CHAPTER 4

Presentation, Analysis and Interpretation of Data

This chapter presents the analysis and interpretation of the data
gathered that are logically arranged in the order and sequence of the
questions rose in the statement of the problem.
Sub-Problem No. 1: What are the properties of quaternion algebra and
how are they proven?
Quaternion is obtained by extending the complex number with two
other imaginary numbers. It is defined as the sum of real number and the
sum of three distinct imaginary numbers, that is
q = a + bi + cj + dk
where q represents quaternion number; a, b, c and d are real numbers and i,
j, k are distinct imaginary numbers such that i2 = j2 = k2 = ijk = - 1.
Properties of Quaternion
There are several properties in quaternion. These properties are
generated by imitating some properties of complex numbers and these are
presented in the form of a theorem.
Theorem 1. If q1 and q2 are quaternions then
q1 + q2 = q2 + q1.

2
Proof: Let q1 = a1 + b1i + c1j + d1k and q2 = a2 + b2i + c2j + d2k. Performing the
operation addition between q1 and q2,
q1 + q2 = (a1 + b1i + c1j + d1k) + (a2 + b2i + c2j + d2k)
= (a1 + a2) + (b1 + b2)i + (c1 + c2)j + (d1 + d2)k
Since, ar, br, cr and dr for r = 1, 2 are real numbers, then it will satisfy the
commutative property under addition, hence the last result becomes
q1 + q2 = (a2 + a1) + (b2 + b1)i + (c2 + c1)j + (d1 + d2)k
= (a2 + b2i + c2j + d2k) + (a1 + b1i + c1j + d1k)
= q2 + q1.
The first property of quaternion is commonly known as the
commutative property under addition of quaternions.
Example 1: Verify if (3 + 6i + 4j 2k) + (3 2i + 4j 9k) is equal to (3 2i +
4j 9k) + (3 + 6i + 4j 2k).
Solution: Performing the operation addition in (3 + 6i + 4j 2k) + (3 2i + 4j
9k), that is
(3 + 6i + 4j 2k) + (3 2i + 4j 9k) = (3 + 2) + (6 2)i + (4 4)j + (-2 9)k
= 5 + 4i + 0j 11k
= 5 + 4i 11k .
And for (3 2i + 4j 9k) + (3 + 6i + 4j 2k), that is
(3 2i + 4j 9k) + (3 + 6i + 4j 2k) = (2 + 3)+(2 + 6)i+( 4 + 4)j +(-9 2)k
= 5 + 4i + 0j 11k
= 5 + 4i 11k.
It shows equality of the two expressions.

3
Theorem 2. If q1,q2 and q3 are quaternions then
q1 + (q2 + q3) = (q1 + q2) + q3.
Proof: Let q1 = a1 + b1i + c1j + d1k, q2 = a2 + b2i + c2j + d2k and q3 = a3 + b3i +
c3j + d3k be quaternions. To show that q1 + (q2 + q3) = (q1 + q2) + q3.
q1 + (q2 + q3) = (a1 + b1i + c1j + d1k) + [(a2 + b2i + c2j + d2k) + (a3 + b3i +
c3j + d3k)]
= (a1 + b1i + c1j + d1k) + [(a2 + a3) + (b2 + b3)i + (c2 + c3)j
+ (d2 + d3)k]
= [a1 + (a2 + a3)] + [b1 + (b2 + b3)]i + [c1 + (c2 + c3)]j + [d1
+ (d2 + d3)]k
Since, ar , br and cr (r = 1, 2, 3) are real numbers, then it follows the
associative property. Thus,
q1 + (q2 + q3) = [(a1 + a2)+ a3] + [(b1 + b2)+ b3]i + [(c1 + c2) + c3]j + [(d1
+ d2)+ d3]k
= [(a1 + a2) + (b1 + b2)i + (c1 + c2)j + (d1+ d2)k] + (a3 + b3i
+ c3j + d3k)
= (q1 + q2) + q3.
Theorem 2 is called associative property under addition of
quaternions.
Example 2: Verify the expression q1 + (q2 + q3) = (q1 + q2) + q3 if
a.) q1 = 3 6i 2j + 3k
q2 = 4 5j + 5k
q3 = 3 + 8i 2j 4k
b.) q1 = 4 17i + 2j 12k
q2 = 6 2i + 5j + 8k
q3 = 5 + 2i + 3j + k

4
Solutions:
a.) q1 + (q2 + q3) = (3 6i 2j + 3k) + [(4 5j + 5k) + (3 + 8i 2j 4k)]
= (3 6i 2j + 3k) + (7 + 8i 7j + k)
= 10 + 2i 9j + 4k.
(q1 + q2) + q3 = [(3 6i 2j + 3k) + (4 5j + 5k)] + (3 + 8i 2j 4k)
= (7 6i 7j + 8k) + (3 + 8i 2j 4k)
= 10 + 2i 9j + 4k.
Therefore, the two expressions are equal.
b.) q1 + (q2 + q3) = (4 17i + 2j 12k) + [(6 2i + 5j + 8k) + (5 + 2i + 3j + k)]
= (4 17i + 2j 12k) + (11 + 8j +9k)
= 15 17i + 10j 3k.
(q1 + q2) + q3 = [(4 17i + 2j 12k) + (6 2i + 5j + 8k)] + (5 + 2i + 3j + k)
= (10 19i + 7j 4k) + (5 + 2i + 3j + k)
= 15 17i + 10j 3k.
Thus, associative property under addition of quaternions holds.
Theorem 3. There exists a product of two quaternions which does not obey
commutative property under multiplication. That is, for some quaternions q 1
and q2
q1 + q2 q2 + q1.
Since the theorem shows existence of a product which commutative
property does not hold in quaternions, hence a counterexample is enough to
prove the theorem.
Proof: If q1 = 3 i + 2j + k and q2 = 1 + 2i 3j + k, then the product in q1q2 is

5
q1q2 = (3 i + 2j + k)(1 + 2i 3j + k)
= (3 + 2 + 6 1) + (6 1 + 2 + 3)i + (-9 + 2 + 2 + 1)j
+ (3 + 1 + 3 4)k
= 10 + 10i 4j + 3k.
On the other hand,
q2q1 = (1 + 2i 3j + k) (3 i + 2j + k)
= (3 + 2 + 6 1) (-1 + 6 3 2)i + (2 9 1 2)j
+ (1 + 2 + 4 + 6)k
= 10 + 0i 10j + 13k.
Since q1q2 = 10 + 10i 4j + 3k and q 2q1 = 10 + 0i 10j + 13k, this shows that
q1q2 q2q1. This property will also be supported by Theorem 12. Hence,
commutative property under multiplication of quaternions does not hold.
Theorem 4. If q1,q2 and q3 are quaternions then
q1 (q2 q3) = (q1 q2) q3.
Proof: Let q1 = a1 + b1i + c1j + d1k, q2 = a2 + b2i + c2j + d2k and q3 = a3 + b3i +
c3j + d3k be quaternions. To prove that q 1(q2 q3) = (q1 q2) q3, it needs to show
that the corresponding terms must be equal. The products of q 1 (q2 q3) and
(q1 q2) q3 are shown below:
q1 (q2 q3) = (a1 + b1i + c1j + d1k)[(a2 + b2i + c2j + d2k)(a3 + b3i + c3j + d3k)]
and
(q1 q2) q3 = [(a1 + b1i + c1j + d1k)(a2 + b2i + c2j + d2k)](a3 + b3i + c3j + d3k)

6
Solving the products of the last results above by corresponding term, that is
solving by real part, the ith part, jth part and the kth part of the quaternion
simultaneously. In consequent, the proof is divided into four parts.
(I) Real parts
Real part of (q1(q2q3)) = a1(a2a3 b2b3 c2c3 d2d3) b1(b2a3 + a2b3
d2c3 + c2d3) c1(c2a3 + d2b3 + a2c3 b2d3)
d1(d2a3 c2b3 + b2c3 + a2d3).
and
Real part of ((q1q2)q3) = (a1a2 b1b2 c1c2 d1d2)a3 (a1b2 + b1a2 +
c1d2 d1c2)b3 (a1c2 b1d2 + c1a2 +
d1b2)c3 (a1d2 + b1c2 c1b2 + d1a2)d3

Real part of ((q1q2)q3)= a1(a2a3 b2b3 c2c3 d2d3) b1(b2a3 + a2b3

d2c3 + c2d3) c1(c2a3 + d2b3 + a2c3 b2d3)
d1(d2a3 c2b3 + b2c3 + a2d3).
It shows that real part of (q 1(q2q3)) is equal to the real part of ((q 1q2) q3). The
next step is to show the products for imaginary i th part of both expressions.
(II) Imaginary parts
Imaginary ith part of (q1(q2q3)) = a1(a2b3 + b2a3 +c2d3 d2c3) + b1(a2a3
b2b3 c2c3 d2d3) + c1(a2d3 + b2c3
c2b3 + d2a3) d1(a2c3 b2d3 + c2a3 +
d2b3);
and
Imaginary ith part of ((q1q2)q3) = (a1a2 b1b2 c1c2 d1d2)b3 + (a1b2 +
b1a2 + c1d2 d1c2)a3 + (a1c2 b1d2 +
c1a2 + d1b2)d3 (a1d2 + b1c2 c1b2 +
d1a2)c3 ;

7
Expanding the expression by distributive property for real numbers and
rearrange the terms and start with the terms with common factor of a 1, and
then followed by b1, c1 and d1 respectively. Thus the last expression becomes
Imaginary ith part of ((q1q2)q3) = a1(a2b3 + b2a3 +c2d3 d2c3) + b1(a2a3
b2b3 c2c3 d2d3) + c1(a2d3 + b2c3
c2b3 + d2a3) d1(a2c3 b2d3 + c2a3 +
d2b3).
It shows that the imaginary i th parts of the two expressions are equal. The
next step is to show that the jth parts are also equal to both products of the
given expressions.
(III) Imaginary jth parts
Imaginary jth part of (q1(q2q3)) = a1(a2c3 b2d3 + c2a3 + d2b3) b1(a2d3 +
b2c3 c2b3 + d2a3) + c1(a2a3 b2b3
c2c3 d2d3) + d1(a2b3 + b2a3 + c2d3
d2c3);
and
Imaginary jth part of ((q1q2)q3) = (a1a2 b1b2 c1c2 d1d2)c3 (a1b2 +
b1a2 + c1d2 d1c2)d3 + (a1c2 b1d2 +
c1a2 + d1b2)a3 + (a1d2 + b1c2 c1b2 +
d1a2)b3 ;
After distributing the terms outside the parentheses, factor out having terms
a1, b1, c1 and d1 then rearrange on that order, which is
Imaginary jth part of ((q1q2)q3) = a1(a2c3 b2d3 + c2a3 + d2b3) b1(a2d3 +
b2c3 c2b3 + d2a3) + c1(a2a3 b2b3
c2c3 d2d3) + d1(a2b3 + b2a3 + c2d3
d2c3).

8
Hence, the imaginary jth parts of both expressions are equal. The last step is
to show that the imaginary kth part of each expression must be equal.
(IV) Imaginary kth parts
Imaginary kth part of (q1(q2q3)) = a1(a2d3 + b2c3 c2b3 + d2a3) + b1(a2c3
b2d3 + c2a3 + d2b3) c1(a2b3 + b2a3 +
c2d3 d2c3) + d1(a2a3 b2b3 c2c3
d2d3) ;
and
Imaginary kth part of ((q1q2)q3) = (a1a2 b1b2 c1c2 d1d2)d3 (a1b2 +
b1a2 + c1d2 d1c2)c3 + (a1c2 b1d2 +
c1a2 + d1b2)b3 + (a1d2 + b1c2 c1b2 +
d1a2)a3.
After distributing the terms on the right of each of the parentheses, and
reproduce an expression that looks like the expression on the product of the
first expression for the kth part, that is
Imaginary kth part of ((q1q2)q3) = a1(a2d3 + b2c3 c2b3 + d2a3) + b1(a2c3
b2d3 + c2a3 + d2b3) c1(a2b3 + b2a3 +
c2d3 d2c3) + d1(a2a3 b2b3 c2c3
d2d3) ;
Since the corresponding terms of q 1(q2q3) and (q1q2)q3 are all equal, thus
associative property under multiplication of quaternions is possible.
Therefore,
q1 (q2 q3) = (q1 q2) q3.
The above theorem is called associative property under multiplication
of quaternions.

9
Example 3: Verify the associative property under multiplication with the
following sets of quaternions.
a.) q1 = 3 + 7i 2j 3k
q2 = 1 2i + j + 6k
q3 = 5 + 2i
b.) q1 = 2 4i 3j k
q2 = 2 7k
q3 = 3i + j + k
Solutions:
a.) q1 (q2 q3) = (3 + 7i 2j 3k)[(1 2i + j + 6k)( 5 + 2i)]
= (3 + 7i 2j 3k)(

=
and
(q1 q2) q3 = [(3 + 7i 2j 3k)(1 2i + j + 6k)]( 5 + 2i)
=(

) ( 5 + 2i)

=
Since the two expressions are equal, hence associative under multiplication
is satisfied.
b.) q1 (q2 q3) = (2 4i 3j k)[( 2 7k)( 3i + j + k)]
= (2 4i 3j k)(

=
and
(q1 q2) q3 = [(2 4i 3j k)( 2 7k)]( 3i + j + k)
=(

) ( 3i + j + k)

10
=
The two expressions show equality, thus, associative property under
multiplication is satisfied.
Theorem 5. If q1,q2 and q3 are quaternions then
q1(q2 + q3) = q1q2 + q1q3.
Proof: Let q1 = a1 + b1i + c1j + d1k, q2 = a2 + b2i + c2j + d2k and q3 = a3 + b3i +
c3j + d3k be quaternions, then to show that q1(q2 + q3) = q1q2 + q1q3.
q1(q2 + q3) = (a1 + b1i + c1j + d1k)[( a2 + b2i + c2j + d2k) + (a3 + b3i
+ c3j + d3k)]
= (a1 + b1i + c1j + d1k)[(a2 + a3) + (b2 + b3)i +(c2 + c3)j
+ (d2 + d3)k]
Multiplying the last result and getting the real part, i th part, jth part and the kth
part gives
Real part of (q1(q2 + q3)) = a1(a2 + a3) b1(b2 + b3) c1(c2 + c3) + d1(d2 + d3);
ith part of (q1(q2 + q3)) = a1(b2 + b3) + b1(a2 + a3) + c1(d2 + d3) d1(c2 + c3);
jth part of (q1(q2 + q3)) = a1(c2 + c3) b1(d2 + d3) + c1(a2 + a3) + d1(b2 + b3);
and
kth part of (q1(q2 + q3)) = a1(d2 + d3) + b1(c2 + c3) c1(b2 + b3) + d1(a2 + a3).
On the other hand, solving for the expression q 1q2 + q1q3 and rewrite
on the same way as it was did in q1(q2 + q3).
q1q2 + q1q3 = [(a1a2 b1b2 c1c2 d1d2) + (a1b2 + b1a2 + c1d2 d1c2)i
+ (a1c2 b1d2 + c1a2 + d1b2)j + (a1d2 + b1c2 c1b2
c1b2 + d1a2)k] + [(a1a3 b1b3 c1c3 d1d3) + (a1b3
+ b1a3 + c1d3 d1c3)i + (a1c3 b1d3 + c1a3 + d1b3)j
+ (a1d3 + b1c3 c1b3 c1b3 + d1a3)k];

11
Solving simultaneously, the corresponding parts are the following:
Real part of (q1q2 + q1q3)) = a1a2 + a1a3 b1b2 b1b3 c1c2 c1c3 d1d2 d1d3

= a1(a2 + a3) b1(b2 + b3) c1(c2 + c3) + d1(d2 + d3);

ith part of (q1q2 + q1q3)) = a1b2 + a1b3 + b1a2 + b1a3 + c1a2 + c1a3 d1c2 d1c3 ;
= a1(b2 + b3) + b1(a2 + a3) + c1(d2 + d3) d1(c2 + c3);
jth part of (q1q2 + q1q3)) = a1c2 + a1c3 b1d2 b1d3 + c1a2 + c1a3 + d1a2 + d1a3 ;
= a1(c2 + c3) b1(d2 + d3) + c1(a2 + a3) + d1(b2 + b3);
and
kth part of (q1q2 + q1q3)) = a1d2 + a1d3 + b1c2 + b1c3 c1b2 c1b3 + d1a2 + d1a3 ;

= a1(d2 + d3) + b1(c2 + c3) c1(b2 + b3) + d1(a2 + a3).

Observe that the corresponding parts of the results of the two
expressions are equal; it may now conclude that distributive property over
addition of quaternions is possible. Thus,
q1(q2 + q3) = q1q2 + q1q3.
Example 4: Verify the distributive property over addition with the following
sets of quaternions.
a.) q1 = 2 + 3i 2j 4k
q2 = 9 i + 5j + k
q3 = 1 + 7j
b.) q1 = 4 2i 3k
q2 = 2i + j + 3k
q3 = 5 4k
Solutions:
a.) q1(q2 + q3)= (2 + 3i 2j 4k)[ (9 i + 5j + k) + (1 + 7j)]
= (2 + 3i 2j 4k)(

12
=
and
q1q2 + q1q3 = [(2 + 3i 2j 4k)( 9 i + 5j + k)]+ [(2 + 3i 2j 4k)(1 + 7j)]
=
=
Since the two expressions are equal, hence distributive property over
addition is satisfied.
b.) q1(q2 + q3)= (4 2i 3k)[(2i + j + 3k) + (5 4k)]
= (4 2i 3k)(

=
and
q1q2 + q1q3 = [(4 2i 3k)(2i + j + 3k)] [(4 2i 3k)( (5 4k)]
=
=
The two expressions show equality, thus, distributive property over addition is
satisfied.
Theorem 6. The square of the modulus of quaternion q is equal to the
product of the quaternion and its conjugate. That is
q

= qq .

Proof: Let a quaternion q = a + bi + cj + dk. Starting with the product of q and

q,

that is
qq

= (a + bi + cj + dk) (a + bi + cj + dk )
= (a + bi + cj + dk)(a bi cj dk)

13
Performing the product of these quaternions, the result is
= a2 + b2 + c2 + d2

qq

The last result can also be written as

=

qq

a 2 + b 2 + c 2 + d2

But a 2 + b 2 + c 2 + d 2 is the modulus of q = a + bi + cj + dk. Thus,

qq

as the required result.

Example 5: Verify Theorem 6 with the following quaternions.
a.) 3 6i 2j + 3k
b.) 1 4j + 5k
Solutions:
a.) To verify, performing the operations on both sides of the equation,
2

= qq
l3 6i 2j + 3kl
= (3 6i 2j + 3k)(3 + 6i + 2j 3k)
2
2
2
2
2
= 9 + 36 + 4 + 9
3 +6 +2 +3
58 = 58
which ends with the same value. Thus, Theorem 6 holds true.
q

b.) Following the same method in Example 5.a verifying the left and the right
of the equations,
2

= qq
l1 4j + 5kl
= (1 4j + 5k)(1 + 4j 5k)
2
2
2
2
= 1 + 16 + 25
1 +4 +5
42 = 42
gives the same value. Hence it verifies the truth of Theorem 6.
q

Theorem 7. For a nonzero quaternion q1, there exists a unique quaternion q2

such that q1q2 = 1.

14
The proof is divided into two parts, part 1 is the proof of existence and
part 2 is the proof of uniqueness.
(I) Proof of Existence: Let a quaternion q1 = a1 + b1i + c1j + d1k for either a1,
b1, c1 or d1 is a nonzero real number. Suppose q 1q2 = 1, then this is to show
that there exists a unique q2 in H such that q1q2 = 1.
q 1q 2 = 1
(a1 + b1i + c1j + d1k)q2 = 1
Since (a1 + b1i + c1j + d1k) is not equal to zero, then the last equation can be
divided to both sides by q1, that is
(a 1 + b1i + c 1 j + d1k )q 2
1
= a +b i+c j+d k
a1 + b1i + c 1 j + d1k
1
1
1
1
1

q2 = a + b i + c j + d k
1
1
1
1
To rationalize the denominator, meaning to make the denominator a pure real
number, multiplying this by its conjugate, the last result becomes
q2 =

a1 b1i c 1 j d1k
.
a12 + b12 + c 12 + d12

Writing the last result into the form of a quaternion, that is

q2 =

a1
b1
c1
+
i
+
a12 + b12 + c 12 + d12 a12 + b12 + c 12 + d12 a12 + b12 + c 12 + d12
d1
+ 2
2
a1 + b1 + c 12 + d12

Simplifying the result by letting

a2 =

a1
,
a1 + b + c 12 + d12
2

2
1

(1)

15

b2 =

c2 =

b1
,
a1 + b + c 12 + d12
2

2
1

c1
a1 + b1 + c 12 + d12

and
d2 =

d1
a12 + b12 + c 12 + d12

then (1) can now be written as

q2 = a2 + b2i + c2j + d2k
which is a quaternion.
The quaternion q2 is called the multiplicative inverse of quaternion of
q 1.
(II) Proof of Uniqueness: This is to show that q2 in part 1 is unique. By
contradiction, suppose that there exists a quaternion q 3 not equal to q2 such
that q1q3 = 1. Since q1 is a nonzero quaternion, then q 1q3 = 1 can also be

written as q3 =

1
1
. But q 2 = , hence a contradiction! Thus the inverse of
q1
q1

quaternion is unique.
The theorem shows that there exists an inverse for a nonzero
quaternion and this inverse is unique.
Example 6. Determine the inverse for each of the following quaternions.
a.) 3 4i + 7j + 2k
b.) 8 + i + 5j k
c.) 5i 4k

16
Solutions:
a.) Using the formula presented in Theorem 7 to determine the inverse q 2 of
q1 = 3 4i + 7j + 2k, that is
a2 =

b2 =

c2 =

a1
3
3
1
=
=
2
2
2
2 =
9 + 16 + 49 + 4 78 26
a1 + b1 + c 1 + d1
b1
2

a1 + b1 + c 1 + d1

4
2
=
78
39

c1
7
2
2
2
2 =
78
a1 + b1 + c 1 + d1

and
d2 =

d1
2

a1 + b1 + c 1 + d1

Therefore the inverse of 3 4i + 7j + 2k is

2
1
=
78 39

1
26

2
7
1
i+
j+
k.
39 78
39

b.) Using Theorem 7, the inverse of 8 + i + 5j k is presented below:

a2 =

b2 =

c2 =

a1
8
8
=
2
2
2
2 =
64 + 1+ 25 + 1 95
a1 + b1 + c 1 + d1
b1
2

a1 + b1 + c 1 + d1

1
95

c1
5
1
=
2
2 =
95 19
a1 + b + c 1 + d1
2

2
1

and
d2 =

d1
2

a1 + b1 + c 1 + d1

1
95

17
1

Hence, 8 + i + 5 j k = 95 + 95 i + 19 j 95 k .
c.) Computing the value of the denominator of the inverse, that is
a12 + b12 + c12 + d12 = 0 + 25 + 0 16 = 41.
Thus, the inverse of 5i 4k is

5
i
41

4
k.
41

Theorem 8. If qq1 = qq2 for a nonzero quaternion q then q1 = q2 for any

quaternions q1 and q2.
Proof: Let q1 and q2 be any quaternions and let q be a nonzero quaternion.
Let
qq1 = qq2.
Since q is a nonzero quaternion, by Theorem 7, there exists a quaternion q*
such that qq* = 1. Hence, the above equation can be multiplied by q* to both
sides, that is
q*(qq1) = q*(qq2).
By Theorem 4,
(q*q)q1 = (q*q)q2.
But qq* = 1, thus
(1)q1 = (1)q2
q1 = q2 .
The theorem shows that cancellation law holds in the set of
quaternions.
Theorem 9. The conjugate of the sum of the quaternions q 1 and q2 is equal
to the sum of the conjugate of q1 and the conjugate of q2, in symbol,

18
q1 + q 2 = q1 + q 2 .

Proof: Let q1 = a1 + b1i + c1j + d1k and q2 = a2 + b2i + c2j + d2k. The conjugate
of the sum of q1 and q2 is
q1 + q 2 = (a1 + b1i + c 1 j + d1k ) + (a 2 + b 2 i +c 2 j + d 2k )

= (a1 + a 2 ) + (b1 + b 2 )i + (c 1 + c 2 ) j + ( d1 + d 2 )k
By definition of conjugate,
q1 + q 2 = (a1 + a2) (b1 + b2)i (c1 + c2)j (d1 + d2)k

= (a1 b1i c1j d1k) + (a2 b2i c2j d2k)

= a1 + b1i + c 1 j + d1k + a 2 + b 2i + c 2 j + d 2k
= q1 + q 2
as the required result.
The next property is in corollary in form since it is taken from Theorem
9 where addition can also be defined in terms of subtraction.
Corollary 1. The conjugate of the difference of the quaternions q 1 and q2 is
equal to the difference of the conjugate of q 1 and the conjugate of q2, in
symbol,
q1 q 2 = q1 q 2 .

Proof: Let q1 = a1 + b1i + c1j + d1k and q2 = a2 + b2i + c2j + d2k. Getting the
conjugate of the difference of q1 and q2 gives
q1

q2

= (a1 + b1i + c 1 j + d1k ) (a 2 + b 2 i +c 2 j + d 2 k )

= (a1 a 2 ) + (b1 b 2 )i + (c 1 c 2 ) j + (d1 d 2 )k

Getting the conjugate of the left side of the last equation gives

19
q1

q 2 = (a1 a2) (b1 b2)i (c1 c2)j (d1 d2)k

= (a1 b1i c1j d1k) (a2 b2i c2j d2k)

= a1 + b1i + c 1 j + d1k a 2 + b 2i + c 2 j + d 2 k
= q1 q 2 .
Theorem 9 and Corollary 1 show that the conjugate of the sum or
difference of two quaternions is equal to the sum or difference of their
conjugates respectively.
Example 7. Compute the conjugates of the following expressions.
a.) (2 + 3i + 2 j k ) + ( 4 6i + 5 j + 6k )
b.) (3i + 7k ) + ( 4 2i + 5 j k )
Solutions:
a.) Performing the operation addition first, before getting the conjugate,
that is
( 2 + 3i + 2 j

k ) + (4

6i + 5 j + 6k )

3i + 7 j + 5k

= 6 + 3i 7j 5k.
b.) Getting the conjugate for each term before performing the operation,
that is
(3i + 7k ) + ( 4

2i + 5 j

k)

3i + 7k + 4

2i + 5 j

= ( 3i 7k) + (4 + 2i 5j + k)
= 4 i 5j 6k.
Theorem 10. The modulus of quaternion q is equal to the modulus of its
conjugate, or in symbol,
q = q

20
Proof: Let q = a + bi + cj + dk then the modulus of q is defined as
=

a + bi + cj + dk

= a 2 + b 2 + c 2 + d2
Since a, b, c, d are real numbers and it is true that for a real number x,
x 2 = ( x ) 2 . Using this property,

= a 2 + ( b) 2 + ( c ) 2 + ( d) 2

Thus,

q = q

a + ( b )i + ( c ) j + ( d)k

a - bi - cj - dk

a + bi + cj + dk

Example 8. Given the following quaternions, verify Theorem 10.

a.) 3 2j + 6k
b.) 5 + 8i 2j 8k
Solutions:
a.) Getting the modulus of 3 2j + 6k, which is

9 + 4 + 36 =

49 = 7 .

And getting the conjugate first before getting it modulus, that is

3

2i + 6k = 3 + 2i

6k =

9 + 4 + 36 = 7

which gives the same result.

b.) This time, performing first the conjugate then the modulus, that is
5 + 8i

5 + 8i

2 j + 6k = 5

2j

8k

8i + 2 j

6k =

will also give

25 + 64 + 4 + 36 =

129

129

Likewise,

the

21
Theorem 11. The modulus of the conjugate of a quaternion q is equal to the
conjugate of its modulus, in symbol,
q = q

Proof: If q = a + bi + cj + dk. Defining the modulus of the conjugate of q, that

is
= a + bi + cj + dk

= a 2 + b 2 + c 2 + d2 .
Since the modulus of quaternion is a real number and the modulus of a real
number is the given real number, hence

a 2 + b 2 + c 2 + d2

a 2 + b 2 + c 2 + d2

thus
= a 2 + b 2 + c 2 + d2

By Theorem 10,

q = q

a + bi + cj + dk

, therefore
q

Example 9. Determine the result of the following:

a.)

5i + 2 j + 3k

b.)

2j

c.)

3 + 4i + 5 j

6k

2k

Solutions:
a.) By virtue of Theorem 10 and 11,
9 + 25 + 4 + 9 =

47

5i + 2 j + 3k

5i + 2 j + 3k

22
b.)

2j

6k

16 + 4 + 36 = 56

c.) Since the conjugate of the modulus does not affect it modulus, then it
can

be

3 + 4i + 5 j

concluded
2k

54

that

3 + 4i + 5 j

2k

3 + 4i + 5 j

2k

Sub-Problem No. 2: How does the set of basis quaternion form a

multiplicative group and its subgroup?
The elements of the set of basis of quaternions contains eight distinct
objects, these are 1, 1, i, i, j, j, k and k. Using the definition of
quaternion that i2 = j2 = k2 = ijk = 1, these could generate other properties
as shown below. Theorem 12 could help to construct a multiplicative group
for set of basis of quaternions.
Theorem 12. If i, j, k are defined as roots of

1 such that i2 = j2 = k2 =

ijk = 1 then the following hold:

12.1. ij = k

12.4. jk = i

12.2. ik = j

12.5. ji = k

12.3. kj = i

12.6. ki = j

The proof of the above statements can be solved using the previous
properties.
Proof of 12.1: To show that ij = k, given that ijk = 1 and multiplying by ( k)
to both sides, that is
ijk = 1
(ijk)( k) = (1)( k)
By associative property under multiplication of quaternions,

23
(ij)[k(k)] = k
(ij)(k2) = k
But k2 = 1,
(ij)(1) = k
ij = k.
Proof of 12.2: To show that ik = j, using Theorem 12.1 and multiplying i to
both sides of the equation,
k = ij
ik = i(ij)
By associative property under multiplication of quaternions and i 2 = 1,
ik = (ii)j
ik = i2j
ik = j
which is the required result.
Proof of 12.3: To show that kj = i, using again Theorem 12.1 and
multiplying j to both sides of the equation,
k = ij
kj = (ij)j
By associative property under multiplication of quaternions and j 2 = 1,
kj = i(jj)
kj = ij2
kj = i
as the required result.

24
Proof of 12.4: To show that jk = i, using the definition of quaternion that
ijk = 1 and multiplying by i to both sides of the equation,
ijk = 1
i(ijk) = i
By associative property under multiplication of quaternions and i 2 = 1,
(ii)(jk) = i
i2(jk) = i
jk = i
jk = i.
Proof of 12.5: To show that ji = k, using Theorem 12.4, and multiplying by j
to both sides of the equation,
i = jk
ji = j(jk)
The same manner as it was done in previous theorems,
ji = j2k
ji = k .
Proof of 12.6: To show that ki = j, using Theorem 12.4 and doing the same
thing as it was done from theorems above, that is
i = jk
ki = k(jk)
ki = (kj)k
The last result is ki = (kj)k, continuing this process gives
ki = ik

25
ki = ( j)
ki = j.
Theorem 12 is used to establish the set of basis of quaternion
H8 = {1, - 1, i, - i, j,

- j, k, - k} to form a group under multiplication. Using a

group table, it can be easily distinguished if the set H 8 forms a group or not.

-1

-i

-j

-k

-1

-i

-j

-k

-1

-1

-i

-j

-k

-i

-1

-k

-j

-i

-i

-1

-k

-j

-j

-k

-1

-i

-j

-j

-k

-1

-i

-k

-j

-i

-1

-k

-k

-j

-i

-1

Figure 1. Group Table of

H8 ,

where

H8 = {1, - 1, i, - i, j, - j, k, - k}
To prove that H8 under multiplication is a group, the four axioms of a
group must satisfy:
Closure: Since no other elements other than the basis of quaternions,
exist in the product of each pair of basis of quaternions, hence closure holds.

26
Associativity: Since basis of quaternions are also quaternions, by
virtue of Theorem 4, associative under multiplication holds.
Identity: Since 1 is the identity element in the set of real numbers and
complex numbers, it can be verified that 1 is also the identity element of H 8.

Inverse: Each element of H8 has inverse, as shown on the table

below:
Element
of H8

Inverse

-1

-1

-i

-i

-j

-j

-k

-k

The four axioms of a group are satisfied in H 8 = {1, - 1, i, - i, j, - j, k, - k}

under multiplication, thus, (H8, ) is a group.

27
Subgroups of H8 could determine using the group table. These are {1},
{1, - 1}, {1, - 1, i, - i}, {1, - 1, j, - j}, {1, - 1, k, - k} and H 8 itself. These can be
verified easily because each set contains the identity element and its inverse
is also in the given set. H8 is associative then its subsets which are closed
under multiplication are also associative.

Sub-Problem No. 3: How can quaternion be represented in a matrix

form?
If complex number can be represented as matrix, similarly, a
quaternion has also its form and generated several properties.
The set H of quaternions is defined as
H=

di

b + ci

b + ci
a + di

where a, b, c, d are real numbers and i = - 1 .

Thus, a quaternion number q can now be written as

q M(a, b, c, d) =

di

b + ci

b + ci
a + di

and in particular, M(a1, b1, c 1, d1 ) = M(a 2 , b 2 , c 2 , d 2 ) if and only if a1 = a2, b1 =

b2, c1 = c2 and d1 = d2.
Example 10. Write the following quaternions in matrix form.
a.) 2 + 3i + 4j 5k
b.) 5 6i + k
c.) 4 + 3i

28
d.) 1
Solutions:
a.) Substitute the value of a, b, c, d in the matrix, that is
M(2, 3, 4, - 5) =

2 + 5i

3 + 4i

3 + 4i

5i

b.) Since the jth part is missing, meaning its real coefficient is zero, hence
M(5, - 6, 0, 1) =

i
6

6
5+i

c.) The value of c = d = 0, the quaternion becomes a matrix form complex

number. It is also true that 4 + 3i is a pure complex number.
M(4, 3, 0, 0) =

3
4

d.) This term shows the identity matrix of quaternions.

M(1, 0, 0, 0) =

The matrix form of quaternion has generated several properties. Since

the quaternions are in matrices, then the operations of quaternion in matrix
form also follow the operations in matrices. The basic properties of matrices
also hold in matrix quaternion since the entries are just complex numbers.
Some properties are commutative and associative under addition.
Theorem 13. The square of the modulus of a quaternion is equal to the
determinant of its matrix form.
Proof: If q = a + bi + cj + dk is a quaternion, then its modulus is
lql= a 2 + b 2 + c 2 + d 2

29
and squaring both sides gives
lql2 = a2 + b2 + c2 + d2.
On the other hand, the determinant of M(a, b, c, d) is expressed as
Determinant{M(a, b, c, d)} =

di

b + ci

b + ci
a + di

= (a di)(a + di) (b + ci)(b + ci)

= (a2 + d2) (b2 c2)
Determinant{M(a, b, c, d)} = a2 + b2 + c2 + d2.
This shows that lql2 =

di

b + ci

b + ci
a + di

as required.

Example 11. Determine the square of the conjugate of the following

quaternions:
a.) 3 4i + 2j 3k
b.) 4 3j + 2k
Solutions: Since there are two ways to get its square of its modulus, letter a
used the definition of the modulus, while letter b used the determinant of its
matrix form.
a.) l3 4i + 2j 3kl2 = 9 + 16 + 4 + 9 = 38.
b.) l 4 3j + 2k l =

2i
3i

3i
4 + 2i

= (4 2i)(4 + 2i) (-3i)(-3i)

= 16 + 4 + 9
= 29.
Theorem 14: The conjugate of a quaternion corresponds to the conjugate
transpose of the matrix.

30
Proof: The proof is to show that

M T ( q)

q.

Let q = a + bi + cj + dk and the

matrix form of q is
a

M(q) =

di

b + ci

b + ci

a + di

and its transpose is

a

MT(q) =

di

b + ci

b + ci

a + di

Getting the conjugate of each entry of the last matrix by following the
definition of the conjugate of complex numbers, that is

a di b + ci
b + ci a + di

M T ( q)

a di
b + ci

b + ci
a + di

a + di

ci

di

ci

= M(a, -b, -c, -d)

a bi cj dk
=

a + bi + cj + dk

q.

There are other properties aside from the theorems above for a matrix
quaternion, and it is summarized in Theorem 15.
Example 12. Find the conjugate transpose of the following matrix
quaternions.
a.) M(3, 2, - 1, 7)
b.) M(4, - 4, 5, - 3)

31
Solutions: The simplest way to get the conjugate transpose is to get the
conjugate of the corresponding quaternion.

a.)

M T (3,2, 1,7 )

b.)

M T ( 4, 4,5, 3 ) 4

3 + 2i

j + 7k =

4i + 5 j

3 2i + j 7k M(3, - 2, 1, 7)

3k

= 4 + 4i 5j + 3k M(4, 4, - 5, 3).

Theorem 15. The set

H=

di

b + ci

b + ci
a + di

where a, b, c, d are real numbers and i = - 1

under addition is an Abelian group.

Proof: Let M(q1), M(q2) and M(q3) be matrix quaternions. The proof is divided
into five parts which show the five axioms of an Abelian group.
(I) Closure: To show that M(q1) + M(q2) is in H.
M(q1) + M(q2) =

a1 d1i
b1 + c 1i

b1 + c 1i
a1 + d1i

(a1 d1i) + (a 2 d 2 i)
(b1 + c 1i) + (b 2 + c 2 i)

a2

d 2i

b 2 + c 2i

b 2 + c 2i
a 2 + d 2i

(-b1 + c 1i) + ( b 2 + c 2 i)
.
(a1 + d1i) + (a 2 + d 2 i)

Each entry of the matrix can be written as

entry m11 = (a1 d1i) + (a2 d2i) = (a1 + a2) (d1 + d2)i C
entry m21 = (b1 + c1i) + (b2 + c2i) = (b1 + b2) + (c1 + c2)i C
entry m12 = (b1 + c1i) + (b2 + c2i) = (b1 + b2) + (c1 + c2)i C
entry m22 = (a1 + d1i) + (a2 + d2i) = (a1 + a2) + (d1 + d2)i C
Every entry is a complex number, and let a = a 1 + a2, b = b1 + b2, c = c1 + c2
and d = d1 + d2 and substitute these on the entries of M(q 1) + M(q2)

32

M(q1) + M(q2) =

di

b + ci

b + ci

a + di

which is an element of H.

(II) Associative: To show that

M(q1) + [M(q2) + M(q3)] = [M(q1) + [M(q2)] + M(q3).
Performing the expression on the left,
M(q1) + [M(q2) + M(q3)] =

a1 d1i - b1 + c1i
b 1 + c 1i

a 2 d2 i - b 2 + c 2 i

a1 + d1i

b 2 + c 2i
+

a 2 + d2i

a 3 d3i
b 3 + c 3i

b 3 + c 3i
a 3 + d3 i

Since matrices satisfy the associative property under addition, thus the last
result can be written as
M(q1) + [M(q2) + M(q3)] =

a1 d1i - b1 + c1i
b 1 + c 1i

a1 + d1i

a 2 d2 i - b 2 + c 2 i
b 2 + c 2i
+

a3

a 2 + d2i
d3 i

b 3 + c 3i

b 3 + c 3i
a 3 + d3i

M(q1) + [M(q2) + M(q3)] = [M(q1) + [M(q2)] + M(q3).

Associative property holds.
(III) Identity
There exists a unique identity in H, that is for M(q 1) + I(q) = M(q1). This
is to solve for the identity element I(q).
M(q1) + I(q) = M(q1)
a1 d1i
b1 + c 1i

b1 + c 1i
a di
+
b + ci
a1 + d1i

b + ci
a + di

a1 d1i
b1 + c 1i

b1 + c 1i
a1 + d1i

33
Subtracting both sides by M(q1) will give
0

di

b + ci

b + ci
a

a + di

di

b + ci

b + ci

a + di

I(q) =

is the identity element of H.

(IV) Inverses
There exists an inverse for every M(q) in H, that is
M(q) + M*(q) = I(q)
Solving for M*(q),
M*(q) = I(q) M(q)
=

b + ci

(a di)
(b + ci)
a + di
b

ci

di

b + ci
a + di

- ( b + ci)
(a + di)
b + ci
a

di

is the inverse for every matrix quaternion which is also an element of H.

(V) Commutative under Addition
To show that M(q1) + M(q2) = M(q2) + M(q1), or M(a1, b1, c1, d1) + M(a2,
b2, c2, d2) = M(a2, b2, c2, d2) + M(a1, b1, c1, d1). Starting from left side of the
equation,
M(a1,b1,c1,d1) + M(a2,b2,c2,d2) =

a1 d1i
b1 + c 1i

b1 + c 1i
a 2 d2i
+
a1 + d1i
b 2 + c 2i

b 2 + c 2i
a 2 + d 2i

34

(a1 d1i) + (a 2 d 2 i)
(b1 + c 1i) + (b 2 + c 2i)

(b1 + c 1i) + (b 2 + c 2 i)
(a1 + d1i) + (a 2 + d 2 i)

Since the entries on the last matrix are complex numbers, hence it follows
the commutative property under addition of complex numbers.
M(a1,b1,c1,d1) + M(a2,b2,c2,d2) =

M(a1,b1,c1,d1) + M(a2,b2,c2,d2) =

(a 2 d 2i) + (a1 d1i)

(b 2 + c 2i) + (b1 + c 1i)
a 2 d2i
b 2 + c 2i

(b 2 + c 2i) + (b1 + c 1i)

(a 2 + d 2i) + (a1 + d1i)

b 2 + c 2i
a1 d1i
+
a 2 + d 2i
b1 + c 1i

b1 + c 1i
a1 + d1i

M(a1,b1,c1,d1) + M(a2,b2,c2,d2) = M(a2,b2,c2,d2) + M(a1,b1,c1,d1).

Therefore the matrix quaternion H under addition is an Abelian
group.
Sub-Problem No. 4: How is quaternion formed as skewfield?
One of the important properties of a quaternion is being a skewfield.
On this property shows that almost of the basic properties of real and
complex numbers hold also in quaternion except for being commutative
under multiplication.
Theorem 16. The quaternions form a skewfield under addition and
multiplication.
Proof: Consider the eight axioms to prove that H is a skewfield. The first six
axioms are properties of a ring. The remaining two axioms that need to
satisfy are multiplicative inverse and non commutative under multiplication. If
the set of quaternions satisfies these eight axioms, then it is now a skewfield.
1. Commutative under Addition

35
By virtue of Theorem 1, the first property of a ring holds.

2. Associative under Addition

Theorem 2 shows that quaternions satisfy the associative property
under addition, thus the second property of ring holds.
3. Identity element 0 in H.
Determining the identity element 0 of H, consider the following
solutions: Let a quaternion q = a + bi + cj + dk be given then from the
property that
q + 0 = q.
The value of 0 must determine and it must be in H. Substituting the value of q
in the above equation,
(a + bi + cj + dk) + 0 = (a + bi + cj + dk)
Adding (a bi cj dk) to both sides of the equation,
(a bi cj dk) + [(a + bi + cj + dk)+0] = (a + bi + cj + dk)+ (a bi cj dk)

Using Theorem 2 and definition of addition in quaternion,

[(a bi cj dk) + (a + bi + cj + dk)]+0 = (a a)+(b b)i + (c c)j + (d d)k

0 + 0 = 0 + 0i + 0j + 0k
0 = 0.
Thus, the additive identity of quaternion is 0, which means that its real part is
0 and the coefficients of i th , jth and kth are all zero. Therefore, the additive
identity exists in H.
4. Inverse of quaternion q in H.

36
Let q = a + bi + cj + dk be a quaternion and 0 be the identity element
in H under addition, that is
q+w=0
(a + bi + cj + dk) + w = 0
where w is to be solved. Adding both sides by (-a bi cj dk) to both sides,
(-a bi cj dk) + [(a + bi + cj + dk) + w] = (-a bi cj dk) + 0
By associative property, definition of addition of quaternions and additive
identity of H, the last result can be written as
0 + 0i + 0j + 0k + w = ( a bi cj dk)
w = (a + bi + cj + dk)
w = q.
Thus, q is the additive inverse of a quaternion q.
5. Associative Property under Multiplication
The fourth property of quaternions or Theorem 4 proves that
associative property under multiplication of quaternions is satisfied.
6. Distributive Property over Addition.
Theorem 5 attests that distributive property over addition of
quaternions is satisfied.
Those six axioms support that the set of quaternion is a ring. On the
other hand, quaternion can be considered as a skewfield if it is a ring, every
nonzero quaternion has multiplicative inverse and commutative property
under multiplication does not hold.
7. Theorem 7 supports that there is an existence of multiplicative inverse for
a nonzero quaternion.

37
8. Likewise, Theorem 4 shows that commutative under multiplication of
quaternions does not hold.
Therefore, the set of quaternions is a skewfield.
Sub-Problem No. 5: How is quaternion formed as metric space?
The system of real numbers has two types of properties. The first type
consists of the algebraic, dealing with addition and multiplication. The other
type consists of properties having to do with the notion of distance between
two numbers and with the concept of a limit. The latter property is called
topological or metric space.
Theorem 17. The set H of quaternions together with a distance function
(q1,q2) defined as la1 a2l + lb1 b2l + lc1 c2l + ld1 d2l such that q1 = a1 +
b1i + c1j + d1k and q2 = a2 + b2i + c2j + d2k are elements of H forms a metric
space where lAl denotes an absolute value.
Proof: To prove the theorem, it needs to satisfy the four axioms of the metric
space. Let q1 and q2 be quaternions.
1. (q1, q2) 0.
Defining the distance function,
(q1, q2) = la1 a2l + lb1 b2l + lc1 c2l + ld1 d2l
and since ar, br, cr, dr for r = 1, 2 are all real numbers, thus each term on the
left is la1 a2l 0, lb1 b2l 0, lc1 c2l 0 and ld1 d2l 0. Therefore,
(q1, q2) 0.
2. (q1, q2) = 0 iff q1 = q2.

38
To show this, the method will start from left to right and then from right
to left.
() Suppose (q1, q2) = 0 or
la1 a2l + lb1 b2l + lc1 c2l + ld1 d2l = 0.
From the result above, it can be concluded that each term on the left must
equal to zero, that is
la1 a2l = lb1 b2l = lc1 c2l = ld1 d2l = 0.
and,
a1 a 2 = 0 a1 = a 2
b1 b 2 = 0 b1 = b 2
c1 c2 = 0 c1 = c2
d1 d 2 = 0 d1 = d 2
Since every corresponding term is equal therefore, it can be concluded that
a1 + b1i + c1j + d1k = a2 + b2i + c2j + d2k
q1 = q2.
() Suppose q1 = q2.
a1 + b1i + c1j + d1k = a2 + b2i + c2j + d2k
The equality shows that corresponding term is equal, that is a 1 = a2, b1 = b2,
c1 = c2 and d1 = d2. It gives that a1 a2 = b1 b2 = c1 c2 = d1 d2 = 0. It is
also true that
la1 a2l + lb1 b2l + lc1 c2l + ld1 d2l = 0.
(q1, q2) = 0
as the required result.

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3 (q1, q2) = (q2, q1)
Defining the distance function from left gives
(q1, q2) = la1 a2l + lb1 b2l + lc1 c2l + ld1 d2l
but la1 a2l = la2 a1l; lb1 b2l = lb2 b1l; lc1 c2l = lc2 c1l; and
ld1 d2l = ld2 d1l, so the last equation can be written as
(q1, q2) = la1 a2l + lb1 b2l + lc1 c2l + ld1 d2l
= la2 a1l + lb2 b1l + lc2 c1l + ld2 d1l
= (q2, q1).
4. (q1, q2) (q1, q3) + (q3, q2).
This last axiom is commonly known as the triangle inequality.
Performing the term on the left of the inequality,
(q1, q2) = la1 a2l + lb1 b2l + lc1 c2l + ld1 d2l
Adding each term by zero term which is ( e 3 + e3) = 0 for e = a, b, c, d, that
is
(q1, q2) = la1 a3 + a3 a2l + lb1 b3 + b3 b2l
+ lc1 c3 + c3 c2l + ld1 d3 + d3 d2l
Every term on the right side of the equation are real numbers, and it is true
that for every real number x, y, the inequality

lx + yl lxl + lyl holds.

Following this rule gives

(q1, q2) = l(a1 a3)+ (a3 a2)l + l(b1 b3) + (b3 b2)l
+ l(c1 c3) + (c3 c2)l + l(d1 d3)
+ (d3 d2)l

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l(a1 a3)l+ l(a3 a2)l + l(b1 b3)l + l(b3 b2)l
+ l(c1 c3)l + l(c3 c2)l + l(d1 d3)l
+ l(d3 d2)l
Grouping the terms so that it may show as the desired result, that is
(q1, q2) {l(a1 a3)l+ l(b1 b3)l + l(c1 c3)l + l(d1 d3)l}
+ {l(a3 a2)l + l(b3 b2)l + l(c3 c2)l + l(d3 d2)l}
(q1, q2) (q1, q3) + (q3, q2).
And since the four axioms of a metric space are satisfied on the defined
function, hence H forms a metric space.