Mahatma Gandhi

Born:
02/10/1869
Died:
30/01/1948
Birthplace:
Porbandar, Gujarat, India

Mohandas Karamchand Gandhi, more commonly known as Mahatma (meaning Great Soul) was born in Porbandar,
Gujarat, in North West India, on 2nd October 1869, into a Hindu Modh family. His father was the Chief Minister of
Porbandar, and his mothers religious devotion meant that his upbringing was infused with the Jain pacifist teachings of
mutual tolerance, non-injury to living beings and vegetarianism.
Born into a privileged caste, Gandhi was fortunate to receive a comprehensive education, but proved a mediocre student. In May 1883,
aged 13, Gandhi was married to Kasturba Makhanji, a girl also aged 13, through the arrangement of their respective parents, as is
customary in India. Following his entry into Samaldas College, at the University of Bombay, she bore him the first of four sons, in
1888. Gandhi was unhappy at college, following his parents wishes to take the bar, and when he was offered the opportunity of
furthering his studies overseas, at University College London, aged 18, he accepted with alacrity, starting there in September 1888.
Determined to adhere to Hindu principles, which included vegetarianism as well as alcohol and sexual abstinence, he found London
restrictive initially, but once he had found kindred spirits he flourished, and pursued the philosophical study of religions, including
Hinduism, Christianity, Buddhism and others, having professed no particular interest in religion up until then. Following admission to
the English Bar, and his return to India, he found work difficult to come by and, in 1893, accepted a years contract to work for an
Indian firm in Natal, South Africa.
Although not yet enshrined in law, the system of apartheid was very much in evidence in South Africa at the turn of the 20th century.
Despite arriving on a years contract, Gandhi spent the next 21 years living in South Africa, and railed against theinjustice of racial
segregation. On one occasion he was thrown from a first class train carriage, despite being in possession of a valid ticket. Witnessing
the racial bias experienced by his countrymen served as a catalyst for his later activism, and he attempted to fight segregation at all
levels. He founded a political movement, known as the Natal Indian Congress, and developed his theoretical belief in non-violent civil
protest into a tangible political stance, when he opposed the introduction of registration for all Indians, within South Africa, via noncooperation with the relevant civic authorities.
On his return to India in 1916, Gandhi developed his practice of non-violent civic disobedience still further, raising awareness of
oppressive practices in Bihar, in 1918, which saw the local populace oppressed by their largely British masters. He also encouraged
oppressed villagers to improve their own circumstances, leading peaceful strikes and protests. His fame spread, and he became widely
referred to as Mahatma or Great Soul.
As his fame spread, so his political influence increased: by 1921 he was leading the Indian National Congress, and reorganising the
partys constitution around the principle of Swaraj, or complete political independence from the British. He also instigated a boycott
of British goods and institutions, and his encouragement of mass civil disobedience led to his arrest, on 10th March 1922, and trial on
sedition charges, for which he served 2 years, of a 6-year prison sentence.
The Indian National Congress began to splinter during his incarceration, and he remained largely out of the public eye following his
release from prison in February 1924, returning four years later, in 1928, to campaign for the granting of dominion status to India by
the British. When the British introduced a tax on salt in 1930, hefamously led a 250-mile march to the sea to collect his own salt.
Recognising his political influence nationally, the British authorities were forced to negotiate various settlements with Gandhi over the
following years, which resulted in the alleviation of poverty, granted status to the untouchables, enshrined rights for women, and led
inexorably to Gandhis goal of Swaraj: political independence from Britain.

Gandhi suffered six known assassination attempts during the course of his life. The first attempt came on 25th June 1934, when he
was in Pune delivering a speech, together with his wife, Kasturba. Travelling in a motorcade of two cars, they were in the second car,
which was delayed by the appearance of a train at a railway level crossing, causing the two vehicles to separate. When the first vehicle
arrived at the speech venue, a bomb was thrown at the car, which exploded and injured several people. No investigations were carried
out at the time, and no arrests were made, although many attribute the attack to Nathuram Godse, a Hindu fundamentalist implacably
opposed to Gandhis non-violent acceptance and tolerance of all religions, which he felt compromised the supremacy of the Hindu
religion. Godse was the person responsible for the eventual assassination of Gandhi in January 1948, 14 years later.
During the first years of the Second World War, Gandhis mission to achieve independence from Britain reached its zenith: he saw no
reason why Indians should fight for British sovereignty, in other parts of the world, when they were subjugated at home, which led to
the worst instances of civil uprising under his direction, through his Quit India movement. As a result, he was arrested on 9th August
1942, and held for two years at the Aga Khan Palace in Pune. In February 1944, 3 months before his release, his wife Kasturbai died
in the same prison.
May 1944, the time of his release from prison, saw the second attempt made on his life, this time certainly led by Nathuram Godse,
although the attempt was fairly half-hearted. When word reached Godse that Gandhi was staying in a hill station near Pune, recovering
from his prison ordeal, he organised a group of like-minded individuals who descended on the area, and mounted a vocal anti-Gandhi
protest. When invited to speak to Gandhi, Godse declined, but he attended a prayer meeting later that day, where he rushed towards
Gandhi, brandishing a dagger and shouting anti-Gandhi slogans. He was overpowered swiftly by fellow worshippers, and came
nowhere near achieving his goal. Godse was not prosecuted at the time.
Four months later, in September 1944, Godse led a group of Hindu activist demonstrators who accosted Gandhi at a train station, on
his return from political talks. Godse was again found to be in possession of a dagger that, although not drawn, was assumed to be the
means by which he would again seek to assassinate Gandhi. It was officially regarded as the third assassination attempt, by the
commission set up to investigate Gandhis death in 1948.
The British plan to partition what had been British-ruled India, into Muslim Pakistan and Hindu India, was vehemently opposed by
Gandhi, who foresaw the problems that would result from the split. Nevertheless, the Congress Party ignored his concerns, and
accepted the partition proposals put forward by the British.
The fourth attempt on Gandhis life took the form of a planned train derailment. On 29th June 1946, a train called the Gandhi
Special, carrying him and his entourage, was derailed near Bombay, by means of boulders, which had been piled up on the tracks.
Since the train was the only one scheduled at that time, it seems likely that the intended target of derailment was Gandhi himself. He
was not injured in the accident. At a prayer meeting after the event Gandhi is quoted as saying:
I have not hurt anybody nor do I consider anybody to be my enemy, I cant understand why there are so many attempts on my life.
Yesterdays attempt on my life has failed. I will not die just yet; I aim to live till the age of 125.
Sadly, he had only eighteen months to live.
Placed under increasing pressure, by his political contemporaries, to accept Partition as the only way to avoid civil war in India,
Gandhi reluctantly concurred with its political necessity, and India celebrated its Independence Day on 15th August 1947. Keenly
recognising the need for political unity, Gandhi spent the next few months working tirelessly for Hindu-Muslim peace, fearing the
build-up of animosity between the two fledgling states, showing remarkable prescience, given the turbulence of their relationship over
the following half-century.
Unfortunately, his efforts to unite the opposing forces proved his undoing. He championed the paying of restitution to Pakistan for lost
territories, as outlined in the Partition agreement, which parties in India, fearing that Pakistan would use the payment as a means to
build a war arsenal, had opposed. He began a fast in support of the payment, which Hindu radicals, Nathuram Godse among them,
viewed as traitorous. When the political effect of his fast secured the payment to Pakistan, it secured with it the fifth attempt on his
life.
On 20th January a gang of seven Hindu radicals, which included Nathuram Godse, gained access to Birla House, in Delhi, a venue at
which Gandhi was due to give an address. One of the men, Madanla Pahwa, managed to gain access to the speakers podium, and
planted a bomb, encased in a cotton ball, on the wall behind the podium. The plan was to explode the bomb during the speech, causing
pandemonium, which would give two other gang members, Digambar Bagde and Shankar Kishtaiyya, an opportunity to shoot Gandhi,
and escape in the ensuing chaos. The bomb exploded prematurely, before the conference was underway, and Madanla Pahwa was
captured, while the others, including Godse, managed to escape.
Pahwa admitted the plot under interrogation, but Delhi police were unable to confirm the participation and whereabouts of Godse,
although they did try to ascertain his whereabouts through the Bombay police.

After the failed attempt at Birla House, Nathuram Godse and another of the seven, Narayan Apte, returned to Pune, via Bombay,
where they purchased a Beretta automatic pistol, before returning once more to Delhi.
On 30th January 1948, whilst Gandhi was on his way to a prayer meeting at Birla House in Delhi, Nathuram Godse managed to get
close enough to him in the crowd to be able to shoot him three times in the chest, at point-blank range. Gandhis dying words were
claimed to be H Rm, which translates as Oh God, although some witnesses claim he spoke no words at all.
When news of Gandhis death reached the various strongholds of Hindu radicalism, in Pune and other areas throughout India, there
was reputedly celebration in the streets. Sweets were distributed publicly, as at a festival. The rest of the world was horrified by the
death of a man nominated five times for the Nobel Peace Prize.
Godse, who had made no attempt to flee following the assassination, and his co-conspirator, Narayan Apte, were both imprisoned until
their trial on 8th November 1949. They were convicted of Gandhis killing, and both were executed, a week later, at Ambala Jail, on
15th November 1949. The supposed architect of the plot, a Hindu extremist named Vinayak Damodar Savarkar, was acquitted due to
lack of evidence.
Gandhi was cremated as per Hindu custom, and his ashes are interred at the Aga Khans palace in Pune, the site of his incarceration in
1942, and the place his wife had also died.
Gandhi's memorial bears the epigraph H Rm (Oh God) although there is no conclusive proof that he uttered these words before
death.
Although Gandhi was nominated for the Nobel Peace Prize five times, he never received it. In the year of his death, 1948, the Prize
was not awarded, the stated reason being that there was no suitable living candidate that year.
Gandhi's life and teachings have inspired many liberationists of the 20th Century, including Dr. Martin Luther King in the United
States, Nelson Mandela and Steve Biko in South Africa, and Aung San Suu Kyi in Myanmar.
His birthday, 2nd October, is celebrated as a National Holiday in India every year.
QUOTES
An eye for an eye only ends up making the whole world blind.
Mahatma Gandhi
Mahatma Gandhi - An Unpeaceful End (TV-14; 05:34) A man who changed the course of the future of India with his ideas of non
violence and political and religious peace was unfortunately shot in his prime.
Synopsis
Born on October 2, 1869, in Porbandar, India, Mahatma Gandhi studied law and came to advocate for the rights of Indians, both at
home and in South Africa. Gandhi became a leader of India's independence movement, organizing boycotts against British institutions
in peaceful forms of civil disobedience. He was killed by a fanatic in 1948.
Spiritual and Political Leader
Indian nationalist leader Mohandas Karamchand Gandhi, more commonly known as Mahatma Gandhi, was born on October 2, 1869,
in Porbandar, Kathiawar, India. He studied law in London, England, but in 1893 went to South Africa, where he spent 20 years
opposing discriminatory legislation against Indians. As a pioneer of Satyagraha, or resistance through mass non-violent civil
disobedience, he became one of the major political and spiritual leaders of his time. Satyagraha remains one of the most potent
philosophies in freedom struggles throughout the world today.
Fight for Indian Liberation
In 1914, Gandhi returned to India, where he supported the Home Rule movement, and became leader of the Indian National Congress,
advocating a policy of non-violent non-co-operation to achieve independence. His goal was to help poor farmers and laborers protest
oppressive taxation and discrimination. He struggled to alleviate poverty, liberate women and put an end to caste discrimination, with
the ultimate objective being self-rule for India.

Chapter XXVII: The Batavian Republic, 1795-1806

On January 19, 1795, Amsterdam fell into the hands of the advancing French troops. Daendels had previously caused a proclamation
to be distributed which declared that the representatives of the French people wished the Dutch nation to make themselves free; that
they do not desire to oppress them as conquerors, but to ally themselves with them as with a free people. A complete change of the
city government took place without any disturbance or shedding of blood. At the summons of the Revolutionary Committee the
members of the Town Council left the Council Hall and were replaced by twenty-one citizens as provisional representatives of the
people of Amsterdam. Of this body Rutger Jan Schimmelpenninck, a former advocate of the Council, was appointed president. The
other towns, one after the other, followed in the steps of the capital. The patrician corporations were abolished and replaced by
provisional municipal assemblies. Everywhere the downfall of the old rgime was greeted with tumultuous joy by those large sections
of the Dutch population which had imbibed revolutionary principles; and the French troops were welcomed by the patriots as
brothers and deliverers. Trees of Liberty, painted in the national colours, were erected in the principal squares; and the citizens,
wearing caps of liberty danced round them hand in hand with the foreign soldiers. Feast-making, illuminations and passionate
orations, telling that a new era of liberty, fraternity and equality had dawned for the Batavian people, were the order of the day. The
Revolution was not confined to the town-corporations. At the invitation of the Amsterdam Committee and under the protection of the
French representatives, deputations from fourteen towns met at the Hague on January 26. Taking possession of the Assembly Hall of
the Estates of Holland and choosing as their president Pieter Paulus, a man generally respected, this Provisional Assembly proceeded
to issue a series of decrees subverting all the ancient institutions of the land. The representation by Estates and the offices of
stadholder and of council-pensionary were abolished. The old colleges such as the Commissioned Councillors, the Admiralties, the
Chamber of Accounts, were changed into Committees for General Welfare, for War, for Marine, for Finance, etc. The other provinces
in turn followed Hollands example; and the changes in the provincial administrations were then quickly extended to the StatesGeneral. These retained their name, but were now to be representative of the citizens of the whole land. The Council of State was
transformed into a Committee for General Affairs; and a Colonial Council replaced the East and West India Companies and the
Society of Surinam. To the Committee for General Affairs was entrusted the task of drawing up a plan for the summoning of a
National Convention on March 4.
So far all had gone smoothly with the course of the revolutionary movement, so much so that its leaders seem almost to have forgotten
that the land was in the occupation of a foreign conqueror. The unqualified recognition of Batavian independence, however, in the
proclamation by Daendels had caused dissatisfaction in Paris. The Committee of Public Safety had no intention of throwing away the
fruits of victory; and two members of the Convention, Cochon and Ramel, were despatched to Holland to report upon the condition of
affairs. They arrived at the Hague on February 7. Both reports recommended that a war-indemnity should be levied on the Republic,
but counselled moderation, for, though the private wealth of the Dutch was potentially large, the State was practically insolvent. These
proposals were too mild to please the Committee of Public Safety. The new States-General had sent (March 3) two envoys, Van Blauw
and Meyer, to Paris with instructions to propose a treaty of alliance and of commerce with France, to ask for the withdrawal of the
French troops and that the land should not be flooded with assignats. The independence of the Batavian Republic was taken for
granted. Very different were the conditions laid before them by Merlin de Douat, Rewbell and Siys. A war contribution of
100,000,000 florins was demanded, to be paid in ready money within three months, a loan of like amount at 3 per cent, and the
surrender of all territory south of the Waal together with Dutch Flanders, Walcheren and South Beveland. Moreover there was to be no
recognition of Batavian independence until a satisfactory treaty on the above lines was drawn up.
These hard conditions were on March 23 rejected by the States-General. Wiser counsels however prevented this point-blank refusal
being sent to Paris, and it was hoped that a policy of delay might secure better terms. The negotiations went on slowly through March
and April; and, as Blauw and Meyer had no powers as accredited plenipotentiaries, the Committee determined to send Rewbell and
Siys to the Hague, armed with full authority to push matters through.
The envoys reached the Hague on May 8, and found the States-General in a more yielding mood than might have been expected from
their previous attitude. Rewbell and Siys knew how to play upon the fears of the Provisional Government by representing to them
that, if the terms they offered were rejected, their choice lay between French annexation or an Orange restoration. Four members were
appointed by the States-General with full powers to negotiate. The conferences began on May 11; and in five days an agreement was
reached. The Batavian Republic, recognised as a free and independent State, entered into an offensive and defensive alliance with the
French Republic. But the Dutch had to cede Maestricht, Venloo and Dutch Flanders and to pay an indemnity of 100,000,000 florins.
Flushing was to receive a French garrison, and its harbour was to be used in common by the two powers; 25,000 French troops were to

be quartered in the Republic and were to be fed, clothed and paid. The Dutch were compelled to permit the free circulation of the
worthless assignats in their country.
One of the first results of this treaty was a breach with Great Britain. The Dutch coast was blockaded; British fleets stopped all seaborne commerce; and the Dutch colonies in the East and West Indies were one after the other captured. The action of the Prince of
Orange made this an easy task. William placed in the hands of the British commanders letters addressed to the governors of the Dutch
colonies ordering them to admit the troops sent out on behalf of his Britannic Majesty and to offer no resistance to the British
warships, but to regard them as vessels of a friendly Power. The Cape of Good Hope surrendered to Admiral Rodney; and in quick
succession followed Malacca, Ceylon and the Moluccas. A squadron of nine ships under Rear-Admiral Lucas, sent out to recover the
Cape and the other East Indian possessions, was compelled to surrender to the English in Saldanha Bay on August 17, 1796, almost
without resistance, owing to the Orange sympathies of the crews. The West Indian Colonies fared no better. Demerara, Essequibo and
Berbice capitulated in the spring of 1796; Surinam remained in Dutch hands until 1799; Java until 1801. The occupation by the
English of this island, the most important of all the Dutch overseas possessions, made the tale of their colonial losses complete. The
offensive and defensive alliance with France had thus brought upon the Republic, as a trading and colonial power, a ruin which the
efforts of the provisional government under French pressure to re-organise and strengthen their naval and military forces had been
unable to prevent. The erstwhile exiles, Daendels and Dumonceau, who had attained the rank of generals in the French service, were
on their return entrusted with the task of raising an army of 36,000 men, disciplined and equipped on the French system. The navy was
dealt with by a special Committee, of which Pieter Paulus was the energetic president. Unfortunately for the Committee, a large
proportion of the officers and crews were strongly Orangist. Most of the officers resigned, and it was necessary to purge the crews.
Their places had to be supplied by less experienced and trustworthy material; but Vice-Admiral Jan de Winter did his utmost to create
a fleet in fit condition to join the French and Spanish fleets in convoying an expeditionary force to make a descent upon the coast of
Ireland. In July, 1797, eighty ships were concentrated at the Texel with troops on board, ready to join the Franco-Spanish squadrons,
which were to sail from Brest. But the junction was never effected. Week after week the Dutch admiral was prevented from leaving
the Texel by contrary winds. The idea of an invasion of Ireland was given up, but so great was the disappointment in Holland and such
the pressure exerted on De Winter by the Commission of Foreign Affairs, that he was obliged against his will to put to sea on October
7, and attack the English fleet under the command of Admiral Duncan, who was blockading the Dutch coast. The number of vessels on
the two sides was not unequal, but neither officers nor crews under De Winter could compare in seamanship and experience with their
opponents. The fleets met off Camperdown and the Dutch fought with their traditional bravery, but the defeat was complete. Out of
sixteen ships of the line nine were taken, including the flag-ship of De Winter himself.
Meanwhile there had arisen strong differences of opinion in the Republic as to the form of government which was to replace the old
confederacy of seven sovereign provinces. No one probably wished to continue a system which had long proved itself obsolete and
unworkable. But particularism was still strong, especially in the smaller provinces. The country found itself divided into two sharply
opposed parties of Unitarians and federalists. The Unitarians were the most active, and meetings were held all over the country by the
local Jacobin clubs. Finally it was determined to hold a central meeting of delegates from all the clubs at the Hague. The meeting took
place on Jan. 26, 1796, and resolutions were passed in favour of summoning a National Convention to draw up a new constitution on
Unitarian lines. Holland and Utrecht pressed the matter forward in the States-General, and they had the support of Gelderland and
Overyssel, but Zeeland, Friesland and Groningen refused their assent. Their action was very largely financial, as provinces whose
indebtedness was small dreaded lest unification should increase their burden. But even in the recalcitrant provinces there were a large
number of moderate men; and through the intervention of the French ambassador, Nel, who gave strong support to the Unitarians, the
proposal of Holland for a National Assembly to meet on March 1 was carried (February 18) by a unanimous vote. The following
Provisional Regulation was then rapidly drawn up by a special committee. The land was divided into districts each containing 15,000
inhabitants; these again into fundamental assemblies (grondvergaderingen) of 500 persons; each of these assemblies chose an
elector (kiezer); and then the group of thirty electors chose a deputy to represent the district. The National Assembly was in this way
to consist of one hundred and twenty-six members; its deliberations were to be public, the voting individualistic and the majority to
prevail. A Commission of twenty-one deputies was to be appointed, who were to frame a draft-Constitution, which after approval by
the Assembly was to be submitted to the whole body of the people for acceptance or rejection.
The Assembly, having duly met on March 1, 1796, in the Binnenhof at the Hague, elected Pieter Paulus as their president, but had the
misfortune to lose his experienced direction very speedily. He had for some time been in bad health, and on March 17 he died. It fell to
his lot to assist at the ceremonial closing of the last meeting of the States-General, which had governed the Republic of the United
Netherlands for more than two centuries.

The National Assembly reflected the pronounced differences of opinion in the land. Orangist opinion had no representatives, although
possibly more than half the population had Orange sympathies. All the deputies had accepted in principle French revolutionary ideas,
but there were three distinct parties, the unitarians, the moderates and the federalists. The moderates, who were in a majority,
occupied, as their name implied, an intermediate position between the unitarians or revolutionary party, who wished for a centralised
republic after the French model, and the federalists or conservatives, who aimed at retaining so far as possible the rights of the several
provinces and towns to manage their own affairs. The leaders of the unitarians were Vreede, Midderigh, Valckenier and Gogel; of the
moderates Schimmelpenninck, Hahn and Kantelaur; of the federalists, Vitringa, Van Marle and De Mist. After the death of Pieter
Paulus the most influential man in an Assembly composed of politicians mostly without any parliamentary experience was the
eloquent and astute Schimmelpenninck, whose opportunist moderation sprang from a natural dislike of extreme courses.
One of the first cares of the Assembly was the appointment of the Commission of twenty-one members to draw up a draft
Constitution. The (so-styled) Regulation, representing the views of the moderate majority, was presented to the Assembly on
November 10. The Republic was henceforth to be a unified state governed by the Sovereign People; but the old provinces, though now
named departments, were to retain large administrative rights and their separate financial quotas. The draft met fierce opposition from
the unitarians, but after much discussion and many amendments it was at length accepted by the majority. It had, however, before
becoming law, to be submitted to the people; and the network of Jacobin clubs throughout the country, under the leadership of the
central club at Amsterdam, carried on a widespread and secret revolutionary propaganda against the Regulation. They tried to enlist
the open co-operation of the French ambassador, Nol, but he, acting under the instruction of the cautious Talleyrand, was not
disposed to commit himself.
The unitarian campaign was so successful that the Regulation, on being submitted to the Fundamental Assemblies, was rejected by
136,716 votes to 27,955. In these circumstances, as had been previously arranged by the Provisional Government, it was necessary to
summon another National Assembly to draw up another draft Constitution. It met on September 1, 1797. The moderates, though they
lost some seats, were still in a majority; and the new Commission of Twenty-One had, as before, federalistic leanings. The Unitarians,
therefore, without awaiting their proposals, under the leadership of the stalwart revolutionary, Vreede, determined to take strong
action. Thecoup dtat they planned was helped forward by two events. The first was the revolution in Paris of September 4, 1797,
which led to the replacing of ambassador Nol by the pronounced Jacobin, Charles Delacroix. The other event was the disaster which
befell the Dutch fleet at Camperdown, the blame for which was laid upon the Provisional Government.
Vreede and his confederates being assured by Delacroix of the supportof the new French Directory, and of the co-operation of the
French General Joubert and of Daendels, the commander of the Batavian army, chose for the execution of their plan the week in which
Midderigh, one of the confederates, took his turn as president of the Assembly. Midderigh, by virtue of his office, being in command
of the Hague civic force, on January 22, 1798, seized and imprisoned the members of the Committee for Foreign Affairs and twentytwo members of the Assembly. The Rump then met, protected by a strong body of troops, and declared itself a Constituent
Assembly representing the Batavian people. After the French model, an Executive Council was nominated, consisting of five
members, Vreede, Fijnje, Fokker, Wildrik and Van Langen, and a new Commission of Seven to frame a Constitution. The
Regulation was rejected; and the Assembly solemnly proclaimed its unalterable aversion to the stadholderate, federalism,
aristocracy and governmental decentralisation.
French influence was henceforth paramount; and the draft of the new Constitution, in the framing of which Delacroix took a leading
part, was ready on March 6. Eleven days later it was approved by the Assembly. The Fundamental Assemblies in their turn assented to
it by 165,520 votes to 11,597, considerable official pressure being exerted to secure this result; and the Constitution came thus into
legal existence. Its principal provisions were directed to the complete obliteration of the old provincial particularism. The land was
divided into eight departments, whose boundaries in no case coincided with those of the provinces. Holland was split up among five
departments; that of the Amstel, with Amsterdam as its capital, being the only one that did not contain portions of two or more
provinces. Each department was divided into seven circles; each of these returned one member; and the body of seven formed the
departmental government. The circles in their turn were divided into communes, each department containing sixty or seventy. All
these local administrations were, however, quite subordinate to the authority exercised by the central Representative Body. For the
purpose of electing this body the land was divided into ninety-four districts; each district into forty Fundamental Assemblies, each
of 500 persons. The forty electors chosen by these units in their turn elected the deputy for the department. The ninety-four deputies
formed the Representative Body, which was divided into two Chambers. The Second Chamber of thirty members was annually chosen
by lot from the ninety-four, the other sixty-four forming the First Chamber. The framing and proposing of all laws was the prerogative
of the First Chamber. The Second Chamber accepted or rejected these proposed laws, but for a second rejection a two-thirds majority
was required. The Executive Power was vested in a Directorate of five persons, one of whom was to retire every year. To supply his

place the Second Chamber chose one out of three persons selected by the First Chamber. The Directorate had the assistance of eight
agents or ministers: Foreign Affairs, War, Marine, Finance, Justice, Police, Education, and Economy. Finance was nationalised, all
charges and debts being borne in common. Church and State were separated, payments to the Reformed ministers from the State
ceasing in three years.
Such was the project, but it was not to be carried into effect without another coup dtat. It was now the duty of the Constituent
Assembly to proceed to the election of a Representative Body. Instead of this, on May 4, 1798, the Assembly declared itself to be
Representative, so that power remained in the hands of the Executive Council, who were afraid of an election returning a majority of
moderates. But this autocratic act aroused considerable discontent amongst all except the extreme Jacobin faction. The opponents of
the Executive Council found a leader in Daendels, who, strong unionist though he was, was dissatisfied with the arbitrary conduct of
this self-constituted government, and more especially in matters connected with the army. Daendels betook himself to Paris, where he
was favourably received by the Foreign Secretary, Talleyrand, and with his help was able to persuade the French Directory that it was
not in their interest to support the Jacobin Council in their illegal retention of office. Daendels accordingly returned to Holland, where
he found the French commander, Joubert, friendly to his project, and three of the agents, including Pijman, the Minister of War,
ready to help him. Placed in command of the troops at the Hague, Daendels (June 12, 1798) arrested the directors and the presidents of
the two Chambers. The Constituent Assembly was dissolved and a new Representative Body was (July 31) elected. The moderates, as
was expected, were in a considerable majority; and five members of that party, Van Hasselt, Hoeth, Van Haersolte, Van Hoeft and
Ermerius were appointed Directors.
The country was now at length in the enjoyment of a settled constitution based upon liberal principles and popular representation.
Daendels, though his influence was great, never attempted to play the part of a military dictator; and, though party passions were
strong, no political persecutions followed. Nevertheless troubled times awaited the Batavian Republic, and the Constitution of 1798
was not to have a long life.
The Emperor Paul of Russia had taken up arms with Great Britain and Austria against revolutionary France, and the hopes of the
Orange party began to rise. The hereditary prince was very active and, though he was unable to move his brother-in-law, the King of
Prussia, to take active steps in his favour, he succeeded in securing the intervention of an Anglo-Russian force on his behalf. In
August, 1798, a strong English fleet under Admiral Duncan appeared off Texel and in the name of the Prince of Orange demanded the
surrender of the Batavian fleet which lay there under Rear-Admiral Story. Story refused. A storm prevented the English from taking
immediate action; but on the 26th a landing of troops was effected near Callantroog and the Batavian forces abandoned the Helder.
Story had withdrawn his fleet to Vlieter, but Orangist sympathies were strong among his officers and crews, and he was compelled to
surrender. The ships, hoisting the Orange flag, became henceforth a squadron attached to the English fleet. Such was the humiliating
end of the Batavian navy. The efforts of the hereditary prince to stir up an insurrection in Overyssel and Gelderland failed; and he
thereupon joined the Anglo-Russian army, which, about 50,000 strong, was advancing under the command of the Duke of York to
invade Holland. But York was an incompetent commander; there was little harmony between the British and Russian contingents; and
the French and Batavians under Generals Brune and Daendels inflicted defeats upon them at Bergen (September 19), and at Castricum
(October 6). York thereupon entered upon negotiations with Brune and was allowed to re-embark his troops for England, after
restoration of the captured guns and prisoners. The expedition was a miserable fiasco.
At the very time when the evacuation of North Holland by invading armies was taking place, the Directory in Paris had been
overthrown by Bonaparte (18 Brumaire, or Nov. 20), who now, with the title of First Consul, ruled France with dictatorial powers. The
conduct of the Batavian government during these transactions had not been above suspicion; and Bonaparte at once replaced Brune by
Augereau, and sent Smonville as ambassador in place of Deforgues. He was determined to compel the Batavian Republic to comply
strictly with the terms imposed by the treaty of 1795, and demanded more troops and more money. In vain the Executive Council, by
the mouth of its ambassador, Schimmelpenninck, protested its inability to satisfy those demands. Augereau was inexorable, and there
was no alternative but to obey. But the very feebleness of the central government made Bonaparte resolve on a revision of the
constitution in an anti-democratic direction. Augereau acted as an intermediary between him and the Executive Council. Three of the
directors favoured his views, the other two opposed them. The Representative Body, however, rejected all proposals for a revision. On
this the three called in the aid of Augereau, who suspended the Representative Body and closed the doors of its hall of meeting. The
question was now referred to the Fundamental Assemblies. On October 1, 1801, the voting resulted in 52,279 noes against 16,771
yeas. About 350,000 voters abstained, but these were declared to be yeas"; and the new constitution became on October 16 the law of
the land.

The Constitution of 1801 placed the executive power in the hands of a State-Government of twelve persons. The three directors chose
seven others, who in their turn chose five more, amongst these the above-named three, to whom they owed their existence. With this
State-Government was associated a Legislative Body of 35 members, who met twice in the year and whose only function was to
accept without amendment, or to reject, the proposals of the Executive Body. The agents were abolished and replaced by small
councils, who administered the various departments of State. Considerable administrative powers were given to the local
governments, and the boundaries of the eight departments, Holland, Zeeland, Utrecht, Overyssel (in which Drente was included),
Gelderland, Groningen, Friesland, and Brabant, were made to coincide largely with those of the old provinces. The aim of the new
Constitution was efficiency, the reconciliation of the moderate elements both of the federalist and unitarian parties, and the restraint
alike of revolutionary and Orangist intrigues.
It began its course in fortunate circumstances. The long-wished-for peace was concluded at Amiens on March 27, 1802. It was signed
by Schimmelpenninck, as the representative of the Batavian Republic, but he had not been allowed to have any influence upon the
decisions. Great Britain restored all the captured colonies, except Ceylon; and the house of Orange was indemnified by the grant of the
secularised Bishopric of Fulda, the abbeys of Korvey and Weingarten, together with the towns of Dortmund, Isny and Buchhorn. The
hereditary prince, as his father refused to reside in this new domain, undertook the duties of government. William V preferred to live
on his Nassau Estates. He died at Brunswick in 1806.
The peace was joyfully welcomed in Holland, for it removed the British blockade and gave a promise of the revival of trade. But all
the hopes of better times were blighted with the fresh outbreak of war in 1803. All the colonial possessions were again lost; and a new
treaty of alliance, which the State-Government was compelled to conclude with France, led to heavy demands. The Republic was
required to provide for the quartering and support of 18,000 French troops and 16,000 Batavians under a French general. Further, a
fleet of ten ships of war was to be maintained, and 350 flat-bottomed transports built for the conveyance of an invading army to
England. These demands were perforce complied with. Nevertheless Napoleon was far from satisfied with the State-Government,
which he regarded as inefficient and secretly hostile.
In Holland itself it was hated, because of the heavy charges it was obliged to impose. Bonaparte accordingly determined to replace it
and to concentrate the executive power in a single person. The Legislative Body was to remain, but the head of the State was to bear
the title of council-pensionary, and was to be elected for a period of five years. Schimmelpenninck was designated for this post.
Referred to a popular vote, the new Constitution was approved by 14,230 against 136; about 340,000 abstained from voting. On April
29, 1805, Schimmelpenninck entered into office as council-pensionary. He was invested with monarchical authority. The executive
power, finance, the army and navy, the naming of ambassadors, the proposing of legislation, were placed in his hands. He was assisted
by a Council of State, nominated by himself, of five members, and by six Secretaries of State. The Legislative Body was reduced to
nineteen members, appointed by the Departmental Governments. They met twice in the year and could accept or reject the proposals
of the council-pensionary, but not amend them.
Schimmelpenninck was honest and able, and during the brief period of his administration did admirable work. With the aid of the
accomplished financier Gogel, who had already done much good service to his country in difficult circumstances, he, by spreading the
burdens of taxation equally over all parts of the land and by removing restrictive customs and duties, succeeded in reducing largely the
deficits in the annual balance-sheet. He also was the first to undertake seriously the improvement of primary education. But it was not
Napoleons intention to allow the council-pensionary to go on with the good work he had begun. The weakening of
Schimmelpennincks eyesight, through cataract, gave the emperor the excuse for putting an end to what he regarded as a provisional
system of government, and for converting Holland into a dependent kingdom under the rule of his brother Louis. Admiral Verhuell,
sent to Paris at Napoleons request on a special mission, was bluntly informed that Holland must choose between the acceptance of
Louis as their king, or annexation. On Verhuells return with the report of the emperors ultimatum, the council-pensionary (April 10,
1806) summoned the Council of State, the Secretaries and the Legislative Body to meet together as an Extraordinary Committee and
deliberate on what were best to be done. It was resolved to send a deputation to Paris to try to obtain from Napoleon the
relinquishment, or at least a modification, of his demand. Their efforts were in vain; Napoleons attitude was peremptory. The Hague
Committee must within a week petition that Louis Bonaparte might be their king, or he would take the matter into his own hands. The
Committee, despite the opposition of Schimmelpenninck, finding resistance hopeless, determined to yield. The deputation at Paris was
instructed accordingly to co-operate with the emperor in the framing of a new monarchical constitution. It was drawn up and signed on
May 23; and a few days later it was accepted by the Hague Committee. Schimmelpenninck, however, refused to sign it and resigned
his office on June 4, explaining in a dignified letter his reasons for doing so. Verhuell, at the head of a deputation (June 5), now went
through the farce of begging the emperor in the name of the Dutch people to allow his brother, Louis, to be their king. Louis accepted

the proffered sovereignty since the people desires and Your Majesty commands it. On June 15 the new king left Paris and a week
later arrived at the Hague, accompanied by his wife, Hortense de Beauharnais, Napoleons step-daughter.
Batavian Republic, French Rpublique Batave, DutchBataafse Republiek, republic of the Netherlands, established after it was
conquered by theFrench during the campaign of 179495. Formalized in a constitution of 1798, it possessed a centralized government
patterned after that of the Directory in France and was bound to France by alliance. In March 1805 Napoleon changed the system of
government once more: the Batavian Republic was renamed Batavian Commonwealth, and executive power was given to a kind of
dictator called the council pensionary. In June 1806, however, the Batavian Commonwealth was replaced by the Kingdom of Holland
under Napoleons brother Louis; this monarchy lasted until July 1810, when the northern Dutch provinces were incorporated into the
French Empire.

On 18 January 1795, three days before the French arrived, a revolutionary committee of Patriots took over the administration of
Amsterdam. It was a bloodless coup, as it was in most cities and villages around the country.
On 19 January, Amsterdams new rulers planted a Liberty Tree on Dam Square, a symbolic act that was emulated around the country.
The Batavian Republic was proclaimed. Under the watchful eye of the French, the Patriots began implementing their revolutionary
programme. They announced the separation of state and religion, declared all citizens to be equal and established elected
representation of the people. However, they were unable to agree on a constitution for a unified Netherlands. While the Patriots
argued, the French tightened their grip on the Batavian Republic.
After the French Revolution, the newly founded Republic of France conquered the Netherlands in 1795. The Netherlands became
known as the Batavian Republic and the ruler of the Netherlands, Prince William of Orange, had to flee to England.
In England, the prince asked the British to prevent France taking possession of the Dutch colonies. Britain obliged and, as a result,
occupied Cape colony in South Africa. Problems occurred almost immediately because not all the inhabitants of the Cape were in
favour of British occupation.
However, the British did bring with them certain improvements. Under British rule, officials received set salaries and were no longer
dependent on incomes from fines. This eliminated most malpractices in the government. British iron ploughs were imported, which
assisted with agricultural development. Because of the war in Europe, there was a growing demand for agricultural products from the
Cape, which furthered economical growth. British taxation was also lenient.
The biggest problem the British had to contend with was the unrest on the eastern frontier. The Burgers (mainly Dutch farmers) and
the African Population on the frontier were not prepared to submit to British rule without a fight.
When Gaika became chief of the Xhosa nation, unrest and tension on the eastern frontier intensified. The Burgers revolted under the
leadership of Adriaan van Jaarsveld and relations between the farmers and authorities deteriorated.
In terms of the Treaty of Amiens signed in 1802 (between England and France), the British returned the Cape Colony to the
Netherlands in February 1803. It was then renamed the Batavian Republic. Although they governed for three years only, their
enlightened administration of the Cape was a great improvement upon the rule of the Dutch East India Company, which had lasted
from 1652 to 1795. Commissioner-General J.A. de Mist and the Governor of the Cape of Good Hope, Lieutenant-General J.W.
Janssens, sponsored development and reforms.
Central government
Commissioner-General De Mist instituted a strong central government with a balance of power between Governor Janssens and the
officials. A political council of four, of whom two had to be colonists, assisted the governor. To prevent possible government
misappropriation of funds, financial control was placed in the hands of a Rekenkamer (audit chamber). An independent council of
justice administered the law, and an attorney?general was appointed to act as public prosecutor. Appeals were made directly to the
Supreme Court at The Hague.
District administration
Janssens and De Mist got to know the colonists and their circumstances by making several journeys into the outlying areas of the
colony. Finding that the districts of Stellenbosch, Swellendam, and Graaff?Reinet were too large, in 1804, they created the new
districts of Tulbagh and Uitenhague. A salaried landdrost and six heemraden were chosen from among the burghers to govern the

districts, administer the law in minor civil and criminal cases, and to regulate local affairs. Field cornets were appointed to help
preserve law and order. They were not paid salaries but were exempted from taxes and quitrent.
Church and State
Freedom of religious worship was established. In 1804, by means of the Church Order, the Nederduitsch Gereformeerde Kerk (NGK)
remained the State Church, but all religious denominations received equal protection under the law. The NGK was subservient to the
state, but it reserved the right to appoint its ministers and to approve church councils. Civil marriages could be contracted before a
landdrost and two heemraden.
Education
This was placed in the hands of the state under the control of the 'Council of Seventeen'. The NG Kerk's Lutheran churches were
represented in this council. Humanism was intended to replace Calvinism as the main driving force in the education of future citizens.
Teachers were imported from the Netherlands to raise the standard of education. A grammar school for boys and an intermediate
school for girls were started and plans were laid for the establishment of a teachers' training college.
Trade and agriculture
Colonists were granted greater freedom to trade with the Netherlands. Farming methods were improved by importing an expert from
the Rhineland to advise on viticulture. Rice and olives were tried out unsuccessfully and an experimental farm was established near
the present town of Darling. A commissioner for stock farming tried to encourage merino wool production.
Finance
Although an effort was made to stabilize the value of the rix dollar, it depreciated by more than 15 per cent.
Race Relations: Attitudes and prejudices
In line with other thinkers of the time, Janssens and De Mist were influenced by the theories and beliefs of the French writer, Jean
Jacques Rousseau, who held that men were born free and equal but society corrupted them. In the beginning, these ideas prejudiced
Janssens and De Mist against slave?owners and the attitudes of colonials to indigenous peoples, but after their journeys into the
interior, they modified their views somewhat. The Batavian rulers were determined to maintain white domination over the Khoi and
Xhosa peoples on the frontier. Janssens therefore decreed that workers should be given service contracts. He also allocated locations
along the Gamtoos River to certain groups and to a mission station at Bethelsdorp. To keep the peace, he tried to apply a policy of
separation of whites and blacks along the frontier, but he failed to get the Xhosa to move back across the Fish River. Although treaties
were signed with Ngqika (Gaika) and other chieftains that peace should be kept and defined borders respected, the chiefs did not
believe that signed papers were in any way binding, so the position on the frontier remained confused.
Slavery
De Mist wanted to free all slaves from birth. He prohibited all further slave imports and aimed to import labour from the Netherlands
to develop agriculture in the colony. But his rule was too short for his plans to be put into action.
Evaluation
Although some viewed their liberal humanitarianism with suspicion, the colonists were pleased that Dutch was made the official
language, and the reputations of Janssens and De Mist remained high at the Cape. Their reforms instituted tolerance of other creeds,
encouraged secular marriages, initiated public education, and gave to the Voortrekkers aspects of government and administration they
were to take with them into the hinterland. In 1806, the Cape again came under British rule at a time when the Xhosa nation was
expanding, aggressive and self -confident.
In short the colonial history of the Cape of Good Hope from its first occupation in 1652 is as follows:

Dutch rule in the cape colony 1652 - 1795

British occupation 1795 - 1803

Return to Dutch rule 1803 - 1806

Second British occupation 1806

Batavian Republic

(17951806), founded as a result of the entry of French Republican troops into Dutch territory inJanuary 1795 combined with an uprisi
ng by the local population in January, February, and March1795. It was named after the Batavi, who in ancient times inhabited the terr
itory of what is now theNetherlands.
The military-political alliance of the Batavian Republic with France in May 1795 laid the basis forthe republics dependence upon Fra
nce and foreordained its participation in Frances wars againstthe anti-French coalition. The internal political development of the Bata
vian Republic wascharacterized by a sharp struggle by the petite and middle bourgeoisie, supported by the masses,against the predomi
nance of the big commercial bourgeoisie and the financial oligarchy.
A draft constitution for the republic was prepared by a national assembly convened on Mar. 1, 17%.Predominant influence in this asse
mbly was held by representatives of the upper bourgeoisie, andthe draft constitution was rejected by the overwhelming majority of the
population. The radicalelements, having gained the advantage at the following election (January 1798), removed theconservatives fro
m power and introduced the constitution of 1798, which was intended to eradicatethe vestiges of feudalism in the country. However, a
reactionary coup carried out in June 1798prevented the bourgeois-democratic rights and liberties proclaimed by this constitution from
beingput into practice. In 1801 a new constitution, negating all democratic advances, was imposed onthe Batavian Republic. In 1805 o
n the insistence of Napoleon, R. J. Schimmelpenninck, the so-called council pensionary, was placed in charge of the republic with dict
atorial powers. In May-June1806, Napoleon transformed the Batavian Republic into the Kingdom of the Netherlands (180610),and hi
s brother Louis Bonaparte was proclaimed king.

Sun Yat-sen, along with Mao Zedong and Chiang Kai-shek, was one of the most important figures in China from 1900 to 1976.
Sun Yat-sen was born in 1867 and died in 1925. Sun was a nationalist revolutionary who believed that the only way for China to move
forward in the early 1900's was for the country to become a republic and adopt western ways in industry, agriculture etc. Unless China
did this, Sun was convinced that she was doomed to remain backward by western standards.
Sun Yat-sen was born into a peasant family in Kwantang Province. His father was a peasant farmer. Sun's brother was a successful
merchant and he paid for Sun to receive a good education. Sun was educated at an English speaking school in Honolulu, Hawaii, and
later at the New College of Medicine in Hong Kong where he qualified as a doctor in 1892.
Sun did not become a doctor. Instead, by the time of his graduation, he had become convinced that the Manchu dynasty was corrupt
and that while it existed, China would remain backward. He became a professional revolutionary. He toured Europe and America
raising funds for the "Save China League". Despite the danger, he also ventured back to China in an effort to start a revolution against
the Manchu's. These all failed and in 1895, Sun fled to London for his own safety. Here, he was kidnapped by staff from the Chinese
embassy, and held a prisoner to be sent back to China for almost certain execution. He was only saved by vigorous protests by the
British government who got his release.
Sun continued with his work and espoused his "Three Principles" - Nationalism, Democracy and Socialism. These beliefs formed the
background to the League of Common Alliance" which Sun founded in 1898. This party was to become the Guomindang in later
years.
The Chinese Revolution in 1911 overthrew the Manchu dynasty. Sun was in America when this happened but he quickly returned to
China. In January 1913, an assembly in Nanking elected him "President of the United Provinces of China". However, China was far
from united and after a few months in office Sun resigned in the hope that this gesture might make the rival factions in China pull
together to put the country first rather than their own individual claims. The gesture did not work and China became a nation run by
warlords in their own region. Central government, if it did exist at this time, centred on Canton where Sun remained an influential
figure.
Between 1922 and 1924, Sun adapted the beliefs of the Guomindang so that they appeared more acceptable to the Chinese Communist
Party that had been founded in 1921. This conciliatory gesture brought Sun some help from Russia who sent Michael Borodin to
Canton. He helped to create a more effective structure for the Guomindang in Canton. He created a system of local Guomindang cells
all over southern China and made the party far more disciplined.
The Guomindang's army was also reformed into a more effective fighting force. A military academy was founded at Whampoa to train
young Guomindang officers. This academy was lead by Chiang Kai-shek - personally selected by Sun. Chiang was sent to Moscow
for an intensive course on military and political education. Chiang's task was to ensure that the Guomindang could defend itself if
attacked but also to be able to take on the warlords so that the Guomindang could expand its power base away from Canton.
When Sun died of cancer in 1925, China was ruled by the warlords but the authority of the Guomindang in and around Canton
continued to grow. In later years, the Guomindang and the Communists were to become bitter enemies culminating in the civil
war from 1945 to 1949. Ironically, Sun's widow, Soong Ching-ling, became vice-chairman of the Chinese People's Republic in 1950.
Sun Yat-Sen was a major politician and a Chinese revolutionary who co founded the Kuomintang and served as its first leader. Known
as the Father of Modern China, Sun Yat-Sen played a key role in abolishing the Qing Dynasty in China and was the first provisional
president of the Republic of China when it was first set up in 1912. The leader, who spent much of his time in exile, holds a distinctive
place in the chaotic and convoluted history of China, though none of his cherished dreams came true in his life time; unification of
China is one of such dreams. His ideology, famous known as "The Three Principles of the People", the political philosophy of
nationalism, democracy and socialism is one of his legacies to the people of China and Taiwan where he is venerated for his
revolutionary efforts.
Childhood & Early Life
Sun Yat-Sen was born on 12 November 1866 to in a peasant family in the Village of Cuiheng Xiangshan County near Macau. After
completing primary education Sun moved to Honolulu to live with his elder brother Sun Mei, who had become a wealthy merchant

there. With his brothers financial support Sun Yat gave up his professional career and devoted himself to the revolutionary activities.
Initially not capable of speaking the English language, Sun Yat studied English, mathematics and science at the Iolani School in 1882
and received a prize for his outstanding performance in English. After receiving the citizenship of America he enrolled in Oahu
College and graduated from there.

From the very beginning, Sun Yat was highly influenced by Abraham Lincolns idea of republicanism; government of the people, by
the people, for the people. Based upon the same he formulated his three principles of the people widely known as nationalism,
socialism and sovereignty. Later in life he drafted two books which echo these ideas; The Vital Problem of China (1917) and
International Development of China (1921). He harshly criticized the colonialism and discarded the idea of Marxism declaring that the
goal the Three Principles of People is to generate socialism and anarchy in the society.

Meanwhile he came back to China in 1883 for sometime and what he saw in a backward China deeply moved him, making him
scornful towards Chinese religious beliefs. Fearing a rage among his fellow village people he deserted to Hong Kong where he
converted to Christianity and was baptized by an American Missionary. There, he studied English at the Anglican Diocesan Home and
was moved to the Central School of Hong Kong in 1884. Sun further studied medicine and earned a license of medical practice from
the Hong Kong College of Medicine for Chinese in 1892. He married a village girl Lu Muzhen with whom he had three children,
including two daughters.

Revolutionary Activities
Sun stepped into revolutionary activities when the Qing government adopted an extremely conservative approach in promoting
advanced techniques and education in China. He gave up his medical practice to contribute to the transformation of China into a
western style constitutional power. Sun established the Revive China Society in 1894 as his first step towards a full fledges
revolutionary activity in order to bring forth a Republic China. Sun was given an exile for nineteen years after a coup he plotted failed
in 1895. During the period, he traveled to Europe, the United States, Japan and Canada raising fund for his revolutionary activities and
joined dissident Chinese group in Japan, where he spent the maximum years of the exile. After spending almost ten years in Japan, he
went to the United States.

On 10 October 1911, a military rebellion at Wunchang ended over thousand years of monarchy in China. Sun Yat returned to china
and was elected as the provisional President of the Republic of China in a meeting of representatives from provinces on 29 December
1911. January 1, 1912 became the first day of the first Year of the Republic; thus making a calendar system that is still used in many
parts of China. Suns revolution had seen a series of defeats before the establishment of the Republic of China and with the new found
success of the revolution, Sun became known as the National Father of Modern China. His Method and Strategies of Establishing the
Country came in 1919, suggesting his idea to promote peace, freedom and equality in China.

Republic of China
After assuming the power, Sun Yat-Sen called for the leaders of all provinces to elect new senators in order to establish the National
Assembly of the Republic of China. Once the Assembly was formed, the provisional law of the Republic became the basic law of the
nation. In 1913 Sun led a futile coup against Yuan, the head of the Beiyang Army, whom he had promised the presidency of the New
Republic if he helped him abolish the Qing Emperor. Failing his promise, Yuan had declared himself the new emperor to Suns
disdain. However, his dictatorship came to an end in 1916 and he was forced to step down from the throne. After the failed coup of
1913, Sun escaped to Japan where he reorganized the Kuomintang. On 25 October, 1915 Sun married to Soong ching-ling without
divorcing his first wife Lu Muzhen, despite furious resistance from the Chinese community.

Militarist Government in China

During 1910s the Chinese people saw the country divided by military leaders without locating a central government. Enraged by the
division, Sun returned to China in 1917 and established a military government in Guangzhou, Southern China in 1921 to fight for its
unification. He was elected as President and generalissimo of the military government.

According to a speech delivered by him in Hong Kong in 1923, it was the corruption and disorder of China and a stable government of
Hong Kong that created a revolutionary within him. He described his Three Principles of the People as the basic guidelines for a stable
government. The part of his famous speech in Hong Kong made its presence into the National Anthem of the republic of China. Sun
Yat established the Whampoa Military Academy near Guangzhou in order to combat military forces. However, the legitimacy of the
militarist government was questioned and opposed by the Beiyang Government on the basis of constitution and its policies.

Sun Yat-sen was reelected as the president of the Kuomintang on 10 October 1919 and remained in his position until 12 March 1925.
Having failed in his initial efforts, Sun embarked on consolidating alliance with Chinese communists and adopted a policy of Active
Corporation. He viewed the Military forces as the only weapon to unify China and establish a democracy in the country.

North Expedition & Death

In his later life, Sun actively participated in organizing seminars and gave extensive speech calling upon Chinese people to discuss the
future of the country despite his worsening health. After delivering a speech in North on 10 November 1924 Sun gave another famous
speech in Japan on 28th of the month and initiated a peace talk with the Northern leaders on the unification of China. Though he did
not live to see his country unified for he died of Liver cancer on 12 March 1925 in a hospital in Beijing.

Soong Ching-ling repudiate the communists and became the Vice President of the Peoples Republic of China in 1949 and served till
1981. Before her death in late 1981, she came in charge of the presidency of the Republic of China for sometime.

Known as a Chinese nationalist and proto-socialist Sun Yat sen is revered as the Forerunner of the Chinese Revolution, who lived
and died for a cause. His name is mentioned in the preface to the Constitution of the Peoples Republic of China as an honor to him.
SUN YAT SEN TIMELINE
Sun Yat-sen was the leader of China's republican revolution. He did much to inspire and organize the movement that overthrew the
Manchu dynasty in 1911a family of rulers that reigned over China for nearly three hundred years. Through the Kuomintang Party he
paved the way for the eventual reunification of the country.
Childhood
Sun Yat-sen was born on November 12, 1866, into a peasant household in Choyhung in Kwangtung near the Portuguese colony of
Macao. His father worked as a farmer, which had been his family's traditional occupation for many generations. His early education,
like his birthplace, established him as a man of two worlds, China and the West. After a basic training in the Chinese classics in his
village school, he was sent to Hawaii in 1879 to join his older brother. There he enrolled in a college where he studied Western science
and ChristianityUpon graduation in 1882, he returned to his native village. After learning about Christianity, Sun had come to believe
that the religious practices in the village where he grew up were nothing more than superstitions. He soon showed these changed
beliefs by damaging one of the village idols and was banished from the village.
Though Sun returned home briefly to undergo an arranged marriage, he spent his late teens and early twenties studying in Hong Kong.
He began his medical training in Canton, China, but in 1887 returned to Hong Kong and enrolled in the school of medicine. After
graduation in June 1892, he went to Macao, where Portuguese authorities refused to give him a license to practice medicine.

By the time Sun returned to Hong Kong in the spring of 1893, he had become more interested in politics than in medicine. Upset by
the Manchu government's corruption, inefficiency, and inability to defend China against foreign powers, he wrote a letter to Li Hungchang (18231901), one of China's most important reform leaders (social-improvement leaders), supporting a program of reform.
Ignored, Sun returned to Hawaii to organize the Hsing-chung hui (Revive China Society). When war between China and Japan
appeared to present possibilities for the overthrow of the Manchus, Sun returned to Hong Kong and reorganized the Hsing-chung hui
as a revolutionary secret society. An uprising was planned in Canton in 1895 but was discovered, and several of Sun's men were
executed. Having become a marked man, Sun fled to Japan.
Revolutionist
The pattern for Sun's career was established: unorganized plots, failures, execution of coconspirators, overseas wanderings, and
financial backing for further coups (hostile takeovers). Sun grew a moustache, donned Western-style clothes, and, posing as a
Japanese man, set out once again, first to Hawaii, then to San Francisco, and finally to England to visit a former school instructor.
Before leaving England, he often visited the reading room of the British Museum, where he became acquainted with the writings
of Karl Marx (18181893).
Sun returned to Japan in July 1905 to find the Chinese student community stirred to a pitch of patriotic excitement. Joined by other
revolutionists such as Huang Hsing and Sung Chiao-jen (18821913), Sun organized, and was elected director of, the T'ungmeng hui
(Revolutionary Alliance). The T'ung-meng hui was carefully organized, with a sophisticated and highly educated membership core
drawn from all over China.
By this time Sun's ideas had developed into the "Three People's Principles"his writings on nationalism, democracy, and people's
livelihood. When Sun returned from another fundraising trip in the fall of 1906, his student following in Japan numbered in the
thousands. However, under pressure from the government in China, the Japanese government threw him out.
Sun's fortunes had reached a low point. The failure of a series of poorly planned and armed coups relying upon the scattered forces of
secret societies and rebel bands had reduced the reputation of the T'ungmeng hui in Southeast Asia. However, Sun found that Chinese
opinion in the United States was turning against his rivals. Sun visited the United States and was on a successful fundraising tour
when he read in a newspaper that a successful revolt had occurred in the central Yangtze Valley city of Wuchang, China.
President of the Chinese Republic
By the time Sun arrived back in China on Christmas Day 1911, rebellion had spread through the Yangtze Valley. An uneasy welcome
greeted him, and in Nanking, China, revolutionaries from fourteen provinces elected him president of a provisional (temporary)
government. On January 1, 1912, Sun Yat-sen proclaimed the establishment of the Republic of China.
The next year a bitter power struggle developed in the Chinese government. On March 20, 1913, Yan's agents assassinated Sung
Chiao-jen at the Shanghai, China, railroad station. Sun hurried back and demanded that those responsible be brought to justice. Yan
resisted, sparking the so-called second revolution. Yan removed Sun from office and on September 15, 1913, ordered his arrest. By
early December, Sun was once again a political refugee (one who is forced to flee) in Japan.
Preparations for a comeback
Sun now began to work for the overthrow of Yan. However, Yan was undone by his own mistakes rather than by Sun's plots. His
attempt to replace the republic with a monarchy (rule by one) touched off revolts in southwestern China followed by uprisings of Sun's
followers in several other provinces. Sun returned to Shanghai in April 1916, two months before Yan's death.
Following a fruitless quest for Japanese assistance, Sun established a home in Shanghai. There he wrote two of the three treatises
(formal writings) later incorporated into his Chien-kuo fang-lueh (Principles of National Reconstruction). In the first part, Social
Reconstruction,completed in February 1917, Sun attributed the failure of democracy (rule by the people) in China to the people's lack
of practice and application. The second treatise, Psychological Reconstruction, argued that popular acceptance of his program had
been obstructed by acceptance of the old saying "Knowledge is difficult, action is easy." The third part, Material
Reconstruction, constituted a master plan for the industrialization of China to be financed by lavish investments from abroad.

Once again Sun reorganized his party, this time as the Chinese Kuomintang. He also kept a hand in the political world in Canton,
China. When the city was occupied on October 26, 1920, by Ch'en Chiung-ming and other supporters, Sun named Ch'en governor of
Kwangtung, China. In April 1921 the Canton Parliament established a new government to rival the Peking government and elected
Sun president.
After driving Ch'en from Peking, Sun resumed preparation for the northern expedition, but Ch'en recaptured Canton and forced Sun to
flee to a gunboat in the Pearl River. There, in the company of a young military aide named Chiang Kai-shek (18871975), Sun tried
unsuccessfully to engineer a comeback.
Communist alliance
Never one to be discouraged by failure, Sun returned to Shanghai and continued his plans to retake Canton through alliances with
northern warlords (military commanders of independent armies). About this time, Sun accepted support from the Soviet Union, a mark
of his disappointment with the Western powers and Japan and his need for political, military, and financial aid. Part of the agreement
provided for the admission of individual Chinese Communists into the Kuomintang. On January 26, 1923, the Soviet Union
guaranteed its support for the reunification of China. This would give Sun the muscle he needed.
Meanwhile Sun's military allies were paving the way for a return to Canton. By the middle of February 1923 Sun was back again as
head of a military government. In January 1924 the first National Congress of the Kuomintang approved a new constitution (a formal
document which sets the standards for a government), which remodeled the party along Soviet lines. At the top of the party was the
Central Executive Committee with bureaus in charge of propaganda (using literature and the media to influence the masses), workers,
peasants, youth, women, investigation, and military affairs. Sun's Three People's Principles were restated to emphasize antiimperialism (domination by a foreign power) and the leading role of the party.
Even the most disciplined party, Sun realized, would be ineffective without a military arm. To replace the unreliable warlord armies,
Sun chose the Soviet model of a party army. The Soviets agreed to help establish a military academy, and a mission headed by Chiang
kai-shek was sent to the Soviet Union to secure assistance.
Final days in Peking
However, the lure of warlord alliances remained strong. In response to an invitation from Chang Tso-lin (18731928) and Tuan Ch'ijui (18651936), Sun set out for Peking to discuss the future of China. However, negotiations with Tuan Ch'i-jui soon collapsed. This
proved to be the last time that Sun would be disappointed by his allies. Following several months of deteriorating health, in late 1924,
Sun found that he had incurable cancer.
Sun passed his final days by signing the pithy "political testament," urging his followers to hold true to his goals in carrying the
revolution through to victory. He also signed a highly controversial valedictory (farewell address) to the Soviet Union to reaffirm the
alliance against Western domination. The following day, March 12, 1925, Sun died in Peking, China. He was given a state funeral
under orders of Tuan Ch'i-jui.
Though the guiding spirit of the Chinese revolution, Sun was widely criticized during his lifetime. After his death he became the
object of a cult (a following) that elevated him to a sacred position.
For More Information
Bergre, Marie-Claire. Sun Yat-sen. Edited by Janet Lloyd. Stanford, CA: Stanford University Press, 1998.
Gasster, Michael. Chinese Intellectuals and the Revolution of 1911. Seattle: University of Washington Press, 1969.
Schiffrin, Harold Z. Sun Yat-sen, Reluctant Revolutionary. Boston: Little, Brown, 1980.
Wells, Audrey. The Political Thought of Sun Yatsen: Development and Impact. New York: Palgrave, 2001.

Rabindranath Tagore
Rabindranath Tagore (1861-1941) was the youngest son of Debendranath Tagore, a leader of the Brahmo Samaj, which was a new
religious sect in nineteenth-century Bengal and which attempted a revival of the ultimate monistic basis of Hinduism as laid down in
theUpanishads. He was educated at home; and although at seventeen he was sent to England for formal schooling, he did not finish his
studies there. In his mature years, in addition to his many-sided literary activities, he managed the family estates, a project which
brought him into close touch with common humanity and increased his interest in social reforms. He also started an experimental
school at Shantiniketan where he tried his Upanishadic ideals of education. From time to time he participated in the Indian nationalist
movement, though in his own non-sentimental and visionary way; and Gandhi, the political father of modern India, was his devoted
friend. Tagore was knighted by the ruling British Government in 1915, but within a few years he resigned the honour as a protest
against British policies in India.
Tagore had early success as a writer in his native Bengal. With his translations of some of his poems he became rapidly known in the
West. In fact his fame attained a luminous height, taking him across continents on lecture tours and tours of friendship. For the world
he became the voice of India's spiritual heritage; and for India, especially for Bengal, he became a great living institution.
Although Tagore wrote successfully in all literary genres, he was first of all a poet. Among his fifty and odd volumes of poetry
are Manasi (1890) [The Ideal One], Sonar Tari (1894) [The Golden Boat], Gitanjali (1910) [Song Offerings],Gitimalya (1914)
[Wreath of Songs], and Balaka (1916) [The Flight of Cranes]. The English renderings of his poetry, which include The
Gardener (1913),Fruit-Gathering (1916), and The Fugitive (1921), do not generally correspond to particular volumes in the original
Bengali; and in spite of its title, Gitanjali: Song Offerings (1912), the most acclaimed of them, contains poems from other works
besides its namesake. Tagore's major plays are Raja (1910) [The King of the Dark Chamber], Dakghar (1912) [The Post
Office], Achalayatan(1912) [The Immovable], Muktadhara (1922) [The Waterfall], and Raktakaravi(1926) [Red Oleanders]. He is the
author of several volumes of short stories and a number of novels, among them Gora (1910), Ghare-Baire (1916) [The Home and the
World], and Yogayog (1929) [Crosscurrents]. Besides these, he wrote musical dramas, dance dramas, essays of all types, travel diaries,
and two autobiographies, one in his middle years and the other shortly before his death in 1941. Tagore also left numerous drawings
and paintings, and songs for which he wrote the music himself.
Born: May 7, 1861
Died: August 7, 1941
Achievements: Rabindranath Tagore became the first Asian to became Nobel laureate when he won Nobel Prize for his collection of
poems, Gitanjali, in 1913; awarded knighthood by the British King George V; established Viswabharati University; two songs from his
Rabindrasangit canon are now the national anthems of India and Bangladesh
Rabindranath Tagore was an icon of Indian culture. He was a poet, philosopher, musician, writer, and educationist. Rabindranath
Tagore became the first Asian to became Nobel laureate when he won Nobel Prize for his collection of poems, Gitanjali, in 1913. He
was popularly called as Gurudev and his songs were popularly known as Rabindrasangeet. Two songs from his Rabindrasangit canon
are now the national anthems of India and Bangladesh: the Jana Gana Mana and the Amar Shonar Bangla.
Rabindranath Tagore was born on May 7, 1861 in a wealthy Brahmin family in Calcutta. He was the ninth son of Debendranath and
Sarada Devi. His grandfather Dwarkanath Tagore was a rich landlord and social reformer. Rabindra Nath Tagore had his initial
education in Oriental Seminary School. But he did not like the conventional education and started studying at home under several
teachers. After undergoing his upanayan (coming-of-age) rite at the age of eleven, Tagore and his father left Calcutta in 1873 to tour
India for several months, visiting his father's Santiniketan estate and Amritsar before reaching the Himalayan hill station of Dalhousie.
There, Tagore read biographies, studied history, astronomy, modern science, and Sanskrit, and examined the classical poetry of
Kalidasa.
In 1874, Tagore's poem Abhilaash (Desire) was published anonymously in a magazine called Tattobodhini. Tagore's mother Sarada
Devi expired in 1875. Rabindranath's first book of poems, Kabi Kahini ( tale of a poet ) was published in 1878. In the same year
Tagore sailed to England with his elder brother Satyandranath to study law. But he returned to India in 1880 and started his career as
poet and writer. In 1883, Rabindranath Tagore married Mrinalini Devi Raichaudhuri, with whom he had two sons and three daughters.
In 1884, Tagore wrote a collection of poems Kori-o-Kamal (Sharp and Flats). He also wrote dramas - Raja-o-Rani ( King and Queen)
and Visarjan (Sacrifice). In 1890, Rabindranath Tagore moved to Shilaidaha (now in Bangladesh) to look after the family estate.
Between 1893 and 1900 Tagore wrote seven volumes of poetry, which included Sonar Tari (The Golden Boat) and Khanika. In 1901,
Rabindranath Tagore became the editor of the magazine Bangadarshan. He Established Bolpur Bramhacharyaashram at Shantiniketan,
a school based on the pattern of old Indian Ashrama. In 1902, his wife Mrinalini died. Tagore composed Smaran ( In Memoriam ), a
collection of poems, dedicated to his wife.
In 1905, Lord Curzon decided to divide Bengal into two parts. Rabindranath Tagore strongly protested against this decision. Tagore
wrote a number of national songs and attended protest meetings. He introduced the Rakhibandhan ceremony , symbolizing the
underlying unity of undivided Bengal.

In 1909, Rabindranath Tagore started writing Gitanjali. In 1912, Tagore went to Europe for the second time. On the journey to London
he translated some of his poems/songs from Gitanjali to English. He met William Rothenstein, a noted British painter, in London.
Rothenstien was impressed by the poems, made copies and gave to Yeats and other English poets. Yeats was enthralled. He later wrote
the introduction to Gitanjali when it was published in September 1912 in a limited edition by the India Society in London.
Rabindranath Tagore was awarded Nobel Prize for Literature in 1913 for Gitanjali. In 1915 he was knighted by the British King
George V.
In 1919, following the Jallianwala Bagh massacre, Tagore renounced his knighthood. He was a supporter of Gandhiji but he stayed out
of politics. He was opposed to nationalism and militarism as a matter of principle, and instead promoted spiritual values and the
creation of a new world culture founded in multi-culturalism, diversity and tolerance. Unable to gain ideological support to his views,
he retired into relative solitude. Between the years 1916 and 1934 he traveled widely.
1n 1921, Rabindranath Tagore established Viswabharati University. He gave all his money from Nobel Prize and royalty money from
his books to this University. Tagore was not only a creative genius, he was quite knowledgeable of Western culture, especially Western
poetry and science too. Tagore had a good grasp of modern - post-Newtonian - physics, and was well able to hold his own in a debate
with Einstein in 1930 on the newly emerging principles of quantum mechanics and chaos. His meetings and tape recorded
conversations with his contemporaries such Albert Einstein and H.G. Wells, epitomize his brilliance.
In 1940 Oxford University arranged a special ceremony in Santiniketan and awarded Rabindranath Tagore with Doctorate Of
Literature. Gurudev Rabindranath Tagore passed away on August 7, 1941 in his ancestral home in Calcutta.