Daman at 533

ii.

Leh of Ladakh, it is 583

Child Sex Ratio Year - wise breakup

Year

How much

1951

983

1961

978

2001

927

2011

914

www.iasscore.in

a.

At 914, child sex ratio is the lowest since Independence

b.

Child sex ratio has been on a continuous decline since the 1951 Census.

State-wise
a.

CSR has declined in 27 States and UT's (including in Kerala, Puducherry)

b.

Increased in 8 states/UT's; of these the 2 are Punjab, Haryana

c.

Highest in (cant be Kerala as in it, it has declined)

4.

Mizoram at 971,

ii.

Meghalaya (970),

Lowest in
i.

Haryana - 830 and

ii.

Punjab - 846.

OR
E

d.

i.

At the district level

a.

i.

Lahul and Spiti in Himachal Pradesh at 1,013

ii.

Twang (AruGS SCOREGS SCOREnachal Pradesh) at 1,005.

Lowest in
i.

Jhajjar 774 Haryana

ii.

Mahendragarh 778 Haryana

Notes

b.

Highest in

SC

3.

Analysis -

GS

2.

55