H63SSD

Solid State Devices

Lecture 2
Energy bands and carrier concentration

Fermi level?
Fermi level expresses the probability of an electron occupying a
particular level at absolute T according to Fermi-Dirac statistics.
Fermi energy level is defined highest energy level below which all
energy levels are filled at 0 K
In a semiconductor the Fermi level is in the middle of the band gap
between the valence band and the conduction band.
The probability of electron occupancy is 50%

Fermi Level
Electrons in solid obey Fermi-Dirac statistics - must consider
electron, its wave nature and Pauli exclusion principle
Other statistics: Maxwell-Boltzmann for classical particles, BoseEinstein for photons
The distribution of electrons over a range of allowed energy levels
at thermal equilibrium is given as

f (E)

1
1 e

( E E F ) / kT

The distribution function. f(E) gives us the probability that states with energy E
are occupied
3

Where f(E) is the probability of occupancy of an available state with

energy E and EF is the Fermi level energy

For an energy, EF, the occupation probability is

f ( EF )

( EF EF )

1e
f ( EF ) 1 1
11 2

kT

Thus an energy state at the Fermi level has a probability of 1/2 of being
occupied by an electron.

Example 1:
Determine the probability that an energy level 2kT above the Fermi level
is occupied by an electron at 300 K.

f(E)

T = 0K

With T = 0,
f (E) = 1/(1+0) = 1
when E < EF

T = T1
1/2

f (E) = 1/ (1 +) = 0
when E > EF.

Implies that at OK, every available energy state up to EF is filled with

electrons.

At higher T (say, T1 > OK) some probability exists for states above
the Fermi level to be filled and probability
[1 - f(E)] that states below EF are empty.

Fermi level
For intrinsic material, concentration of holes in the valence band is
equal to the concentration of electrons in the conduction band.
EF lies in the middle of the band gap

In doped semiconductors, either p-type or n-type, the Fermi level is

shifted by the impurities, illustrated by their band gaps.

Concentrations of Electron & Holes inside

the energy bands
Electron & hole density

To determine the electrical behavior of a semiconductor, we need to

know the no. of electrons and holes available for current conduction

The electron density in the CB and similarly the hole density in the VB
can be obtained if N(E) and f(E) are known

N(E) = density of states function - describes the available density of

energy states that may be occupied by an electron

* 3/ 2
1/ 2
4

* N ( E ) 3 (2me ) ( E Ec )
h

* proof in quantum mechanics

me* = electron effective mass

8

f(E) the probability distribution function is given by

f (E)

1
E EF
1exp(
)
kT

EF = Fermi energy, i.e. energy at which f(E) = 1/2 (when E = EF)

k = Boltzmanns constant = 1.38 x 10-23 J/K
T = Temperature in kelvin.

At energy E, the density of electrons in Conduction Band is given by

Number of electrons in the whole Conduction Band of an intrinsic

semiconductor is given by

ni

N ( E ) f ( E )dE
c.b.

1
ni 43 (2me* )3 / 2 ( E Ec )1/ 2{
}dE
Ec h
E EF
1 exp(
)
kT

2m kT 32
Ec EF
ni 2{
} exp{
}
kT
h
*
e
2

10

Ec EF
ni N c exp{
}
kT
Where

2m kT 32
N c 2{
}
h
*
e
2

termed the effective density of states in the conduction band

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Similarly, the density of holes in the valence band is given by

pi

N ( E )[1 f ( E )]dE
v .b.

Where

2mh* kT 32
EF EV
pi 2{
} exp{
}
2
h
kT
EF EV
pi N v exp{
}
kT
2mh* kT 32
N v 2{
}
2
h

is the effective density of states in the valence band

12

For an intrinsic semiconductor,

ni pi

Ec EF
EF Ev
N c exp(
) N v exp(
)
kT
kT
N
Ec EF
EF Ev
exp{(
)(
)} v
kT
kT
N
c
Nv
1
Take log : {2 EF ( Ec Ev )} ln
Nc
kT
Nv
kT
E
c Ev
EF (
)
ln
Nc
2
2

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Therefore, Fermi level in the intrinsic semiconductor:

Ec Ev kT N v
EFi

ln
2
2
Nc
Ec Ev 3
mh*
EFi
kT ln *
2
4
me
If me*= mh*, then the intrinsic Fermi level is exactly in the center of the band
gap
If me*> mh*, it is slightly below the center of the band gap (towards VB)
If mh*> me*, the intrinsic Fermi level is slightly above the center (towards CB)
For Si, Ge and many other semiconductor, the 3rd term is quite small, and EFi is
generally taken to be at the center of the band gap
For InSb, mh* 20me*, EFi shifted toward CB at 300 K
The density of states function is directly related to the carrier effective mass;
thus a larger effective mass means a larger density of stales function
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The equilibrium electron-hole product

We know
ni and pi represent the electron and hole concentrations respectively, in an
intrinsic semiconductor. They are usually referred to as the intrinsic
electron concentration and hole concentration.
As number of electrons (CB) is same as number of holes (VB) in an
intrinsic semiconductor,
ni = p i ,
The equilibrium electron (no) concentration can be written as

Ec EF
no N c exp{
}
kT
Likewise, the equilibrium hole (po) concentration is

EF EV
po N v exp{
}
kT
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Then the product

no po ni2

( Ec E Fi
( E Fi Ev
n N c N v exp
exp

kT
kT

2
i

Eg
( Ec Ev )
N c N v exp
n N c N v exp

kT

kT
Eg
ni N c N v exp

2
kT

2
i

Where Eg is the band gap. For a given semiconductor material at

a constant temperature, the value of ni is constant, and is
independent of Fermi energy.
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17

Equilibrium electron-hole Concentration

Consider a homogeneous semiconductor to which Nd donors/ cm-3 and
Na acceptors/ cm-3 have been added.
The charge neutrality condition is expressed by equating the density of
negative charges to the density of positive charges. We then have,

N d + + p 0 = N a - + n0

-Neutrality condition (after doping)

np = ni2
For n-type semiconductor,

n = p + Nd

(ND)

For p-type semiconductor,

p = n + Na

(NA)

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For n-type material

n p Nd ; n Nd
Remember

np n

2
i

ni2
n

ni2
Nd

For p-type material

p n Na Na
np n

2
i

ni2
p

ni2
Na
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The maximum useful temperature for a

semiconductor
Remember

Ec EF
no N c exp{
}
kT
EF EV
po N v exp{
}
kT

np n

2
i

Ec Ev Eg
Ec

Eg
Ev

Ec Ev
n N c N v exp(
)
kT
Eg
2
ni N c N v exp(
)
kTmax
2
i

20

When the working temp. of an intrinsic semiconductor is increased, the

no. of thermally generated carrier pairs increases to the point where they
equal or exceed those contributed by the impurities.

Semiconductor loses its extrinsic nature and becomes intrinsic

Therefore Tmax is the absolute maximum for any semiconductor device

and should stay well below it.

Tmax

Eg
1
2

( Nc Nv )
2k ln{
}
ni
For n-type semiconductor
where ni = Nd

Tmax

Eg
1
2

( Nc Nv )
2k ln{
}
Nd

21

Ratio of carrier concn.

to donor concn., n/Nd

Variation of carrier concentration with

temperature

1.5

Extrinsic region
full ionization

1.0
Intrinsic region

0.5

T (K)
100

400

800

T from 0 - 150K (freeze out region)

At T 0 K, thermal energy is not sufficient to ionize any donor atoms and
excite electrons from VB to CB. As T is increased, some donor atoms
become ionized, while there is still not sufficient energy to excite electrons
from VB to CB.
22

Temp. 150 K to 400K (extrinsic region)

All donor atoms are ionized so that n Nd- ionization region This
concentration of Nd remains constant up to room temperature, at which
Nd >>ni.
Temp. > 400 K (intrinsic region)

The intrinsic carrier concentration begins to increase rapidly and

eventually reaches a value greater than Nd. The material becomes
intrinsic again and n >>Nd. In this region, labelled as intrinsic region,
both, concentration of electrons and holes is increased.

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Example 2:
Calculate the thermal equilibrium electron concentration in silicon at 300 K,
assuming the Fermi energy is 0.25 eV below the conduction band.
Given: Boltzmanns Constant, k = 1.38 x 10-23 J K-1 = 8.62 x 10-5 eV K-1

24

Example 3:
If a Si sample is doped with 1012 boron atoms per cm3, what is the carrier
concentration in the Si sample at 300K?

25

Text Books and Reference Books

Text Books:

1. Solid State Electronic Devices (6th edition), Ben G.

Streetman & Sanjay Kumar Banerjee, Pearson
Prentice Hall, 2006. ISBN: 0132017202

2. Semiconductor Devices, S.M. Sze, Wiley InterScience, ISBN: 0471056618.

Reference Books:

1. Semiconductor Physics and devices (2nd edition),

Donald A. Neamen, McGraw-Hill.

2. Semiconductor device fundamentals, Robert F.

Pierret, Addison Wesley
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