Containment

This article is about the United States policy. For other 1 Early uses
uses, see Containment (disambiguation).
Containment is a military strategy to stop the expansion Although the term containment was rst used for the
strategy in the 1940s, there were major historical precedents familiar to Americans and Europeans. In the 1850s
anti-slavery forces in the United States developed a containment strategy (they did not use the word) for stopping
the expansion of slavery and forcing its collapse. Historian James Oakes explains the strategy:
The federal government would surround the
south with free states, free territories, and
free waters, building what they called a 'cordon of freedom' around slavery, hemming it
in until the systems own internal weaknesses
forced the slave states one by one to abandon
slavery.[1]
Following the 1917 communist revolution in Russia,
there were calls by Western leaders to isolate the
Bolshevik government, which seemed intent on promoting worldwide revolution. In March 1919, French Premier Georges Clemenceau called for a cordon sanitaire,
or ring of non-communist states, to isolate the Soviet
Union. Translating this phrase, U.S. President Woodrow
Wilson called for a quarantine. Both phrases compare
A 1962 nuclear explosion as seen through the periscope of a U.S. communism to a contagious disease. The U.S. refused
Navy submarine. The goal was to contain Communist expansion to recognize the Soviet Union, but President Franklin D.
Roosevelt reversed the policy in 1933, hoping to expand
without a nuclear war.
American export markets. The Munich Agreement of
1938 was an attempt to contain Nazi expansion in Europe; it failed. The U.S. tried to contain Japanese expanof an enemy. It is best known as the Cold War policy of
sion in Asia in 1937-41, and Japan reacted with its attack
the United States and its allies to prevent the spread of
on Pearl Harbor.[2]
communism abroad. A component of the Cold War, this
policy was a response to a series of moves by the Soviet After Germany invaded the USSR in 1941 during the
Union to enlarge communist inuence in Eastern Europe, World War II, the U.S. and the Soviet Union found themChina, Korea, Africa, and Vietnam. Containment rep- selves allied in opposition to Germany. The policy was
resented a middle-ground position between detente and rollback to destroy Germany and Japan.
rollback, but it let the opponent choose the place and time
of any confrontation.

2 Origin (19441947)

The basis of the doctrine was articulated in a 1946 cable by U.S. diplomat George F. Kennan during the postWWII administration of U.S. President Harry Truman.
As a description of U.S. foreign policy, the word originated in a report Kennan submitted to U.S. Defense Secretary James Forrestal in 1947, a report that was later
used in a magazine article. It is a translation of the French
cordon sanitaire, used to describe Western policy toward
the Soviet Union in the 1920s.

Key State Department personnel grew increasingly frustrated with and suspicious of the Soviets as the war
drew to a close. Averell Harriman, U.S. ambassador in
Moscow, once a conrmed optimist regarding U.S.Soviet relations,[3] was disillusioned by what he saw as
the Soviet betrayal of the 1944 Warsaw Uprising as well
as by violations of the February 1945 Yalta Agreement
1

HARRY TRUMAN (194553)

concerning Poland.[4] Harriman would later have a signif- was not something he believed the United States could
icant inuence in forming Trumans views on the Soviet necessarily achieve everywhere successfully.[14]
Union.[5]
In February 1946, the U.S. State Department asked
George F. Kennan, then at the U.S. Embassy in Moscow,
3 Harry Truman (194553)
why the Russians opposed the creation of the World Bank
and the International Monetary Fund. He responded with
a wide-ranging analysis of Russian policy now called the After Republicans gained control of Congress in the 1946
elections, President Truman, a Democrat, made a draLong Telegram:[6]
matic speech that is often used to mark the beginning of
According to Kennan:
the Cold War. In March 1947, he requested that Congress
appropriate $400 million in aid to the Greek and Turk The Soviets perceived themselves to be in a state of ish governments, then ghting Communist subversion.[15]
perpetual war with capitalism;
Truman pledged to, support free peoples who are resisting attempted subjugation by armed minorities or by
The Soviets would use controllable Marxists in the outside pressures.[15] This pledge became known as the
capitalist world as allies;
Truman Doctrine. Portraying the issue as a mighty clash
Soviet aggression was not aligned with the views of between totalitarian regimes and free peoples, the
the Russian people or with economic reality, but speech marks the adoption of containment as ocial U.S.
policy. Congress appropriated the money.
with historic Russian xenophobia and paranoia;
Trumans motives on this occasion have been the sub The Soviet governments structure prevented objec- ject of considerable scholarship and several schools of
tive or accurate pictures of internal and external re- interpretation. In the orthodox explanation of Herbert
ality.
Feis, a series of aggressive Soviet actions in 194547
in Poland, Iran, Turkey and elsewhere awakened the
Kennans cable was hailed in the State Department as American public to this new danger to freedom and Truthe appreciation of the situation that had long been man responded.[16] In the revisionist view of William
needed.[8] Kennan himself attributed the enthusiastic Appleman Williams, Trumans speech was an expresreception to timing: Six months earlier the message sion of longstanding American expansionism.[16] In the
would probably have been received in the State Depart- realpolitik view of Lynn Davis, Truman was a naive idement with raised eyebrows and lips pursed in disap- alist who unnecessarily provoked the Soviets by couching
proval. Six months later, it would probably have sounded disputes in terms like democracy and freedom that were
redundant.[8] Clark Cliord and George Elsey produced alien to the Communist vision.[17]
a report elaborating on the Long Telegram and propos- According to psychological analysis by Deborah Larson,
ing concrete policy recommendations based on its anal- Truman felt a need to prove his decisiveness and feared
ysis. This report, which recommended restraining and that aides would make unfavorable comparisons between
conning Soviet inuence, was presented to Truman on
him and his predecessor, Franklin Roosevelt.[18] I am
September 24, 1946.[9]
here to make decisions, and whether they prove right
In January 1947, Kennan drafted an essay entitled "The
Sources of Soviet Conduct.[6] Navy Secretary James V.
Forrestal gave permission for the report to be published in
the journal Foreign Aairs under the pseudonym X.[10]
Biographer Douglas Brinkley has dubbed Forrestal godfather of containment on account of his work in distributing Kennans writing.[11] The use of the word containment originates from this so-called X Article": In
these circumstances it is clear that the main element of
any United States policy toward the Soviet Union must
be that of long-term, patient but rm and vigilant containment of Russian expansive tendencies.[12]
Kennan later turned against the containment policy and
noted several deciencies in his X Article. He later said
that by containment he meant not the containment of Soviet Power by military means of a military threat, but the
political containment of a political threat. [13] Second,
Kennan admitted a failure in the article to specify the geographical scope of containment, and that containment

or wrong I am going to take them, he once said.[19]

The drama surrounding the announcement of the Truman Doctrine catered to presidents self-image of a strong
and decisive leader, but his real decision-making process
was more complex and gradual. The timing of the speech
was not a response to any Soviet action, but rather to the
fact that the Republican Party had just gained control of
Congress.[20] Truman was little involved in drafting the
speech and did not himself adopt the hard-line attitude it
suggested until several months later.[21]
The British, with their own position weakened by economic distress, urgently called on the U.S. to take over
the traditional British role in Greece.[22] Undersecretary of State Dean Acheson took the lead in Washington, warning congressional leaders in late February
1947 that if the United States did not take over from
the British, the result most probably would be a Soviet
breakthrough that might open three continents to Soviet penetration.[23][24] Truman was explicit about the

3
challenge of Communism taking control of Greece. He
won wide support from both parties as well as experts in
foreign policy inside and outside the government. It was
strongly opposed by the Left, as represented by former
Vice President Henry A. Wallace, who ran against Truman in the 1948 presidential campaign.[25]

became editors and regular contributors to William F.

Buckleys magazine, the National Review. Truman himself adopted a rollback strategy in the Korean War after
the success of the Inchon landings in September 1950,
only to reverse himself after the Chinese counterattack
two months later and revert to containment. The theTruman, under the guidance of Dean Acheson, followed ater commander, General Douglas MacArthur called on
up his speech with a series of measures to contain So- Congress to continue the[31]rollback policy; Truman red
him for insubordination.
viet inuence in Europe, including the Marshall Plan, or
European Recovery Program, and NATO, a military al- Under Dwight Eisenhower, a rollback strategy was conliance between the U.S. and Western European nations sidered against communism in Eastern Europe in 1953
created in 1949. Because containment required detailed to 1956. Eisenhower did agree to A propaganda caminformation about Communist moves, the government paign to psychologically rollback inuence of commurelied increasingly on the Central Intelligence Agency nism. He refused to intervene in the Hungarian Upris(CIA). Established by the National Security Act of 1947, ing of 1956.[32] The main argument against rollback was
the CIA conducted espionage in foreign lands, some of that the Soviets might well respond with World War III.
it visible, more of it secret. Truman approved a classi- Since 1950, the Soviets had been known to have nuclear
ed statement of containment policy called NSC 20/4 in weapons.[33]
November 1948, the rst comprehensive statement of security policy ever created by the United States. The Soviet Unions rst nuclear test in 1949 prompted the Na- 5 Korea
tional Security Council to formulate a revised security
doctrine. Completed in April 1950, it became known as
The U.S. entered the Korean War to defend South KoNSC 68.[26] It concluded that a massive military buildup
rea from a communist invasion, that is, following conwas necessary to the deal with the Soviet threat. Accordtainment doctrine. However, the success of the Inchon
ing to the report, drafted by Paul Nitze and others:
landing inspired the U.S. and the United Nations to adopt
a rollback strategy to overthrow the Communist North
Korean regime, thus allowing nationwide elections under
U.N. auspices.[34] General Douglas MacArthur then ad4 Alternative strategies
vanced across the 38th parallel into North Korea. The
Chinese then sent in a large army and defeated the
There were three alternative policies to containment un- U.N. forces, pushing them below the 38th parallel. Alder discussion in the late 1940s. The rst was a return to though the Chinese had been planning to intervene for
isolationism, minimizing American involvement with the months,[35] this action was interpreted by Trumans suprest of the world. This policy was supported by conserva- porters as a response to U.S. forces crossing the 38th partive Republicans, especially from the Midwest, including allel. This interpretation allowed the episode to be used to
former President Herbert Hoover and Senator Robert A. conrm the wisdom of containment doctrine as opposed
Taft. However, many other Republicans, led by Seantor to rollback. The Communists were later pushed back, to
Arthur H. Vandenberg, said that policy has helped cause around the original border. Truman blamed MacArthurs
World War II and was thus too dangerous to revive.[28]
focus on victory and adopted a limited war policy. His
A second policy was continuation of the dtente policies focus shifted to negotiating a settlement, which was of friendly relationships, especially trade, with the Soviet nally reached in 1953. For his part, MacArthur de[36]
Union. Roosevelt himself had been the champion of d- nounced Trumans No-win policy.
tente, but he was dead, and most of his inner circle had
left the government by 1946. The chief proponent of dtente was Henry A. Wallace, a former vice president and 6 Dulles
the Secretary of Commerce under Truman. Wallaces position was supported by far left elements of the CIO, but Many Republicans, including John Foster Dulles, conthey were themselves purged in 1947 and 1948. Wal- cluded that Truman had been too timid. In 1952, Dulles
lace ran against Truman on the Progressive Party ticket called for rollback and the eventual liberation of eastern
in 1948, but his campaign was increasingly dominated by Europe.[37] Dulles was named secretary of state by inCommunists and helped dtente be discredited.[29]
coming President Dwight Eisenhower, but Eisenhowers
The third policy was rollback, an aggressive eort to undercut or destroy the Soviet Union itself. Military rollback against the Soviet Union was proposed by James
Burnham[30] and other conservative strategists in the late
1940s. After 1954, Burnham and like-minded strategists

decision not to intervene during the Hungarian Uprising

of 1956 made containment a bipartisan doctrine. President Eisenhower relied on clandestine CIA actions to undermine hostile governments and used economic and military foreign aid to strengthen governments supporting the

10

American position in the Cold War.[38]

Cuba

In the Cuban missile crisis of 1962, the top ocials in

Washington debated using rollback to get rid of Soviet
nuclear missiles threatening the United States. A deal was
reached whereby the Soviets publicly removed their nuclear weapons, The United States secretly removed some
of its missiles, and the United States promised never to
invade Cuba. The policy of containing Cuba was put into
eect by John F. Kennedy, and continued until 2015.[39]

SEE ALSO

the Carter Doctrine (1980) intentionally echoes that of

the Truman Doctrine.

9 Ronald Reagan (198189)

Following the communist victory in Vietnam, Democrats

began to view further communist advance as inevitable
while Republicans returned to rollback doctrine. Ronald
Reagan, a long-time advocate of rollback, was elected
U.S. president in 1980. Reagan took a more aggressive
approach to dealings with the USSR, believing that dtente was misguided and peaceful coexistence was tantamount to surrender. When the Soviet Union invaded
Afghanistan in 1979, American policy makers worried
that the Soviets were making a run for control of the Per8 Vietnam
sian Gulf. Throughout the 1980s, under a policy that
came to be known as the Reagan Doctrine, the United
Senator Barry Goldwater, the Republican candidate for States provided technical and economic assistance to the
[43]
president in 1964, challenged containment and asked, Afghan guerrillas ghting against the Soviet army.
Why not victory?"[40] President Johnson, the Demo- By sending military aid to anti-communist insurgents in
cratic nominee, answered that rollback risked nuclear Afghanistan, Angola, Cambodia, and Nicaragua, he conwar. Johnson explained containment doctrine by quoting fronted existing communist governments and went bethe Bible: Hitherto shalt thou come, but not further.[41] yond the limits of containment doctrine. He deployed the
Goldwater lost to Johnson in the general election by a Pershing II missile in Europe and promoted research on
wide margin. Johnson adhered closely to containment a Strategic Defense Initiative, which critics called Star
during the Vietnam War. Rejecting proposals by Gen- Wars, to shoot down missiles red at the United States.
eral William Westmoreland that U.S. ground forces ad- Reagans aim was to defeat the Soviets through an exvance into Laos and cut communist supply lines, John- pensive arms buildup the Soviets could not match. Howson gathered a group of elder statesmen called The Wise ever, Reagan continued to follow containment doctrine in
Men. This group included Kennan, Acheson and other several key areas. He pursued a comprehensive nuclear
former Truman advisors. Rallies in support of the troops disarmament initiative called START I and policy toward
were discouraged for fear that a patriotic response would Europe continued to emphasize a NATO-based defensive
lead to demands for victory and rollback.[41] Military re- approach.
sponsibility was divided among three generals so that no
powerful theater commander could emerge to challenge The end of the Cold War in 1991 marked the ocial end
of U.S. containment policy, though it kept its bases in the
Johnson as MacArthur had challenged Truman.[42]
areas around Russia, such as ones in Iceland, Germany,
Nixon, who replaced Johnson in 1969, referred to his and Turkey. Also much of the containment policy helped
foreign policy as dtente, or a relaxation of tension. Al- inuenced U.S. foreign policy in later years such as durthough it continued to aim at restraining the Soviet Union, ing the War on Terror and dealing with post-Cold War
it was based on political realism, or thinking in terms of dictators.
national interest, as opposed to crusades against communism or for democracy. Emphasis was placed on talks
with the Soviet Union concerning nuclear weapons called 10 See also
the Strategic Arms Limitation Talks. Nixon reduced
U.S. military presence in Vietnam to the minimum re Dtente
quired to contain communist advances, a policy called
Vietnamization. As the war continued, it grew less pop Marshall Plan
ular. A Democratic Congress forced Nixon, a Repub Rollback
lican, to abandon this policy in 1973 by enacting the
CaseChurch Amendment. This law ended U.S. mili Truman Doctrine
tary involvement in Vietnam and led to violent communist takeovers of South Vietnam, Laos and Cambodia.
Non-Cold War:
President Jimmy Carter (197781) came to oce committed to a foreign policy that emphasized human rights.
China containment policy
But in response to the Soviet invasion of Afghanistan,
Dual containment (Iran-Iraq containment)
containment was again made a priority. The wording of

11

Notes and references

[1] James Oakes (2012). Freedom National: The Destruction

of Slavery in the United States, 1861-1865. W. W. Norton.
p. 12.
[2] Sidney Pash, Containment, Rollback and the Onset of the
Pacic War, 1933-1941 in G. Kurt Piehler and Sidney
Pash, eds. The United States and the Second World War:
New Perspectives on Diplomacy, War, and the Home Front
(2010) pp 38-67
[3] Larson, Deborah Welch, Origins of Containment: A Psychological Explanation, p. 69.
[4] Larson, p. 116.
[5] Larson, p.68.
[6] John Lewis Gaddis, George F. Kennan: An American Life
(2011) pp 201-24
[7] Kennan, George, "The Long Telegram"
[8] Larson, p. 28.
[9] Hechler, Ken (1996). Working with Truman: a personal
memoir of the White House years. University of Missouri
Press. p. 44. ISBN 978-0-8262-1067-8. Retrieved 23
September 2011.
[10] Gaddis, George F. Kennan: An American Life (2011) pp
249-75.
[11] "Driven Patriot: The Life And Times Of James Forrestal"
[12] Adrian R. Lewis (2006). The American Culture of War:
A History of US Military Force from World War II to Operation Iraqi Freedom. Taylor & Francis. p. 67.
[13] George F. Kennan, Memoirs 1925-1950 P. 358
[14] George F. Kennan, Memoirs 1925-1950 P. 359
[15] President Harry S. Trumans Address Before a Joint Session of Congress, March 12, 1947.
[16] Larsen, Deborah Welch, Origins of Containment, p. 9.
[17] Larsen, p. 15.
[18] Larson, p. 147.
[19] Larson, pp 145-46.
[20] Larson, p. 302.
[21] Larson, p. xi., p. 303

[25] John M. Schuessler, Absorbing The First Blow: Truman

And The Cold War, White House Studies (2009) 9#3 pp
215-231.
[26] Efstathios T. Fakiolas, Kennans Long Telegram and
NSC-68: A Comparative Theoretical Analysis, East European Quarterly (1997) 31#4 pp 415-433.
[27] NSC 68: United States Objectives and Programs for National Security
[28] David McCullough (2003). Truman. Simon & Schuster.
p. 631.
[29] Jerel A. Rosati; James M. Scott (2011). The Politics of
United States Foreign Policy. Cengage Learning. p. 342.
[30] Daniel Kelly, James Burnham and the Struggle for the
World: A Life (2002) p. 155
[31] James I. Matray, Trumans Plan for Victory: National
Self-Determination and the Thirty-Eighth Parallel Decision in Korea. Journal of American History (1979): 314333. in JSTOR
[32] Lszl Borhi, Rollback, Liberation, Containment, or Inaction? U.S. Policy and Eastern Europe in the 1950s,
Journal of Cold War Studies, 1#3 (1999), pp 67110
online
[33] Robert R. Bowie and Richard H. Immerman. eds. (1998).
Waging Peace: How Eisenhower Shaped an Enduring Cold
War Strategy. Oxford University Press. pp. 15877.
[34] James I. Matray, Trumans Plan for Victory: National
Self-Determination and the Thirty-Eighth Parallel Decision in Korea, Journal of American History, Sept. 1979,
Vol. 66 Issue 2, pp. 314333, in JSTOR
[35] Chinese Military Science Academy (September 2000).
History of War to Resist America and Aid Korea
(
) I. Beijing: Chinese Military Science
Academy Publishing House. pp. 3536. ISBN 7-80137390-1. On 4 August 1950, with the proposed Chinese
invasion of Taiwan aborted, Mao Zedong reported to the
Politburo that he would intervene in Korea as soon as the
Taiwan invasion force was reorganized.
[36] Sare, William, Sares Political Dictionary, p. 531.
[37] "Kennan and Containment, 1947", Diplomacy in Action,
U.S. Department of State,
[38] John Prados, Safe for Democracy: The Secret Wars of the
CIA, (2009)
[39] Alice L. George, The Cuban missile crisis: The threshold
of nuclear war (Routledge, 2013).

[22] Lawrence S. Wittner, American Intervention in Greece,

1943-1949 (1982)

[40] Richard J. Jensen, Jon Thares Davidann, Yoneyuki Sugita,

Trans-Pacic Relations: America, Europe, and Asia in the
Twentieth Century, p. 178. (2003)

[23] Dean Acheson (1987). Present at the creation: my years

in the State Department. W W Norton. p. 219.

[41] Jensen, p. 180. The quote is from Job 38:11.

[24] James Chace (2008). Acheson: The Secretary Of State

Who Created The American World. Simon & Schuster.
pp. 16667.

[42] Jensen, p. 182.

[43] Olson, James Stuart. Historical dictionary of the 1950s.
Westport, Conn: Greenwood P, 2000.

13

12

Further reading

Corke, Sarah-Jane. History, historians and the

Naming of Foreign Policy: A Postmodern Reection on American Strategic thinking during the Truman Administration, Intelligence and National Security, Autumn 2001, Vol. 16 Issue 3, pp. 14663.
Felix, David. Kennan and the Cold War: An Unauthorized Biography. Piscataway, NJ: Transaction
Publishers, 2015.
Gaddis, John Lewis, Strategies of Containment: A
Critical Appraisal of American National Security
Policy During the Cold War. 2004.
Hopkins, Michael F. Continuing Debate
And New Approaches In Cold War History, Historical Journal (2007), 50: 913-934
doi:10.1017/S0018246X07006437
Kennan, George F., American Diplomacy, The University of Chicago Press. 1984. ISBN 0-22643147-9
Pieper, Moritz A. (2012). Containment and the
Cold War: Reexaming the Doctrine of Containment
as a Grand Strategy Driving US Cold War Interventions. StudentPulse.com. Retrieved 22 August
2012.
Wright, Steven. The United States and Persian Gulf
Security: The Foundations of the War on Terror,
Ithaca Press, 2007.

13

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1947-1948

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