Documente Academic
Documente Profesional
Documente Cultură
DRAFT
LECTURE NOTES
CVEN 3525/3535
STUCTURAL ENGINEERING I
c VICTOR
E. SAOUMA
Spring 1999
June 5, 2001
02
Draft
Blank Page
Victor Saouma
Structural Engineering
Draft
03
PREFACE
Whereas there are numerous excellent textbooks covering Structural Analysis, or Structural Design, I
felt that there was a need for a single reference which
Provides a succinct, yet rigorous, coverage of Structural Engineering.
Combines, as much as possible, Analysis with Design.
Presents numerous, carefully selected, example problems.
in a properly type set document.
As such, and given the reluctance of undergraduate students to go through extensive verbage in
order to capture a key concept, I have opted for an unusual format, one in which each key idea is clearly
distinguishable. In addition, such a format will hopefully foster group learning among students who can
easily reference misunderstood points.
Finally, whereas all problems have been taken from a variety of references, I have been very careful
in not only properly selecting them, but also in enhancing their solution through appropriate gures and
LATEX typesetting macros.
Victor Saouma
Structural Engineering
04
Draft
Victor Saouma
Structural Engineering
Draft
Contents
I
1 INTRODUCTION
1.1 Structural Engineering . . . . . . .
1.2 Structures and their Surroundings
1.3 Architecture & Engineering . . . .
1.4 Architectural Design Process . . .
1.5 Architectural Design . . . . . . . .
1.6 Structural Analysis . . . . . . . . .
1.7 Structural Design . . . . . . . . . .
1.8 Load Transfer Elements . . . . . .
1.9 Structure Types . . . . . . . . . .
1.10 Structural Engineering Courses . .
1.11 References . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
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11
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110
112
2 LOADS
2.1 Introduction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
2.2 Vertical Loads . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
2.2.1 Dead Load . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
2.2.2 Live Loads . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
E 2-1 Live Load Reduction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
2.2.3 Snow . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
2.3 Lateral Loads . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
2.3.1 Wind . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
E 2-2 Wind Load . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
2.3.2 Earthquakes . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
E 2-3 Earthquake Load on a Frame . . . . . . . . . .
E 2-4 Earthquake Load on a Tall Building, (Schueller
2.4 Other Loads . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
2.4.1 Hydrostatic and Earth . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
E 2-5 Hydrostatic Load . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
2.4.2 Thermal . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
E 2-6 Thermal Expansion/Stress (Schueller 1996) . .
2.4.3 Bridge Loads . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
2.4.4 Impact Load . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
2.5 Other Important Considerations . . . . . . . . . . . .
2.5.1 Load Combinations . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
2.5.2 Load Placement . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
2.5.3 Structural Response . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
2.5.4 Tributary Areas . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
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21
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222
3 STRUCTURAL MATERIALS
3.1 Steel . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
3.1.1 Structural Steel . . . .
3.1.2 Reinforcing Steel . . .
3.2 Aluminum . . . . . . . . . . .
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31
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35
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02
CONTENTS
Draft
3.3
3.4
3.5
3.6
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41
. 41
. 42
. 43
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. 410
. 411
5 TRUSSES
5.1 Introduction . . . . . . . . . . . .
5.1.1 Assumptions . . . . . . .
5.1.2 Basic Relations . . . . . .
5.2 Trusses . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
5.2.1 Determinacy and Stability
5.2.2 Method of Joints . . . . .
E 5-1 Truss, Method of Joints .
5.2.2.1 Matrix Method .
E 5-2 Truss I, Matrix Method .
E 5-3 Truss II, Matrix Method .
5.2.3 Method of Sections . . . .
E 5-4 Truss, Method of Sections
5.3 Case Study: Stadium . . . . . . .
3.7
Concrete . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Masonry . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Timber . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Steel Section Properties . . . . . . .
3.6.1 ASCII File with Steel Section
Joists . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
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Properties
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35
37
37
37
317
319
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51
51
51
51
53
53
53
55
57
510
511
513
513
514
6 CABLES
6.1 Funicular Polygons . . . . . . . . . . . .
E 6-1 Funicular Cable Structure . . . .
6.2 Uniform Load . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
6.2.1 qdx; Parabola . . . . . . . . . . .
6.2.2 qds; Catenary . . . . . . . . . .
6.2.2.1 Historical Note . . . . .
E 6-2 Design of Suspension Bridge . . .
6.3 Case Study: George Washington Bridge
6.3.1 Geometry . . . . . . . . . . . . .
6.3.2 Loads . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
6.3.3 Cable Forces . . . . . . . . . . .
6.3.4 Reactions . . . . . . . . . . . . .
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61
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69
610
610
611
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71
71
72
72
72
74
75
Victor Saouma
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Structural Engineering
CONTENTS
03
Draft
7.4
Example . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 77
E 7-1 LRFD vs ASD . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 77
8 DESIGN I
8.1 Case Study: Eiel Tower . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
8.1.1 Materials, & Geometry . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
8.1.2 Loads . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
8.1.3 Reactions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
8.1.4 Internal Forces . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
8.1.5 Internal Stresses . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
8.2 Magazini Generali by Maillart . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
8.2.1 Geometry . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
8.2.2 Loads . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
8.2.3 Reactions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
8.2.4 Forces . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
8.2.5 Internal Stresses . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
8.3 Buildings . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
8.3.1 Buildings Structures . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
8.3.1.1 Wall Subsystems . . . . . . . . . . . . .
8.3.1.1.1 Example: Concrete Shear Wall
8.3.1.1.2 Example: Trussed Shear Wall
8.3.1.2 Shaft Systems . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
8.3.1.2.1 Example: Tube Subsystem . .
8.3.1.3 Rigid Frames . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
8.4 Design of a Three Hinged Arch . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
8.5 Salginatobel Bridge (Maillart) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
8.5.1 Geometry . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
8.5.2 Loads . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
8.5.3 Reactions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
8.5.4 Internal Forces . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
8.5.5 Internal Stresses . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
8.5.6 Structural Behavior of Deck-Stiened Arches . .
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81
. 81
. 81
. 82
. 85
. 86
. 87
. 88
. 88
. 88
. 89
. 810
. 811
. 812
. 812
. 812
. 813
. 815
. 815
. 816
. 817
. 817
. 818
. 818
. 820
. 821
. 821
. 824
. 825
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Victor Saouma
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91
91
91
92
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910
910
912
913
914
920
Structural Engineering
04
CONTENTS
Draft
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101
. 101
. 103
. 104
. 104
. 104
. 104
. 106
. 107
. 108
. 1010
. 1013
. 1014
. 1015
. 1015
. 1018
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111
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. 119
. 119
. 1110
. 1111
. 1111
. 1112
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121
. 121
. 121
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. 123
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. 124
. 125
. 125
. 125
. 128
. 128
. 1210
. 1210
. 1211
. 1212
. 1214
. 1215
. 1217
. 1217
Victor Saouma
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Structural Engineering
CONTENTS
05
Draft
131
. 131
. 131
. 131
. 132
. 133
. 134
. 136
. 136
. 139
. 139
. 1311
. 1312
. 1313
. 1314
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. 1320
. 1321
. 1324
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141
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. 141
. 143
. 144
. 145
. 145
. 145
. 146
. 147
. 147
. 147
. 148
. 149
. 1411
. 1411
. 1412
15 COLUMN STABILITY
15.1 Introduction; Discrete Rigid Bars . . . . .
15.1.1 Single Bar System . . . . . . . . .
15.1.2 Two Bars System . . . . . . . . . .
15.1.3 Analogy with Free Vibration . . .
15.2 Continuous Linear Elastic Systems . . . .
15.2.1 Lower Order Dierential Equation
15.2.2 Higher Order Dierential Equation
15.2.2.1 Derivation . . . . . . . .
15.2.2.2 Hinged-Hinged Column .
15.2.2.3 Fixed-Fixed Column . . .
15.2.2.4 Fixed-Hinged Column . .
15.2.3 Eective Length Factors K . . . .
15.3 Inelastic Columns . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
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151
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. 1510
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Structural Engineering
06
CONTENTS
Draft
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161
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. 1610
17 STEEL CONNECTIONS
17.1 Bolted Connections . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
17.1.1 Types of Bolts . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
17.1.2 Types of Bolted Connections . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
17.1.3 Nominal Strength of Individual Bolts . . . . . . . . . . . . .
17.1.4 Concentric Loads (Tension Connections) . . . . . . . . . . .
17.1.4.1 AISC Requirements . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
17.1.4.2 Examples . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
E 17-1 Analysis of Bolted Connections (Salmon and Johnson 1990)
E 17-2 Design of Bolted Connections (Salmon and Johnson 1990) .
17.1.5 Eccentric Connection (Shear Connections) . . . . . . . . . .
17.2 Welded Connections . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
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Structural Engineering
CONTENTS
07
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. . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
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to Vertical and Horizontal
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Structural Engineering
08
CONTENTS
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261
. 261
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. 263
. 263
. 265
. 265
. 267
. 268
. 268
. 268
. 268
. 2610
Victor Saouma
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Matrices
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Structural Engineering
CONTENTS
09
Draft
27 COLUMNS
27.1 Introduction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
27.1.1 Types of Columns . . . . . . . . .
27.1.2 Possible Arrangement of Bars . . .
27.2 Short Columns . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
27.2.1 Concentric Loading . . . . . . . . .
27.2.2 Eccentric Columns . . . . . . . . .
27.2.2.1 Balanced Condition . . .
27.2.2.2 Tension Failure . . . . . .
27.2.2.3 Compression Failure . . .
27.2.3 ACI Provisions . . . . . . . . . . .
27.2.4 Interaction Diagrams . . . . . . . .
27.2.5 Design Charts . . . . . . . . . . .
E 27-1 R/C Column, c known . . . . . . .
E 27-2 R/C Column, e known . . . . . . .
E 27-3 R/C Column, Using Design Charts
Victor Saouma
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. 2612
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. 2617
. 2618
. 2618
. 2623
. 2625
. 2629
. 2631
. 2631
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. 2632
. 2633
. 2634
. 2634
. 2635
. 2636
. 2637
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. 2641
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. 2644
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271
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. 278
. 278
. 279
. 2714
Structural Engineering
010
CONTENTS
Draft
28 DESIGN II
28.1 Frames . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
28.1.1 Beam Column Connections . . . . . . . .
28.1.2 Behavior of Simple Frames . . . . . . . .
28.1.3 Eccentricity of Applied Loads . . . . . . .
28.1.4 Design of a Statically Indeterminate Arch
28.1.5 Temperature Changes in an Arch . . . . .
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Victor Saouma
281
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. 2810
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301
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. 309
. 309
. 3010
. 3010
. 3012
Structural Engineering
Draft
List of Figures
1.1
1.2
1.3
1.4
1.5
1.6
1.7
1.8
1.9
1.10
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13
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110
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2.1
2.2
2.3
2.4
2.5
2.6
2.7
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27
2.8
2.9
2.10
2.11
2.12
2.13
2.14
2.15
2.16
2.17
2.18
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3.1
3.2
3.3
3.4
3.5
3.6
3.7
3.8
3.9
4.1
4.2
4.3
4.4
Types of Supports . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Inclined Roller Support . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Examples of Static Determinate and Indeterminate Structures .
Geometric Instability Caused by Concurrent Reactions . . . . .
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Curve of a Rolled Section
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43
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45
02
Draft
LIST OF FIGURES
5.1
5.2
5.3
5.4
5.5
5.6
5.7
5.8
5.9
5.10
Types of Trusses . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Bridge Truss . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
A Statically Indeterminate Truss . . . . .
X and Y Components of Truss Forces . .
Sign Convention for Truss Element Forces
Direction Cosines . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Forces Acting on Truss Joint . . . . . . .
Complex Statically Determinate Truss . .
Florence Stadium, Pier Luigi Nervi (?) . .
Florence Stadioum, Pier Luigi Nervi (?) .
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514
515
6.1
6.2
6.3
6.4
6.5
6.6
6.7
6.8
6.9
6.10
6.11
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7.1
7.2
7.3
7.4
7.5
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8.1
8.2
8.3
8.4
8.5
8.6
8.7
8.8
8.9
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8.11
8.12
8.13
8.14
8.15
8.16
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810
810
8.17
8.18
8.19
8.20
8.21
8.22
8.23
8.24
8.25
8.26
Victor Saouma
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. 811
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. 812
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. 815
. 816
. 817
. 819
. 819
. 819
. 820
Structural Engineering
LIST OF FIGURES
03
Draft
8.27
8.28
8.29
8.30
8.31
8.32
8.33
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9.1
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9.6
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10.6
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92
93
93
94
99
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11.1 Moment Resisting Forces in an Arch or Suspension System as Compared to a Beam, (Lin
and Stotesbury 1981) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
11.2 Statics of a Three-Hinged Arch, (Lin and Stotesbury 1981) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
11.3 Two Hinged Arch, (Lin and Stotesbury 1981) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
11.4 Arch Rib Stiened with Girder or Truss, (Lin and Stotesbury 1981) . . . . . . . . . . .
11.5
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11.6 Semi-Circular three hinged arch . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
11.7 Semi-Circular three hinged arch; Free body diagram . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
11.8 Statically Indeterminate Arch . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
11.9 Statically Indeterminate Arch; Horizontal Reaction Removed . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
11.10Semi-Circular Box Girder . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
11.11Geometry of Curved Structure in Space . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
11.12Free Body Diagram of a Curved Structure in Space . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
11.13Helicoidal Cantilevered Girder . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
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113
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114
115
116
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119
1111
1112
1113
12.1
12.2
12.3
12.4
12.5
12.6
12.7
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122
126
127
127
1210
1215
1217
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132
133
134
135
137
1310
1310
1311
1312
1313
1314
1315
1317
Structural Engineering
04
LIST OF FIGURES
Draft
13.14 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1318
13.15 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1319
13.16*(correct 42.7 to 47.2) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1322
14.1
14.2
14.3
14.4
14.5
Bending of a Beam . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Stress distribution at dierent stages of loading . . . . . . . . . . .
Stress-strain diagram for most structural steels . . . . . . . . . . .
Flexural and Shear Stress Distribution in a Rectangular Beam . .
Local (ange) Buckling; Flexural and Torsional Buckling Modes
(Lulea University) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
14.6 W Section . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
14.7 Nominal Moments for Compact and Partially Compact Sections . .
14.8 AISC Requirements for Shear Design . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
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in a
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Section,
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142
142
143
144
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1412
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172
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179
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202
202
203
203
204
205
206
207
208
209
2011
2012
Structural Engineering
LIST OF FIGURES
05
Draft
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. 2110
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. 2113
. 2114
. 2116
. 2116
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. 2119
. 2119
. 2122
. 2123
22.1 Uniformly Loaded Beam and Frame with Free or Fixed Beam Restraint . . . . . . . . . . 222
22.2 Uniformly Loaded Frame, Approximate Location of Inection Points . . . . . . . . . . . . 223
22.3 Approximate Analysis of Frames Subjected to Vertical Loads; Girder Moments . . . . . . 224
22.4 Approximate Analysis of Frames Subjected to Vertical Loads; Column Axial Forces . . . . 225
22.5 Approximate Analysis of Frames Subjected to Vertical Loads; Column Moments . . . . . 226
22.6 Horizontal Force Acting on a Frame, Approximate Location of Inection Points . . . . . . 227
22.7 Approximate Analysis of Frames Subjected to Lateral Loads; Column Shear . . . . . . . . 228
22.8 ***Approximate Analysis of Frames Subjected to Lateral Loads; Girder Moment . . . . . 229
22.9 Approximate Analysis of Frames Subjected to Lateral Loads; Column Axial Force . . . . 2210
22.10Example; Approximate Analysis of a Building . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2210
22.11Free Body Diagram for the Approximate Analysis of a Frame Subjected to Vertical Loads 2211
22.12Approximate Analysis of a Building; Moments Due to Vertical Loads . . . . . . . . . . . . 2213
22.13Approximate Analysis of a Building; Shears Due to Vertical Loads . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2215
22.14Approximate Analysis for Vertical Loads; Spread-Sheet Format . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2216
22.15Approximate Analysis for Vertical Loads; Equations in Spread-Sheet . . . . . . . . . . . . 2217
22.16Free Body Diagram for the Approximate Analysis of a Frame Subjected to Lateral Loads 2218
22.17Approximate Analysis of a Building; Moments Due to Lateral Loads . . . . . . . . . . . . 2220
22.18Portal Method; Spread-Sheet Format . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2222
22.19Portal Method; Equations in Spread-Sheet . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2223
23.1
23.2
23.3
23.4
23.5
23.6
23.7
23.8
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232
232
234
235
239
2310
2311
2312
2313
T Beams . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
T Beam as Rectangular Section . . . . . . .
T Beam Strain and Stress Diagram . . . . .
Decomposition of Steel Reinforcement for T
Victor Saouma
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251
252
252
253
Structural Engineering
06
LIST OF FIGURES
Draft
25.5
25.6
25.7
25.8
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263
264
264
264
265
266
269
2613
2614
2616
2617
2619
2623
2626
2649
27.1
27.2
27.3
27.4
27.5
27.6
27.7
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271
272
272
273
274
275
278
Types of columns . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Tied vs Spiral Reinforcement . . . . . . . . .
Possible Bar arrangements . . . . . . . . . . .
Sources of Bending . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Load moment interaction diagram . . . . . .
Strain and Stress Diagram of a R/C Column
Column Interaction Diagram . . . . . . . . .
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. 281
. 282
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283
284
285
287
Victor Saouma
Structural Engineering
Draft
List of Tables
2.1
2.2
2.3
2.4
2.5
2.6
2.7
2.8
2.9
2.10
2.11
2.12
2.13
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22
23
23
23
27
28
28
28
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29
212
213
213
217
3.1
3.2
3.3
4.1
Equations of Equilibrium . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 42
5.1
7.1
7.2
7.3
9.1
9.2
02
LIST OF TABLES
Draft
19.1 Values of m for use in Beam-Column Design Equation, (from a paper in AISC Engineering
Journal by Uang, Wattar, and Leet (1990)) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 197
21.1 Table of
0
21.2
. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2115
21.3 Displacement Computations for a Rectangular Frame . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2120
22.1 Columns Combined Approximate Vertical and Horizontal Loads . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2221
22.2 Girders Combined Approximate Vertical and Horizontal Loads . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2224
23.1 Stiness vs Flexibility Methods . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 231
23.2 Degrees of Freedom of Dierent Structure Types Systems . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 233
26.1
26.2
26.3
26.4
. . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
. . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
. . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Structure Types Systems
28.1
28.2
28.3
28.4
28.5
28.6
28.7
28.8
28.9
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262
262
262
267
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285
286
287
288
289
2810
2810
2811
2811
Victor Saouma
Structural Engineering
Draft
Part I
STRUCTURAL ENGINEERING I;
CVEN 3525
Draft
Draft
Chapter 1
INTRODUCTION
1.1
1
Structural Engineering
Structural engineers are responsible for the detailed analysis and design of:
Architectural structures: Buildings, houses, factories. They must work in close cooperation with an
architect who will ultimately be responsible for the design.
Civil Infrastructures: Bridges, dams, pipelines, oshore structures. They work with transportation,
hydraulic, nuclear and other engineers. For those structures they play the leading role.
Aerospace, Mechanical, Naval structures: aeroplanes, spacecrafts, cars, ships, submarines to ensure the structural safety of those important structures.
1.2
2
1.3
3
4 Architect stress the overall, rather than elemental approach to design. In the design process, they
conceptualize a space-form scheme as a total system. They are generalists.
12
Draft
INTRODUCTION
5 The engineer, partly due to his/her education think in reverse, starting with details and without
sucient regards for the overall picture. (S)he is a pragmatist who knows everything about nothing.
Thus there is a conceptual gap between architects and engineers at all levels of design.
7 Engineers education is more specialized and in depth than the architects. However, engineer must
be kept aware of overall architectural objective.
8 In the last resort, it is the architect who is the leader of the construction team, and the engineers are
his/her servant.
1.4
10
Schematic: conceptual overall space-form feasibility of basic schematic options. Collaboration is mostly
between the owner and the architect.
Preliminary: Establish basic physical properties of major subsystems and key components to prove
design feasibility. Some collaboration with engineers is necessary.
Final design: nal in-depth design renements of all subsystems and components and preparation of
working documents (blue-prints). Engineers play a leading role.
1.5
11
Architectural Design
Functionality: Inuence of the adopted structure on the purposes for which the structure was erected.
Aesthetics: The architect often imposes his aesthetic concerns on the engineer. This in turn can place
severe limitations on the structural system.
Economy: It should be kept in mind that the two largest components of a structure are labors and
materials. Design cost is comparatively negligible.
1.6
Structural Analysis
12 Given an existing structure subjected to a certain load determine internal forces (axial, shear, exural, torsional; or stresses), deections, and verify that no unstable failure can occur.
13
1.7
14
Structural Design
Structural Engineering
13
Draft
For new structures, iterative process between analysis and design. A preliminary design is made
using rules of thumbs (best known to Engineers with design experience) and analyzed. Following
design, we check for
15
Serviceability: deections, crack widths under the applied load. Compare with acceptable values
specied in the design code.
Failure: and compare the failure load with the applied load times the appropriate factors of safety.
If the design is found not to be acceptable, then it must be modied and reanalyzed.
For existing structures rehabilitation, or verication of an old infrastructure, analysis is the most
important component.
16
17
1.8
18
1.9
19
Structure Types
Victor Saouma
Structural Engineering
14
INTRODUCTION
Draft
Structural Engineering
15
Draft
Victor Saouma
Structural Engineering
16
INTRODUCTION
Draft
Victor Saouma
Structural Engineering
17
Draft
Victor Saouma
Structural Engineering
18
INTRODUCTION
Draft
VIERENDEEL TRUSS
OVERLAPPING SINGLE-STRUT
CABLE-SUPPORTED BEAM
TREE-SUPPORTED TRUSS
BRACED BEAM
CABLE-STAYED BEAM
SUSPENDED CABLE
SUPPORTED BEAM
BOWSTRING TRUSS
CABLE-SUPPORTED
STRUTED ARCH OR
CABLE BEAM/TRUSS
CABLE-SUPPORTED
MULTI-STRUT
BEAM OR TRUSS
GABLED TRUSS
Victor Saouma
Structural Engineering
19
Draft
Mc
I
Whereas r/c beams are mostly rectangular or T shaped, steel beams are usually I shaped (if the
top anges are not properly stiened, they may buckle, thus we must have stieners).
Frames: Load is co-planar with the structure. Axial, shear, exure (with respect to one axis in 2D
structures and with respect to two axis in 3D structures), torsion (only in 3D). The frame is
composed of at least one horizontal member (beam) rigidly connected to vertical ones1 . The vertical
members can have dierent boundary conditions (which are usually governed by soil conditions).
Frames are extensively used for houses and buildings, Fig. 1.7.
Victor Saouma
Structural Engineering
110
INTRODUCTION
Draft
Membranes: 3D structures composed of a exible 2D surface resisting tension only. They are usually
cable-supported and are used for tents and long span roofs Fig. 1.8.
1.10
20
Structural engineering education can be approached from either one of two points of views:
Architectural: Start from overall design, and move toward detailed analysis.
Education: Elemental rather than global approach. Emphasis is on the individual structural elements
and not always on the total system.
CVEN3525 will seek a balance between those two approaches.
This is only the third of a long series of courses which can be taken in Structural Engineering, Fig.
1.10
21
Victor Saouma
Structural Engineering
111
Draft
Victor Saouma
Structural Engineering
112
Draft
1.11
INTRODUCTION
References
Following are some useful references for structural engineering, those marked by were consulted,
and borrowed from in preparing the Lecture Notes:
22
Structural Art
1. Billington, D.P., The Tower and the Bridge; The new art of structural engineering, Princeton
University Pres,, 1983.
Structural Engineering
1. Biggs, J.M., Introduction to Structural Engineering; Analysis and Design, Prentice Hall, 1986.
2. Gordon, J.E., Structures, or Why Things Dont Fall Down, Da Capo paperback, New York,
1978
3. Mainstone, R., Developments in Structural Form, Allen Lane Publishers, 1975.
Structural Engineering, Architectural Analysis and Design
1. Ambrose, J., Building Structures, second Ed. Wiley, 1993.
2. Salvadori, M. and Heller, R., Structure in Architecture; The Building of Buildings, Prentice
Hall, Third Edition, 1986.
3. Salvadori, M. and Levy, M., Structural Design in Architecture, Prentice hall, Second Edition,
1981.
4. Salvadori, M., Why Buildings Stand Up; The Strength of Architecture, Norton Paperack, 1990.
5. Lin, T.Y. and Stotesbury, S.D., Structural Concepts and Systems for Architects and Engineers,
John Wiley, 1981.
6. White, R. Gergely, P. and Sexmith, R., Structural Engineering; Combined Edition, John
Wiley, 1976.
7. Sandaker, B.N. and Eggen, A.P., The Structural Basis of Architecture, Whitney Library of
Design, 1992.
Structural Analysis
1. Arbadi, F. Structural Analysis and Behavior, McGraw-Hill, Inc., 1991.
2. Hsieh, Y.Y., Elementary Theory of Structures, Third Edition, Prentice Hall, 1988.
3. Ghali, A., and Neville, A.M., Structural Analysis, Third Edition, Chapman and Hall, 1989
Structural Design
1. Nilson, A., and Winter, G. Design of Concrete Structures, Eleventh Edition, McGraw Hill,
1991.
2. Salmon C. and Johnson, J. Steel Structures, Third Edition, Harper Collins Publisher, 1990.
3. Gaylord, E.H., Gaylord, C.N. and Stallmeyer, J.E., Design of Steel Structures, Third Edition, McGraw Hill, 1992.
Codes
1. ACI-318-89, Building Code Requirements for Reinforced Concrete, American Concrete Institute
2. Load & Resistance Factor Design, Manual of Steel Construction, American Institute of Steel
Construction.
3. Uniform Building Code, International Conference of Building Ocials, 5360 South Workman
Road; Whittier, CA 90601
4. Minimum Design Loads in Buildings and Other Structures, ANSI A58.1, American National
Standards Institute, Inc., New York, 1972.
Victor Saouma
Structural Engineering
Draft
Chapter 2
LOADS
2.1
Introduction
1 The main purpose of a structure is to transfer load from one point to another: bridge deck to pier;
slab to beam; beam to girder; girder to column; column to foundation; foundation to soil.
2 There can also be secondary loads such as thermal (in restrained structures), dierential settlement
of foundations, P-Delta eects (additional moment caused by the product of the vertical force and the
lateral displacement caused by lateral load in a high rise building).
For a detailed coverage of loads, refer to the Universal Building Code (UBC), (UBC 1995).
2.2
Vertical Loads
6 For closely spaced identical loads (such as joist loads), it is customary to treat them as a uniformly
distributed load rather than as discrete loads, Fig. 2.1
2.2.1
Dead Load
7 Dead loads (DL) consist of the weight of the structure itself, and other permanent xtures (such as
walls, slabs, machinery).
8 For analysis purposes, dead loads can easily be determined from the structures dimensions and density,
Table 2.1
22
LOADS
Draft
P1
P2
P3
P4
P5
P6
P7
SUPPORT BEAM
SPAN
lb/ft3
173
120
145
490
40
kN/m3
27.2
18.9
33.8
77.0
6.3
For design purposes, dead loads must be estimated and veried at the end of the design cycle. This
makes the design process iterative.
10
11
12
For preliminary design purposes the average dead loads of Table 2.3 can be used:
2.2.2
Live Loads
Contrarily to dead loads which are xed and vertical, live loads (LL) are movable or moving and may
be horizontal.
13
Occupancy load may be due to people, furniture, equipment. The loads are essentially variable point
loads which can be placed anywhere.
14
15
In analysis load placement should be such that their eect (shear/moment) are maximized.
A statistical approach is used to determine a uniformly distributed static load which is equivalent to
the weight of the maximum concentration of occupants. These loads are dened in codes such as the
Uniform Building Code or the ANSI Code, Table 2.4.
16
17
For small areas (30 to 50 sq ft) the eect of concentrated load should be considered separately.
Since there is a small probability that the whole oor in a building be fully loaded, the UBC code
species that the occupancy load for members supporting an area A larger than 150 ft2 (i.e. a column
with a total tributary area, including oors above it, larger than 150 ft2 ) may be reduced by R where
DL
R = r(A 150) 23.1 1 +
(2.1)
LL
18
Victor Saouma
Structural Engineering
Draft
23
lb/ft2
Material
Ceilings
Channel suspended system
Acoustical ber tile
Floors
Steel deck
Concrete-plain 1 in.
Linoleum 1/4 in.
Hardwood
Roofs
Copper or tin
5 ply felt and gravel
Shingles asphalt
Clay tiles
Sheathing wood
Insulation 1 in. poured in place
Partitions
Clay tile 3 in.
Clay tile 10 in.
Gypsum Block 5 in.
Wood studs 2x4 (12-16 in. o.c.)
Plaster 1 in. cement
Plaster 1 in. gypsum
Walls
Bricks 4 in.
Bricks 12 in.
Hollow concrete block (heavy aggregate)
4 in.
8 in.
12 in.
Hollow concrete block (light aggregate)
4 in.
8 in.
12 in.
1
1
2-10
12
1
4
1-5
6
3
9-14
3
2
17
40
14
2
10
5
40
120
30
55
80
21
38
55
lb/ft2
40-50
50-80
100-150
lb/ft2
50
60
100
50
50
40
125-250
Structural Engineering
24
LOADS
Draft
where r = .08 for oors, A is the supported area ( ft2 ) DL and LL are the dead and live loads per unit
area supported by the member. R can not exceed 40% for horizontal members and 60% for vertical ones.
Roof
8.48
20
18.3
10
16.96
80
66.4
9
25.44
80
59.6
8
33.92
80
52.9
7
42.4
80
46.08
6
51.32
80
38.9
5
59.8
80
32.2
4
60
80
32
3
60
80
32
2
60
80
32
Total
740
410
The resulting design live load for the bottom column has been reduced from 740 Kips to 410 Kips .
5. The total dead load is DL = (10)(60) = 600 Kips, thus the total reduction in load is
740410
740+600
100= 25% .
2.2.3
Snow
19 Roof snow load vary greatly depending on geographic location and elevation. They range from
20 to 45 psf, Fig. 2.2.
20
Snow loads are always given on the projected length or area on a slope, Fig. 2.3.
Victor Saouma
Structural Engineering
25
Draft
LIVE LOAD
DEAD LOAD
LE
N
G
TH
RISE
WIND
LOAD
RUN
21
22
Other examples of loads acting on inclined surfaces are shown in Fig. 2.4.
L1
w1
w3
w1 Snow Load
w2 Wind Load
Victor Saouma
Structural Engineering
26
LOADS
Draft
2.3
2.3.1
Lateral Loads
Wind
Wind load depend on: velocity of the wind, shape of the building, height, geographical
location, texture of the building surface and stiness of the structure.
23
24
When a steady streamline airow of velocity V is completely stopped by a rigid body, the stagnation
pressure (or velocity pressure) qs was derived by Bernouilli (1700-1782)
25
qs =
1 2
V
2
(2.3)
where the air mass density is the air weight divided by the acceleration of gravity g = 32.2 ft/sec2 . At
sea level and a temperature of 15o C (59o F), the air weighs 0.0765 lb/ft3 this would yield a pressure of
1 (0.0765)lb/ft3
qs =
2 (32.2)ft/sec2
(5280)ft/mile
V
(3600)sec/hr
2
(2.4)
or
qs = 0.00256V 2
(2.5)
where V is the maximum wind velocity (in miles per hour) and qs is in psf. V can be obtained from
wind maps (in the United States 70 V 110), Fig. 2.5.
26
27
28
primary design consideration for very high rise buildings is the excessive drift caused by lateral load (wind and
possibly earthquakes).
Victor Saouma
Structural Engineering
27
Draft
Height Zone
(in feet)
<30
30 to 49
50 to 99
100 to 499
500 to 1199
>1,200
20
15
20
25
30
35
40
Wind-Velocity
25 30 35
20 25 25
25 30 35
30 40 45
40 45 55
45 55 60
50 60 70
Map
40
30
40
50
60
70
80
Area
45
35
45
55
70
80
90
50
40
50
60
75
90
100
Victor Saouma
Structural Engineering
28
LOADS
Draft
This magnitude must be modied to account for the shape and surroundings of the building. Thus,
the design pressure p (psf) is given by
29
(2.6)
p = Ce Cq Iqs
The pressure is assumed to be normal to all walls and roofs and
Ce Velocity Pressure Coecient accounts for height, exposure and gust factor. It accounts for the
fact that wind velocity increases with height and that dynamic character of the airow (i.e the
wind pressure is not steady), Table 2.6.
Ce
1.39-2.34
1.06-2.19
Exposure
D
C
0.62-1.80
Leeward Side
0.7
0.7
0.7
0.5
1.3
1.4
0.7
I
II
III
IV
Occupancy Category
Essential facilities
Hazardous facilities
Special occupancy structures
Standard occupancy structures
Importance Factor I
Earthquake Wind
1.25
1.15
1.25
1.15
1.00
1.00
1.00
1.00
Table 2.8: Importance Factors for Wind and Earthquake Load, (UBC 1995)
I Essential Facilities: Hospitals; Fire and police stations; Tanks; Emergency vehicle shelters,
standby power-generating equipment; Structures and equipment in government. communication centers.
II Hazardous Facilities: Structures housing, supporting or containing sucient quantities of
toxic or explosive substances to be dangerous to the safety of the general public if released.
Victor Saouma
Structural Engineering
29
Draft
III Special occupancy structure: Covered structures whose primary occupancy is public assembly, capacity > 300 persons.
Buildings for schools through secondary or day-care centers, capacity > 250 persons.
Buildings for colleges or adult education schools, capacity > 500 persons.
Medical facilities with 50 or more resident incapacitated patients, but not included above
Jails and detention facilities
All structures with occupancy >5,000 persons.
Structures and equipment in power generating stations and other public utility facilities not
included above, and required for continued operation.
IV Standard occupancy structure: All structures having occupancies or functions not listed
above.
30
For the preliminary design of ordinary buildings Ce = 1.0 and Cq = 1.3 may be assumed, yielding
p = (1.3).020256V 2 = .00333V 2
(2.7)
which corresponds to a pressure of 21 psf for a wind speed of 80 mph, Fig. 2.7, Table 2.9.
Height
Above
Grade (ft)
0-15
20
25
30
40
60
80
100
120
160
200
300
400
Exposure
B
C
Basic Wind Speed (mph)
70
80
70
80
10
13
17
23
11
14
18
24
12
15
19
25
12
16
20
26
14
18
21
28
17
22
25
33
18
24
27
35
20
26
28
37
21
28
29
38
23
30
31
41
25
33
33
43
29
37
36
47
32
41
38
50
Table 2.9: Approximate Design Wind Pressure p for Ordinary Wind Force Resisting Building Structures
Victor Saouma
Structural Engineering
210
LOADS
Draft
400
Exposure B, 70 mph
Exposure B, 80 mph
Exposure C, 70 mph
Exposure C, 80 mph
350
300
250
200
150
100
50
10
15
20
25
30
35
40
Approximate Design Wind Pressure (psf)
45
50
Figure 2.7: Approximate Design Wind Pressure p for Ordinary Wind Force Resisting Building Structures
2. The slope of the roof is 8:15=6.4:12 which gives Cq = 0.7 for both the windward and leeward
sides. The vertical walls have Cq = 0.8 for the windward side and Cq = 0.5 for the leeward one.
3. Thus the applied pressure on the roof is p = 0.7 (0.7) 12.54 = -6.14 psf that is the roof is
subjected to uplift.
4. The winward wall, the pressure is 0.7 0.8 12.54 = 7.02 psf , and for the leeward wall 0.7
(0.5) 12.54 = -4.39 psf (suction) ,
5. The direction of the wind can change and hence each structural component must be designed to
resist all possible load combinations.
6. For large structures which may be subjected to large wind loads, testing in a wind tunnel of the
structure itself and its surroundings is often accomplished.
Victor Saouma
Structural Engineering
211
Draft
2.3.2
31
Earthquakes
32
33
A critical factor in the dynamic response of a structure is the fundamental period of the structures
vibration (or rst mode of vibration). This is the time required for one full cycle of motion, Fig. 2.8. If
the earthquake excitation has a frequency close to the one of the building, then resonance may occur.
This should be avoided.
34
35
36
The horizontal force at each level is calculated as a portion of the base shear force V
V =
Victor Saouma
ZIC
W
RW
(2.8)
Structural Engineering
212
LOADS
Draft
where:
Seismic Zone
Z
0
0
1
0.075
2A
0.15
2B
0.2
3
0.3
4
0.4
C=
1.25S
2.75
T 2/3
(2.9)
T is the fundamental period of vibration of the building in seconds. This can be determined from
either the free vibration analysis of the building, or estimated from the following empirical formula
T = Ct (hn )3/4
(2.10)
where:
hn is the building height above base in ft.
and
Ct 0.035 steel moment resisting frames
Ct 0.030 reinforced concrete moment resisting frames and eccentrically braced frames S: Site
Ct 0.020 all other buildings
Coecient given by Table 2.11 Note that most of the damages in the 1990? earthquake in San
Francisco occurred in the marina where many houses were built on soft soil.
and
C
0.075
RW
Victor Saouma
(2.11)
Structural Engineering
213
Draft
Type
S1
S2
S3
S4
Description
A soil prole with either rock-like material or sti/dense soil less
than 200 ft.
Dense or sti soil exceeding 200 ft
70 ft or more soil containing more than 20 ft of soft to medium sti
clay but not more than 40 ft. of soft clay.
Soil containing more than 40 ft of soft clay
S Factor
1.0
1.2
1.5
2.0
Structural System
RW
Bearing wall system
Light-framed walls with shear panels
Plywood walls for structures three stories or less
8
All other light-framed walls
6
Shear walls
Concrete
8
Masonry
8
Building frame system using trussing or shear walls)
Steel eccentrically braced ductiel frame
10
Light-framed walls with shear panels
Plywood walls for structures three stories or less
9
All other light-framed walls
7
Shear walls
Concrete
8
Masonry
8
Concentrically braced frames
Steel
8
Concrete (only for zones I and 2)
8
Heavy timber
8
Moment-resisting frame system
Special moment-resisting frames (SMRF)
Steel
12
Concrete
12
Concrete intermediate moment-resisting frames (IMRF)only for zones 1 and 2 8
Ordinary moment-resisting frames (OMRF)
Steel
6
Concrete (only for zone 1)
5
Dual systems (selected cases are for ductile rigid frames only)
Shear walls
Concrete with SMRF
12
Masonry with SMRF
8
Steel eccentrically braced ductile frame
6-12
Concentrically braced frame
12
Steel with steel SMRF
10
Steel with steel OMRF
6
Concrete with concrete SMRF (only for zones 1 and 2)
9
H (ft)
65
65
240
160
240
65
65
240
160
160
65
N.L.
N.L.
160
-
N.L.
160
160-N.L.
N. L.
N.L.
160
-
Table 2.12: Partial List of RW for Various Structure Systems, (UBC 1995)
Victor Saouma
Structural Engineering
214
LOADS
Draft
37
Ft = 0.07T V 0.25V
(2.12)
is applied at the top of the building due to whiplash. The balance of the force V Ft is distributed as
a triangular load diminishing to zero at the base.
38
Assuming a oor weight constant for every oor level, then the force acting on each one is given by
Fx =
(V Ft )hx
(V Ft )hx
=
h1 + h2 + + hn
ni=1 hi
(2.13)
where hi and hn are the height in ft above the base to level i, n or x respectively
Solution:
1. The fundamental period of vibration is
T = Ct (hn )3/4 = (0.030)(24)3/4 = 0.32 sec.
2. The C coecient is
C=
1.25S
(1.25)(2.0)
=
= 5.344 > 2.75
T 2/3
(0.32)2/3
(2.14)
(2.15)
use C = 2.75.
3. The other coecients are: Z =0.3; I=1.25; RW =12
4. Check
C
2.75
= 0.23 > 0.075
=
RW
12
(2.16)
(2.17)
Victor Saouma
Structural Engineering
215
Draft
ZIC
(0.3)(1.25)(2.75)
= 0.086W
=
RW
12
(2.18-a)
(2.18-b)
F1
(1375)(24)
= 916.7 lbs
12 + 24
(1375)(12)
= 458.3 lbs
12 + 24
(2.19-a)
(2.19-b)
25(12)=300
2638 k
2(300)/3=200
300/2=150
1523 k
7(25)=175
84000 k
3108 k
5(20)=100
Solution:
1. The total building weight is
W = (0.1926) psf(100 175) ft2 25 storeys = 84, 000 k
Victor Saouma
(2.20)
Structural Engineering
216
LOADS
Draft
1.25S
(1.25)(1.5)
=
= 1.12 2.75
T 2/3
(2.16)2/3
C=
(2.21)
(2.22)
C
1.12
=
= 0.093 0.075
RW
12
(2.23)
6. The total seismic base shear along the critical short direction is
V
ZIC
(0.4)(1)(1.12)
W = 0.037W
W =
RW
(12)
(2.24-a)
(2.24-b)
(2.25-a)
(2.25-b)
(2.26)
8. let us check if wind load governs. From Table xx we conservatively assume a uniform wind pressure
of 29 psf resulting in a total lateral force of
PW = (0.029) psf(175 300) ft2 = 1523 k < 3108 k
(2.27)
The magnitude of the total seismic load is clearly larger than the total wind force.
2.4
2.4.1
39
Other Loads
Hydrostatic and Earth
q = Kh
where is the soil density, K =
1sin
1+sin
40
41
If the structure is partially submerged, it must also resist hydrostatic pressure of water, Fig. 2.10.
q = W h
(2.29)
Structural Engineering
217
Draft
water
3
(150) lbs/ft3 h h = (62.4) lbs/ft3 (3) ft(12) in/ft = 14.976 in
15.0 inch
(150)
lbs
/
ft
concrete
2.4.2
Thermal
If a member is uniformly heated (or cooled) without restraint, then it will expand (or contract).
This expansion is given by
42
l = lT
(2.30)
Steel
Concrete
(/F )
6.5 106
5.5 106
43
44
To avoid excessive stresses due to thermal loading expansion joints are used in bridges and buildings.
Victor Saouma
Structural Engineering
218
LOADS
Draft
1. Assuming that the wall can move freely with no restraint from cross-walls and foundation, the wall
expansion and contraction (summer and winter) are given by
LSummer
LWinter
T L = (3.6 106 ) in/ in/o F (120 60)o F (100) ft(12) in/ft = 0.26 (2.31-a)
in
T L = (3.6 106 ) in/ in/o F (20 60)o F (100) ft(12) in/ft = -0.35
(2.31-b)
in
2. We now assume (conservatively) that the free movement cannot occur (L = 0) hence the resulting
T L
= ET
stress would be equal to = E = E L
L =E
L
Summer
Winter
lbs
(3.6
in2
lbs
in2
lbs
Tension
(2.32-a)
in2
lbs
in2
Compression
(2.32-b)
(2.32-c)
Note that the tensile stresses being beyond the masonry capacity, cracking will occur.
2.4.3
Bridge Loads
For highway bridges, design loads are given by the AASHTO (Association of American State Highway
Transportation Ocials). The HS-20 truck is used for the design of bridges on main highways, Fig. 6.5.
Either the design truck with specied axle loads and spacing must be used or the equivalent uniform
load and concentrated load. This loading must be placed such that maximum stresses are produced.
2.4.4
2.5
2.5.1
45
Impact Load
Victor Saouma
Structural Engineering
219
Draft
The likelihood of all these loads occurring simultaneously is remote. Hence, building codes allow
certain reduction when certain loads are combined together.
46
47
Denoting D= dead; L= live; Lr= roof live; W= wind; E= earthquake; S= snow; T= temperature;
H= soil:
48
For the load and resistance factor design (LRFD) method of concrete structures, the American Concrete Institute (ACI) Building design code (318) (318 n.d.) requires that the following load combinations
be considered:
49
1. 1.4D+1.7L
2. 0.75(1.4D+1.7L+1.7W)
3. 0.9D+1.3W
4. 1.4D +1.7L+1.7H
5. 0.75(1.4D+1.4T+1.7L)
6. 1.4(D+T)
whereas for steel structures, the American Institute of Steel Construction (AISC) code, (of Steel COnstruction 1986) requires that the following combinations be veried
1. 1.4D
2. 1.2D+1.6L+0.5(Lr or S)
3. 1.2D+0.5L (or 0.8W)+1.6(Lr or S)
4. 1.2D+0.5L+0.5(Lr or S)+1.3W
5. 1.2D+0.5L(or 0.2 S)+1.5E
6. 0.9D+1.3W(or 1.5 E)
Analysis can be separately performed for each of the basic loads (L, D, W, etc) and then using the
principle of superposition the loads can be linearly combined (unless the elastic limit has been reached).
50
51
2.5.2
Load Placement
Only the dead load is static. The live load on the other hand may or may not be applied on a given
component of a structure. Hence, the load placement arrangement resulting in the highest internal forces
(moment +ve or -ve, shear) at dierent locations must be considered, Fig. 2.12.
52
2.5.3
Structural Response
Under the action of the various forces and loadings described above, the structure must be able to
respond with proper behavior, Fig. 7.1.
53
Victor Saouma
Structural Engineering
220
LOADS
Draft
Victor Saouma
Structural Engineering
221
Draft
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11
00
0000
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00
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00
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0000
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00
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0000
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00
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00
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0000
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00
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001111
000011
00
b
a/b > 2
one way slab
b
a/b <2
Two way slab
Victor Saouma
Structural Engineering
222
Draft
2.5.4
LOADS
Tributary Areas
For preliminary analysis, the tributary area of a structural component will determine the total applied
load.
54
For a slab simply supported over four linear supports, we may have a one way or tow way action if
the ratio a/b is greater or smaller than two respectively, Fig. 2.15.
55
Whereas we will be focusing on the design of a reinforced concrete or steel section, we must keep in
mind the following:
56
57
58
Victor Saouma
Structural Engineering
Draft
223
Victor Saouma
Structural Engineering
224
LOADS
Draft
D
b=12; a=4; b/a=12/4=3>2 One way slab
2
G
(0.16)(12)/2=0.96 k
0.96 k
LL=40
lbs/ft 2
12 ft
0.96 k
0.96 k
H
G
0.48 k
E
a
0.48 k
B
A
4 ft
4 ft
4 ft
0.48+0.96=1.44 k
1.44 k
2
1111
0000
0000
1111
0000
1111
0000
1111
0000
1111
0000
1111
0000
1111
0000
1111
0000
1111
00000000
11111111
00000000
11111111
0000
1111
00000000
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00000000
11111111
0000
1111
00000000
11111111
00000000
11111111
0000
1111
00000000
H 11111111
00000000
11111111
0000 G
1111
3
(0.24)(2+3/2)=0.84k
0.84 k
0.84k
0.84k
0.42k
A
1.8k
(40)lb/ft (3)ft=0.12k/ft
0.42k
B
3
C
3
1.8k
(0.42)+(0.84)+(0.12)[6/2+3/2]=1.8k
Victor Saouma
Structural Engineering
Draft
Chapter 3
STRUCTURAL MATERIALS
1 Proper understanding of structural materials is essential to both structural analysis and to structural
design.
3.1
3.1.1
Steel
Structural Steel
3 Steel is an alloy of iron and carbon. Its properties can be greatly varied by altering the carbon content
(always less than 0.5%) or by adding other elements such as silicon, nickel, manganese and copper.
Practically all grades of steel have a Young Modulus equal to 29,000 ksi, density of 490 lb/cu ft, and
a coecient of thermal expansion equal to 0.65 105 /deg F.
5 The yield stress of steel can vary from 40 ksi to 250 ksi. Most commonly used structural steel are A36
(yld = 36 ksi) and A572 (yld = 50 ksi), Fig. 3.6
32
STRUCTURAL MATERIALS
Draft
8 Sections are designated by the shape of their cross section, their depth and their weight. For example
W 27 114 is a W section, 27 in. deep weighing 114 lb/ft.
S sections were the rst ones rolled in America and have a slope on their inside ange surfaces of 1 to
6.
W or wide ange sections have a much smaller inner slope which facilitates connections and rivetting.
W sections constitute about 50% of the tonnage of rolled structural steel.
C are channel sections
MC Miscellaneous channel which can not be classied as a C shape by dimensions.
HP is a bearing pile section.
M is a miscellaneous section.
L are angle sections which may have equal or unequal sides.
WT is a T section cut from a W section in two.
Properties of structural steel are tabulated in Table 3.1.
Rolled sections, Fig. 3.3 and welded ones, Fig 3.4 have residual stresses. Those originate during
the rolling or fabrication of a member. The member is hot just after rolling or welding, it cools unevenly
because of varying exposure. The area that cool rst become stier, resist contraction, and develop
compressive stresses. The remaining regions continue to cool and contract in the plastic condition and
develop tensile stresses.
10
Due to those residual stresses, the stress-strain curve of a rolled section exhibits a non-linear segment
prior to the theoretical yielding, Fig. 3.5. This would have important implications on the exural and
axial strength of beams and columns.
11
3.1.2
Reinforcing Steel
Steel is also used as reinforcing bars in concrete, Table 3.2. Those bars have a deformation on their
surface to increase the bond with concrete, and usually have a yield stress of 60 ksi1 .
12
1 Stirrups
which are used as vertical reinforcement to resist shear usually have a yield stress of only 40 ksi.
Victor Saouma
Structural Engineering
3.1 Steel
33
Draft
ASTM
Desig.
A36
Shapes Available
A500
A501
A529
and
A606
A611
A 709
Use
y (ksi)
u (ksi)
36
42
45-50
Grade C 33; Grade D 40;
Grade E 80
Grade 36: 36 (to 4 in.); Grade
50: 50; Grade 100: 100 (to
2.5in.) and 90 (over 2.5 to 4
in.)
Maximum compressive
stress, say 12 ksi average
Compression (-)
(-)
Tension (+)
(+)
+
+
say 40 ksi
20 ksi
say 35 ksi
tension
Welded H
say 20 ksi
compression
Welded box
Structural Engineering
34
STRUCTURAL MATERIALS
Draft
Ideal coupon containing
no residual stress
.3
Fy
.2
Fp
Maximum
residual
compressive
stress
.1
Members with
residual stress
2
Average copressive strain
Figure 3.5: Inuence of Residual Stress on Average Stress-Strain Curve of a Rolled Section
Bar Designation
No. 2
No. 3
No. 4
No. 5
No. 6
No. 7
No. 8
No. 9
No. 10
No. 11
No. 14
No. 18
Diameter
(in.)
2/8=0.250
3/8=0.375
4/8=0.500
5/8=0.625
6/8=0.750
7/8=0.875
8/8=1.000
9/8=1.128
10/8=1.270
11/8=1.410
14/8=1.693
18/8=2.257
Area
( in2 )
0.05
0.11
0.20
0.31
0.44
0.60
0.79
1.00
1.27
1.56
2.25
4.00
Perimeter
in
0.79
1.18
1.57
1.96
2.36
2.75
3.14
3.54
3.99
4.43
5.32
7.09
Weight
lb/ft
0.167
0.376
0.668
1.043
1.5202
2.044
2.670
3.400
4.303
5.313
7.650
13.60
Victor Saouma
Structural Engineering
3.2 Aluminum
35
Draft
Steel loses its strength rapidly above 700 deg. F (and thus must be properly protected from re), and
becomes brittle at 30 deg. F2 .
13
Steel is also used as wire strands and ropes for suspended roofs, cable-stayed bridges, fabric roofs and
other structural applications. A strand is a helical arrangement of wires around a central wire. A rope
consists of multiple strands helically wound around a central plastic core, and a modulus of elasticity of
20,000 ksi, and an ultimate strength of 220 ksi.
14
15
3.2
Aluminum
Aluminum is used whenever light weight combined with strength is an important factor. Those
properties, along with its resistance to corrosion have made it the material of choice for airplane
structures, light roof framing.
16
17
Aluminum members can be connected by riveting, bolting and to a lesser extent by welding.
Aluminum has a modulus of elasticity equal to 10,000 ksi (about three times lower than steel),
a coecient of thermal expansion of 2.4 105 and a density of 173 lbs/ft3 .
18
The ultimate strength of pure aluminum is low (13,000 psi) but with the addition of alloys it can go
up.
19
When aluminum is in contact with other metals in the presence of an electrolyte, galvanic corrosion
may cause damage. Thus, steel and aluminum in a structure must be carefully separated by means of
painting or a nonconductive material.
20
3.3
Concrete
Concrete is a mixture of Portland cement3 , water, and aggregates (usually sand and crushed stone).
An ideal mixture is one in which:
21
1. A minimum amount of cement-water paste is used to ll the interstices between the particles of
aggregates.
2. A minimum amount of water is provided to complete the chemical reaction with cement.
In such a mixture, about 3/4 of the volume is constituted by the aggregates, and the remaining 1/4
being the cement paste.
Smaller particles up to 1/4 in. in size are called ne aggregates, and the larger ones being coarse
aggregates.
22
23
Contrarily to steel to modulus of elasticity of concrete depends on the strength and is given by
E = 57, 000 fc
(3.1)
or
E = 33 1.5
where both
fc
fc
(3.2)
Typical concrete (compressive) strengths range from 3,000 to 6,000 psi; However high strength
concrete can go up to 14,000 psi.
24
25
26
brittleness is even more accentuated in high strength steel, and has been the cause of some bridge collapses during
winter nights. (CVEN 6831 Fracture Mechanics)
3 Portland cement is a mixture of calcareous and argillaceous materials which are calcined in a kiln and then pulverized.
When mixed with water, cement hardens through a process called hydration.
Victor Saouma
Structural Engineering
36
STRUCTURAL MATERIALS
Draft
fc
non-linear
.5fc
linear
Victor Saouma
Structural Engineering
3.4 Masonry
37
Draft
27
The tensile strength of concrete ft is about 10% of the compressive strength.
28
Density of normal weight concrete is 145 lbs/ft3 and 100 lbs/ft3 for lightweight concrete.
29
Coecient of thermal expansion is 0.65 105 /deg F for normal weight concrete.
When concrete is poured (or rather placed), the free water not needed for the hydration process
evaporates over a period of time and the concrete will shrink. This shrinkage is about 0.05% after one
year (strain). Thus if the concrete is restrained, then cracking will occur4 .
30
Concrete will also deform with time due to the applied load, this is called creep. This should be taken
into consideration when computing the deections (which can be up to three times the instantaneous
elastic deection).
31
3.4
Masonry
Masonry consists of either natural materials, such as stones, or of manufactured products such as
bricks and concrete blocks5 , stacked and bonded together with mortar.
32
As for concrete, all modern structural masonry blocks are essentially compression members with low
tensile resistance.
33
34
The mortar used is a mixture of sand, masonry cement, and either Portland cement or hydrated lime.
3.5
Timber
Timber is one of the earliest construction materials, and one of the few natural materials with good
tensile properties.
35
36
The properties of timber vary greatly, and the strength is time dependent.
37
Timber is a good shock absorber (many wood structures in Japan have resisted repeated earthquakes).
The most commonly used species of timber in construction are Douglas r, southern pine, hemlock
and larch.
38
Members can be laminated together under good quality control, and exural strengths as high as
2,500 psi can be achieved.
39
3.6
40
Dimensions and properties of rolled sections are tabulated in the following pages, Fig. 3.8.
4 For this reason a minimum amount of reinforcement is always necessary in concrete, and a 2% reinforcement, can
reduce the shrinkage by 75%.
5 Mud bricks were used by the Babylonians, stones by the Egyptians, and ice blocks by the Eskimos...
Victor Saouma
Structural Engineering
38
STRUCTURAL MATERIALS
Draft
Victor Saouma
Structural Engineering
Draft
Designation
W 44x285
W 44x248
W 44x224
W 44x198
W 40x328
W 40x298
W 40x268
W 40x244
W 40x221
W 40x192
W 40x655
W 40x593
W 40x531
W 40x480
W 40x436
W 40x397
W 40x362
W 40x324
W 40x297
W 40x277
W 40x249
W 40x215
W 40x199
W 40x183
W 40x167
W 40x149
W 36x848
W 36x798
W 36x720
W 36x650
W 36x588
W 36x527
W 36x485
W 36x439
W 36x393
W 36x359
W 36x328
W 36x300
W 36x280
W 36x260
W 36x245
W 36x230
W 36x256
W 36x232
W 36x210
W 36x194
W 36x182
W 36x170
W 36x160
W 36x150
W 36x135
W 33x619
W 33x567
W 33x515
W 33x468
W 33x424
W 33x387
W 33x354
W 33x318
W 33x291
W 33x263
W 33x241
W 33x221
W 33x201
W 33x169
W 33x152
W 33x141
W 33x130
W 33x118
W 30x581
W 30x526
W 30x477
W 30x433
W 30x391
W 30x357
W 30x326
W 30x292
W 30x261
W 30x235
W 30x211
W 30x191
W 30x173
W 30x148
W 30x132
W 30x124
W 30x116
W 30x108
W 30x 99
W 30x 90
39
tw
bf
tf
in2
in
44.02
43.62
43.31
42.91
40.00
39.69
39.37
39.06
38.67
38.20
43.62
42.99
42.34
41.81
41.34
40.95
40.55
40.16
39.84
39.69
39.38
38.98
38.67
38.98
38.59
38.20
42.45
41.97
41.19
40.47
39.84
39.21
38.74
38.26
37.80
37.40
37.09
36.74
36.52
36.26
36.08
35.90
37.43
37.12
36.69
36.49
36.33
36.17
36.01
35.85
35.55
38.47
37.91
37.36
36.81
36.34
35.95
35.55
35.16
34.84
34.53
34.18
33.93
33.68
33.82
33.49
33.30
33.09
32.86
35.39
34.76
34.21
33.66
33.19
32.80
32.40
32.01
31.61
31.30
30.94
30.68
30.44
30.67
30.31
30.17
30.01
29.83
29.65
29.53
in
1.025
0.865
0.785
0.710
0.910
0.830
0.750
0.710
0.710
0.710
1.970
1.790
1.610
1.460
1.340
1.220
1.120
1.000
0.930
0.830
0.750
0.650
0.650
0.650
0.650
0.630
2.520
2.380
2.165
1.970
1.790
1.610
1.500
1.360
1.220
1.120
1.020
0.945
0.885
0.840
0.800
0.760
0.960
0.870
0.830
0.765
0.725
0.680
0.650
0.625
0.600
1.970
1.810
1.650
1.520
1.380
1.260
1.160
1.040
0.960
0.870
0.830
0.775
0.715
0.670
0.635
0.605
0.580
0.550
1.970
1.790
1.630
1.500
1.360
1.240
1.140
1.020
0.930
0.830
0.775
0.710
0.655
0.650
0.615
0.585
0.565
0.545
0.520
0.470
in
11.810
11.810
11.810
11.810
17.910
17.830
17.750
17.710
17.710
17.710
16.870
16.690
16.510
16.360
16.240
16.120
16.020
15.905
15.825
15.830
15.750
15.750
15.750
11.810
11.810
11.810
18.130
17.990
17.775
17.575
17.400
17.220
17.105
16.965
16.830
16.730
16.630
16.655
16.595
16.550
16.510
16.470
12.215
12.120
12.180
12.115
12.075
12.030
12.000
11.975
11.950
16.910
16.750
16.590
16.455
16.315
16.200
16.100
15.985
15.905
15.805
15.860
15.805
15.745
11.500
11.565
11.535
11.510
11.480
16.200
16.020
15.865
15.725
15.590
15.470
15.370
15.255
15.155
15.055
15.105
15.040
14.985
10.480
10.545
10.515
10.495
10.475
10.450
10.400
in
1.770
1.575
1.415
1.220
1.730
1.575
1.415
1.260
1.065
0.830
3.540
3.230
2.910
2.640
2.400
2.200
2.010
1.810
1.650
1.575
1.420
1.220
1.065
1.220
1.025
0.830
4.530
4.290
3.900
3.540
3.230
2.910
2.680
2.440
2.200
2.010
1.850
1.680
1.570
1.440
1.350
1.260
1.730
1.570
1.360
1.260
1.180
1.100
1.020
0.940
0.790
3.540
3.270
2.990
2.720
2.480
2.280
2.090
1.890
1.730
1.570
1.400
1.275
1.150
1.220
1.055
0.960
0.855
0.740
3.540
3.230
2.950
2.680
2.440
2.240
2.050
1.850
1.650
1.500
1.315
1.185
1.065
1.180
1.000
0.930
0.850
0.760
0.670
0.610
83.8
72.8
65.8
58.0
96.4
87.6
78.8
71.7
64.8
56.5
192.0
174.0
156.0
140.0
128.0
116.0
106.0
95.3
87.4
81.3
73.3
63.3
58.4
53.7
49.1
43.8
249.0
234.0
211.0
190.0
172.0
154.0
142.0
128.0
115.0
105.0
96.4
88.3
82.4
76.5
72.1
67.6
75.4
68.1
61.8
57.0
53.6
50.0
47.0
44.2
39.7
181.0
166.0
151.0
137.0
124.0
113.0
104.0
93.5
85.6
77.4
70.9
65.0
59.1
49.5
44.7
41.6
38.3
34.7
170.0
154.0
140.0
127.0
114.0
104.0
95.7
85.7
76.7
69.0
62.0
56.1
50.8
43.5
38.9
36.5
34.2
31.7
29.1
26.4
Victor Saouma
bf
2tf
3.3
3.7
4.2
4.8
5.2
5.7
6.3
7.0
8.3
10.7
2.4
2.6
2.8
3.1
3.4
3.7
4.0
4.4
4.8
5.0
5.5
6.5
7.4
4.8
5.8
7.1
2.0
2.1
2.3
2.5
2.7
3.0
3.2
3.5
3.8
4.2
4.5
5.0
5.3
5.7
6.1
6.5
3.5
3.9
4.5
4.8
5.1
5.5
5.9
6.4
7.6
2.4
2.6
2.8
3.0
3.3
3.6
3.8
4.2
4.6
5.0
5.7
6.2
6.8
4.7
5.5
6.0
6.7
7.8
2.3
2.5
2.7
2.9
3.2
3.5
3.7
4.1
4.6
5.0
5.7
6.3
7.0
4.4
5.3
5.7
6.2
6.9
7.8
8.5
hc
tw
38.0
44.9
49.4
54.9
37.6
41.2
45.6
48.1
48.1
48.1
17.4
19.1
21.2
23.4
25.5
28.0
30.5
34.2
36.8
41.2
45.6
52.6
52.6
52.6
52.6
54.3
12.5
13.2
14.5
16.0
17.6
19.6
21.0
23.1
25.8
28.1
30.9
33.3
35.6
37.5
39.4
41.4
33.8
37.3
39.1
42.4
44.8
47.8
50.0
52.0
54.1
15.2
16.6
18.2
19.7
21.7
23.8
25.8
28.8
31.2
34.5
36.1
38.7
41.9
44.7
47.2
49.6
51.7
54.5
13.7
15.1
16.6
18.0
19.9
21.8
23.7
26.5
29.0
32.5
34.9
38.0
41.2
41.5
43.9
46.2
47.8
49.6
51.9
57.5
Ix
Sx
rx
Iy
Sy
ry
Zx
Zy
in4
24600
21400
19200
16700
26800
24200
21500
19200
16600
13500
56500
50400
44300
39500
35400
32000
28900
25600
23200
21900
19500
16700
14900
13300
11600
9780
67400
62600
55300
48900
43500
38300
34700
31000
27500
24800
22500
20300
18900
17300
16100
15000
16800
15000
13200
12100
11300
10500
9750
9040
7800
41800
37700
33700
30100
26900
24300
21900
19500
17700
15800
14200
12800
11500
9290
8160
7450
6710
5900
33000
29300
26100
23200
20700
18600
16800
14900
13100
11700
10300
9170
8200
6680
5770
5360
4930
4470
3990
3620
in3
1120
983
889
776
1340
1220
1090
983
858
708
2590
2340
2090
1890
1710
1560
1420
1280
1170
1100
992
858
769
682
599
512
3170
2980
2690
2420
2180
1950
1790
1620
1450
1320
1210
1110
1030
953
895
837
895
809
719
664
623
580
542
504
439
2170
1990
1810
1630
1480
1350
1230
1110
1010
917
829
757
684
549
487
448
406
359
1870
1680
1530
1380
1250
1140
1030
928
827
746
663
598
539
436
380
355
329
299
269
245
in
17.1
17.2
17.1
16.9
16.7
16.6
16.5
16.4
16.0
15.5
17.2
17.0
16.9
16.8
16.6
16.6
16.5
16.4
16.3
16.4
16.3
16.2
16.0
15.7
15.3
14.9
16.4
16.4
16.2
16.0
15.9
15.8
15.6
15.6
15.5
15.4
15.3
15.2
15.1
15.0
15.0
14.9
14.9
14.8
14.6
14.6
14.5
14.5
14.4
14.3
14.0
15.2
15.1
14.9
14.8
14.7
14.7
14.5
14.4
14.4
14.3
14.1
14.1
14.0
13.7
13.5
13.4
13.2
13.0
13.9
13.8
13.7
13.5
13.5
13.4
13.2
13.2
13.1
13.0
12.9
12.8
12.7
12.4
12.2
12.1
12.0
11.9
11.7
11.7
in4
490
435
391
336
1660
1490
1320
1170
988
770
2860
2520
2200
1940
1720
1540
1380
1220
1090
1040
926
796
695
336
283
229
4550
4200
3680
3230
2850
2490
2250
1990
1750
1570
1420
1300
1200
1090
1010
940
528
468
411
375
347
320
295
270
225
2870
2580
2290
2030
1800
1620
1460
1290
1160
1030
932
840
749
310
273
246
218
187
2530
2230
1970
1750
1550
1390
1240
1100
959
855
757
673
598
227
196
181
164
146
128
115
in3
83
74
66
57
185
167
149
132
112
87
339
302
266
237
212
191
173
153
138
132
118
101
88
57
48
39
501
467
414
367
328
289
263
235
208
188
171
156
144
132
123
114
86
77
68
62
58
53
49
45
38
340
308
276
247
221
200
181
161
146
131
118
106
95
54
47
43
38
33
312
278
249
222
198
179
162
144
127
114
100
90
80
43
37
34
31
28
24
22
in
2.42
2.44
2.44
2.41
4.15
4.12
4.09
4.04
3.90
3.69
3.86
3.81
3.75
3.72
3.67
3.65
3.61
3.57
3.54
3.58
3.56
3.54
3.45
2.50
2.40
2.29
4.27
4.24
4.18
4.12
4.07
4.02
3.98
3.95
3.90
3.87
3.84
3.83
3.81
3.78
3.75
3.73
2.65
2.62
2.58
2.56
2.55
2.53
2.50
2.47
2.38
3.98
3.94
3.89
3.85
3.81
3.79
3.74
3.71
3.69
3.66
3.63
3.59
3.56
2.50
2.47
2.43
2.39
2.32
3.86
3.80
3.75
3.71
3.68
3.65
3.61
3.58
3.54
3.52
3.49
3.46
3.43
2.28
2.25
2.23
2.19
2.15
2.10
2.09
in3
1310.0
1150.0
1030.0
902.0
1510.0
1370.0
1220.0
1100.0
967.0
807.0
3060.0
2750.0
2450.0
2180.0
1980.0
1790.0
1630.0
1460.0
1330.0
1250.0
1120.0
963.0
868.0
781.0
692.0
597.0
3830.0
3570.0
3190.0
2840.0
2550.0
2270.0
2070.0
1860.0
1660.0
1510.0
1380.0
1260.0
1170.0
1080.0
1010.0
943.0
1040.0
936.0
833.0
767.0
718.0
668.0
624.0
581.0
509.0
2560.0
2330.0
2110.0
1890.0
1700.0
1550.0
1420.0
1270.0
1150.0
1040.0
939.0
855.0
772.0
629.0
559.0
514.0
467.0
415.0
2210.0
1990.0
1790.0
1610.0
1430.0
1300.0
1190.0
1060.0
941.0
845.0
749.0
673.0
605.0
500.0
437.0
408.0
378.0
346.0
312.0
283.0
in3
135.0
118.0
105.0
90.0
286.0
257.0
229.0
203.0
172.0
135.0
541.0
481.0
422.0
374.0
334.0
300.0
270.0
239.0
215.0
204.0
182.0
156.0
137.0
89.6
76.0
62.2
799.0
743.0
656.0
580.0
517.0
454.0
412.0
367.0
325.0
292.0
265.0
241.0
223.0
204.0
190.0
176.0
137.0
122.0
107.0
97.7
90.7
83.8
77.3
70.9
59.7
537.0
485.0
433.0
387.0
345.0
312.0
282.0
250.0
226.0
202.0
182.0
164.0
147.0
84.4
73.9
66.9
59.5
51.3
492.0
438.0
390.0
348.0
310.0
279.0
252.0
223.0
196.0
175.0
154.0
138.0
123.0
68.0
58.4
54.0
49.2
43.9
38.6
34.7
in4
60.0
40.7
30.0
20.1
74.2
56.3
41.1
30.4
21.2
13.7
596.0
451.0
329.0
245.0
186.0
142.0
109.0
79.4
61.2
51.1
37.7
24.4
18.1
19.6
14.0
9.6
1269.0
1073.0
804.0
600.0
453.0
330.0
260.0
195.0
143.0
109.0
84.5
64.2
52.6
41.5
34.6
28.6
53.3
39.8
28.0
22.2
18.4
15.1
12.4
10.1
7.0
567.0
444.0
338.0
256.0
193.0
149.0
115.0
84.4
65.0
48.5
35.8
27.5
20.5
17.7
12.4
9.7
7.4
5.3
537.0
405.0
307.0
231.0
174.0
134.0
103.0
74.9
53.8
40.0
27.9
20.6
15.3
14.6
9.7
8.0
6.4
5.0
3.8
2.9
Structural Engineering
310
STRUCTURAL MATERIALS
Draft
Designation
W 27x539
W 27x494
W 27x448
W 27x407
W 27x368
W 27x336
W 27x307
W 27x281
W 27x258
W 27x235
W 27x217
W 27x194
W 27x178
W 27x161
W 27x146
W 27x129
W 27x114
W 27x102
W 27x 94
W 27x 84
W 24x492
W 24x450
W 24x408
W 24x370
W 24x335
W 24x306
W 24x279
W 24x250
W 24x229
W 24x207
W 24x192
W 24x176
W 24x162
W 24x146
W 24x131
W 24x117
W 24x104
W 24x103
W 24x 94
W 24x 84
W 24x 76
W 24x 68
W 24x 62
W 24x 55
W 21x402
W 21x364
W 21x333
W 21x300
W 21x275
W 21x248
W 21x223
W 21x201
W 21x182
W 21x166
W 21x147
W 21x132
W 21x122
W 21x111
W 21x101
W 21x 93
W 21x 83
W 21x 73
W 21x 68
W 21x 62
W 21x 57
W 21x 50
W 21x 44
W 18x311
W 18x283
W 18x258
W 18x234
W 18x211
W 18x192
W 18x175
W 18x158
W 18x143
W 18x130
W 18x119
W 18x106
W 18x 97
W 18x 86
W 18x 76
W 18x 71
W 18x 65
W 18x 60
W 18x 55
W 18x 50
W 18x 46
W 18x 40
W 18x 35
W 16x100
W 16x 89
W 16x 77
W 16x 67
W 16x 57
W 16x 50
W 16x 45
W 16x 40
W 16x 36
W 16x 31
W 16x 26
W 14x730
W 14x665
W 14x605
W 14x550
W 14x500
W 14x455
W 14x426
W 14x398
W 14x370
W 14x342
W 14x311
W 14x283
W 14x257
W 14x233
W 14x211
W 14x193
tw
bf
tf
in2
in
32.52
31.97
31.42
30.87
30.39
30.00
29.61
29.29
28.98
28.66
28.43
28.11
27.81
27.59
27.38
27.63
27.29
27.09
26.92
26.71
29.65
29.09
28.54
27.99
27.52
27.13
26.73
26.34
26.02
25.71
25.47
25.24
25.00
24.74
24.48
24.26
24.06
24.53
24.31
24.10
23.92
23.73
23.74
23.57
26.02
25.47
25.00
24.53
24.13
23.74
23.35
23.03
22.72
22.48
22.06
21.83
21.68
21.51
21.36
21.62
21.43
21.24
21.13
20.99
21.06
20.83
20.66
22.32
21.85
21.46
21.06
20.67
20.35
20.04
19.72
19.49
19.25
18.97
18.73
18.59
18.39
18.21
18.47
18.35
18.24
18.11
17.99
18.06
17.90
17.70
16.97
16.75
16.52
16.33
16.43
16.26
16.13
16.01
15.86
15.88
15.69
22.42
21.64
20.92
20.24
19.60
19.02
18.67
18.29
17.92
17.54
17.12
16.74
16.38
16.04
15.72
15.48
in
1.970
1.810
1.650
1.520
1.380
1.260
1.160
1.060
0.980
0.910
0.830
0.750
0.725
0.660
0.605
0.610
0.570
0.515
0.490
0.460
1.970
1.810
1.650
1.520
1.380
1.260
1.160
1.040
0.960
0.870
0.810
0.750
0.705
0.650
0.605
0.550
0.500
0.550
0.515
0.470
0.440
0.415
0.430
0.395
1.730
1.590
1.460
1.320
1.220
1.100
1.000
0.910
0.830
0.750
0.720
0.650
0.600
0.550
0.500
0.580
0.515
0.455
0.430
0.400
0.405
0.380
0.350
1.520
1.400
1.280
1.160
1.060
0.960
0.890
0.810
0.730
0.670
0.655
0.590
0.535
0.480
0.425
0.495
0.450
0.415
0.390
0.355
0.360
0.315
0.300
0.585
0.525
0.455
0.395
0.430
0.380
0.345
0.305
0.295
0.275
0.250
3.070
2.830
2.595
2.380
2.190
2.015
1.875
1.770
1.655
1.540
1.410
1.290
1.175
1.070
0.980
0.890
in
15.255
15.095
14.940
14.800
14.665
14.545
14.445
14.350
14.270
14.190
14.115
14.035
14.085
14.020
13.965
10.010
10.070
10.015
9.990
9.960
14.115
13.955
13.800
13.660
13.520
13.405
13.305
13.185
13.110
13.010
12.950
12.890
12.955
12.900
12.855
12.800
12.750
9.000
9.065
9.020
8.990
8.965
7.040
7.005
13.405
13.265
13.130
12.990
12.890
12.775
12.675
12.575
12.500
12.420
12.510
12.440
12.390
12.340
12.290
8.420
8.355
8.295
8.270
8.240
6.555
6.530
6.500
12.005
11.890
11.770
11.650
11.555
11.455
11.375
11.300
11.220
11.160
11.265
11.200
11.145
11.090
11.035
7.635
7.590
7.555
7.530
7.495
6.060
6.015
6.000
10.425
10.365
10.295
10.235
7.120
7.070
7.035
6.995
6.985
5.525
5.500
17.890
17.650
17.415
17.200
17.010
16.835
16.695
16.590
16.475
16.360
16.230
16.110
15.995
15.890
15.800
15.710
in
3.540
3.270
2.990
2.720
2.480
2.280
2.090
1.930
1.770
1.610
1.500
1.340
1.190
1.080
0.975
1.100
0.930
0.830
0.745
0.640
3.540
3.270
2.990
2.720
2.480
2.280
2.090
1.890
1.730
1.570
1.460
1.340
1.220
1.090
0.960
0.850
0.750
0.980
0.875
0.770
0.680
0.585
0.590
0.505
3.130
2.850
2.620
2.380
2.190
1.990
1.790
1.630
1.480
1.360
1.150
1.035
0.960
0.875
0.800
0.930
0.835
0.740
0.685
0.615
0.650
0.535
0.450
2.740
2.500
2.300
2.110
1.910
1.750
1.590
1.440
1.320
1.200
1.060
0.940
0.870
0.770
0.680
0.810
0.750
0.695
0.630
0.570
0.605
0.525
0.425
0.985
0.875
0.760
0.665
0.715
0.630
0.565
0.505
0.430
0.440
0.345
4.910
4.520
4.160
3.820
3.500
3.210
3.035
2.845
2.660
2.470
2.260
2.070
1.890
1.720
1.560
1.440
158.0
145.0
131.0
119.0
108.0
98.7
90.2
82.6
75.7
69.1
63.8
57.0
52.3
47.4
42.9
37.8
33.5
30.0
27.7
24.8
144.0
132.0
119.0
108.0
98.4
89.8
82.0
73.5
67.2
60.7
56.3
51.7
47.7
43.0
38.5
34.4
30.6
30.3
27.7
24.7
22.4
20.1
18.2
16.2
118.0
107.0
97.9
88.2
80.8
72.8
65.4
59.2
53.6
48.8
43.2
38.8
35.9
32.7
29.8
27.3
24.3
21.5
20.0
18.3
16.7
14.7
13.0
91.5
83.2
75.9
68.8
62.1
56.4
51.3
46.3
42.1
38.2
35.1
31.1
28.5
25.3
22.3
20.8
19.1
17.6
16.2
14.7
13.5
11.8
10.3
29.4
26.2
22.6
19.7
16.8
14.7
13.3
11.8
10.6
9.1
7.7
215.0
196.0
178.0
162.0
147.0
134.0
125.0
117.0
109.0
101.0
91.4
83.3
75.6
68.5
62.0
56.8
Victor Saouma
bf
2tf
2.2
2.3
2.5
2.7
3.0
3.2
3.5
3.7
4.0
4.4
4.7
5.2
5.9
6.5
7.2
4.5
5.4
6.0
6.7
7.8
2.0
2.1
2.3
2.5
2.7
2.9
3.2
3.5
3.8
4.1
4.4
4.8
5.3
5.9
6.7
7.5
8.5
4.6
5.2
5.9
6.6
7.7
6.0
6.9
2.1
2.3
2.5
2.7
2.9
3.2
3.5
3.9
4.2
4.6
5.4
6.0
6.5
7.1
7.7
4.5
5.0
5.6
6.0
6.7
5.0
6.1
7.2
2.2
2.4
2.6
2.8
3.0
3.3
3.6
3.9
4.2
4.6
5.3
6.0
6.4
7.2
8.1
4.7
5.1
5.4
6.0
6.6
5.0
5.7
7.1
5.3
5.9
6.8
7.7
5.0
5.6
6.2
6.9
8.1
6.3
8.0
1.8
2.0
2.1
2.3
2.4
2.6
2.8
2.9
3.1
3.3
3.6
3.9
4.2
4.6
5.1
5.5
hc
tw
12.3
13.4
14.7
15.9
17.6
19.2
20.9
22.9
24.7
26.6
29.2
32.3
33.4
36.7
40.0
39.7
42.5
47.0
49.4
52.7
10.9
11.9
13.1
14.2
15.6
17.1
18.6
20.7
22.5
24.8
26.6
28.7
30.6
33.2
35.6
39.2
43.1
39.2
41.9
45.9
49.0
52.0
50.1
54.6
10.8
11.8
12.8
14.2
15.4
17.1
18.8
20.6
22.6
24.9
26.1
28.9
31.3
34.1
37.5
32.3
36.4
41.2
43.6
46.9
46.3
49.4
53.6
10.6
11.5
12.5
13.8
15.1
16.7
18.0
19.8
21.9
23.9
24.5
27.2
30.0
33.4
37.8
32.4
35.7
38.7
41.2
45.2
44.6
51.0
53.5
24.3
27.0
31.2
35.9
33.0
37.4
41.2
46.6
48.1
51.6
56.8
3.7
4.0
4.4
4.8
5.2
5.7
6.1
6.4
6.9
7.4
8.1
8.8
9.7
10.7
11.6
12.8
Ix
Sx
rx
Iy
Sy
ry
Zx
Zy
in4
25500
22900
20400
18100
16100
14500
13100
11900
10800
9660
8870
7820
6990
6280
5630
4760
4090
3620
3270
2850
19100
17100
15100
13400
11900
10700
9600
8490
7650
6820
6260
5680
5170
4580
4020
3540
3100
3000
2700
2370
2100
1830
1550
1350
12200
10800
9610
8480
7620
6760
5950
5310
4730
4280
3630
3220
2960
2670
2420
2070
1830
1600
1480
1330
1170
984
843
6960
6160
5510
4900
4330
3870
3450
3060
2750
2460
2190
1910
1750
1530
1330
1170
1070
984
890
800
712
612
510
1490
1300
1110
954
758
659
586
518
448
375
301
14300
12400
10800
9430
8210
7190
6600
6000
5440
4900
4330
3840
3400
3010
2660
2400
in3
1570
1440
1300
1170
1060
970
884
811
742
674
624
556
502
455
411
345
299
267
243
213
1290
1170
1060
957
864
789
718
644
588
531
491
450
414
371
329
291
258
245
222
196
176
154
131
114
937
846
769
692
632
569
510
461
417
380
329
295
273
249
227
192
171
151
140
127
111
94
82
624
564
514
466
419
380
344
310
282
256
231
204
188
166
146
127
117
108
98
89
79
68
58
175
155
134
117
92
81
73
65
56
47
38
1280
1150
1040
931
838
756
707
656
607
559
506
459
415
375
338
310
in
12.7
12.6
12.5
12.3
12.2
12.1
12.0
12.0
11.9
11.8
11.8
11.7
11.6
11.5
11.4
11.2
11.0
11.0
10.9
10.7
11.5
11.4
11.3
11.1
11.0
10.9
10.8
10.7
10.7
10.6
10.5
10.5
10.4
10.3
10.2
10.1
10.1
10.0
9.9
9.8
9.7
9.6
9.2
9.1
10.2
10.0
9.9
9.8
9.7
9.6
9.5
9.5
9.4
9.4
9.2
9.1
9.1
9.1
9.0
8.7
8.7
8.6
8.6
8.5
8.4
8.2
8.1
8.7
8.6
8.5
8.4
8.4
8.3
8.2
8.1
8.1
8.0
7.9
7.8
7.8
7.8
7.7
7.5
7.5
7.5
7.4
7.4
7.2
7.2
7.0
7.1
7.1
7.0
7.0
6.7
6.7
6.7
6.6
6.5
6.4
6.3
8.2
8.0
7.8
7.6
7.5
7.3
7.3
7.2
7.1
7.0
6.9
6.8
6.7
6.6
6.6
6.5
in4
2110
1890
1670
1480
1310
1170
1050
953
859
768
704
618
555
497
443
184
159
139
124
106
1670
1490
1320
1160
1030
919
823
724
651
578
530
479
443
391
340
297
259
119
109
94
82
70
34
29
1270
1120
994
873
785
694
609
542
483
435
376
333
305
274
248
93
81
71
65
58
31
25
21
795
704
628
558
493
440
391
347
311
278
253
220
201
175
152
60
55
50
45
40
22
19
15
186
163
138
119
43
37
33
29
24
12
10
4720
4170
3680
3250
2880
2560
2360
2170
1990
1810
1610
1440
1290
1150
1030
931
in3
277
250
224
200
179
161
146
133
120
108
100
88
79
71
64
37
32
28
25
21
237
214
191
170
152
137
124
110
99
89
82
74
68
60
53
46
41
26
24
21
18
16
10
8
189
168
151
134
122
109
96
86
77
70
60
54
49
44
40
22
20
17
16
14
9
8
6
132
118
107
96
85
77
69
61
56
50
45
39
36
32
28
16
14
13
12
11
7
6
5
36
31
27
23
12
10
9
8
7
4
3
527
472
423
378
339
304
283
262
241
221
199
179
161
145
130
119
in
3.66
3.61
3.57
3.52
3.48
3.45
3.42
3.40
3.37
3.33
3.32
3.29
3.26
3.24
3.21
2.21
2.18
2.15
2.12
2.07
3.41
3.36
3.33
3.28
3.23
3.20
3.17
3.14
3.11
3.08
3.07
3.04
3.05
3.01
2.97
2.94
2.91
1.99
1.98
1.95
1.92
1.87
1.38
1.34
3.27
3.23
3.19
3.15
3.12
3.09
3.05
3.02
3.00
2.98
2.95
2.93
2.92
2.90
2.89
1.84
1.83
1.81
1.80
1.77
1.35
1.30
1.26
2.95
2.91
2.88
2.85
2.82
2.79
2.76
2.74
2.72
2.70
2.69
2.66
2.65
2.63
2.61
1.70
1.69
1.69
1.67
1.65
1.29
1.27
1.22
2.51
2.49
2.47
2.46
1.60
1.59
1.57
1.57
1.52
1.17
1.12
4.69
4.62
4.55
4.49
4.43
4.38
4.34
4.31
4.27
4.24
4.20
4.17
4.13
4.10
4.07
4.05
in3
1880.0
1710.0
1530.0
1380.0
1240.0
1130.0
1020.0
933.0
850.0
769.0
708.0
628.0
567.0
512.0
461.0
395.0
343.0
305.0
278.0
244.0
1550.0
1410.0
1250.0
1120.0
1020.0
922.0
835.0
744.0
676.0
606.0
559.0
511.0
468.0
418.0
370.0
327.0
289.0
280.0
254.0
224.0
200.0
177.0
153.0
134.0
1130.0
1010.0
915.0
816.0
741.0
663.0
589.0
530.0
476.0
432.0
373.0
333.0
307.0
279.0
253.0
221.0
196.0
172.0
160.0
144.0
129.0
110.0
95.4
753.0
676.0
611.0
549.0
490.0
442.0
398.0
356.0
322.0
291.0
261.0
230.0
211.0
186.0
163.0
145.0
133.0
123.0
112.0
101.0
90.7
78.4
66.5
198.0
175.0
150.0
130.0
105.0
92.0
82.3
72.9
64.0
54.0
44.2
1660.0
1480.0
1320.0
1180.0
1050.0
936.0
869.0
801.0
736.0
672.0
603.0
542.0
487.0
436.0
390.0
355.0
in3
437.0
394.0
351.0
313.0
279.0
252.0
227.0
206.0
187.0
168.0
154.0
136.0
122.0
109.0
97.5
57.6
49.3
43.4
38.8
33.2
375.0
337.0
300.0
267.0
238.0
214.0
193.0
171.0
154.0
137.0
126.0
115.0
105.0
93.2
81.5
71.4
62.4
41.5
37.5
32.6
28.6
24.5
15.7
13.3
296.0
263.0
237.0
210.0
189.0
169.0
149.0
133.0
119.0
108.0
92.6
82.3
75.6
68.2
61.7
34.7
30.5
26.6
24.4
21.7
14.8
12.2
10.2
207.0
185.0
166.0
149.0
132.0
119.0
106.0
94.8
85.4
76.7
69.1
60.5
55.3
48.4
42.2
24.7
22.5
20.6
18.5
16.6
11.7
9.9
8.1
54.9
48.1
41.1
35.5
18.9
16.3
14.5
12.7
10.8
7.0
5.5
816.0
730.0
652.0
583.0
522.0
468.0
434.0
402.0
370.0
338.0
304.0
274.0
246.0
221.0
198.0
180.0
in4
499.0
391.0
297.0
225.0
169.0
131.0
101.0
78.8
61.0
46.3
37.0
26.5
19.5
14.7
10.9
11.2
7.3
5.3
4.0
2.8
456.0
357.0
271.0
205.0
154.0
119.0
91.7
67.3
51.8
38.6
31.0
24.1
18.5
13.4
9.5
6.7
4.7
7.1
5.3
3.7
2.7
1.9
1.7
1.2
298.0
225.0
174.0
130.0
101.0
75.2
54.9
41.3
31.1
23.9
15.4
11.3
9.0
6.8
5.2
6.0
4.3
3.0
2.5
1.8
1.8
1.1
0.8
177.0
135.0
104.0
79.7
59.3
45.2
34.2
25.4
19.4
14.7
10.6
7.5
5.9
4.1
2.8
3.5
2.7
2.2
1.7
1.2
1.2
0.8
0.5
7.7
5.4
3.6
2.4
2.2
1.5
1.1
0.8
0.5
0.5
0.3
1450.0
1120.0
870.0
670.0
514.0
395.0
331.0
273.0
222.0
178.0
136.0
104.0
79.1
59.5
44.6
34.8
Structural Engineering
Draft
Designation
W 8x 67
W 8x 58
W 8x 48
W 8x 40
W 8x 35
W 8x 31
W 8x 28
W 8x 24
W 8x 21
W 8x 18
W 8x 15
W 8x 13
W 8x 10
W 6x 25
W 6x 20
W 6x 15
W 6x 16
W 6x 12
W 6x 9
W 5x 19
W 5x 16
W 4x 13
M 14x 18
M 12x 12
M 12x 11
M 12x 10
M 10x 9
M 10x 8
M 10x 8
M 8x 6
M 6x 4
M 5x 19
S 24x121
S 24x106
S 24x100
S 24x 90
S 24x 80
S 20x 96
S 20x 86
S 20x 75
S 20x 66
S 18x 70
S 18x 55
S 15x 50
S 15x 43
S 12x 50
S 12x 41
S 12x 35
S 12x 32
S 10x 35
S 10x 25
S 8x 23
S 8x 18
S 7x 20
S 7x 15
S 6x 17
S 6x 12
S 5x 15
S 5x 10
S 4x 10
S 4x 8
S 3x 8
S 3x 6
311
tw
bf
tf
in2
in
9.00
8.75
8.50
8.25
8.12
8.00
8.06
7.93
8.28
8.14
8.11
7.99
7.89
6.38
6.20
5.99
6.28
6.03
5.90
5.15
5.01
4.16
14.00
12.00
11.97
11.97
10.00
9.95
9.99
8.00
6.00
5.00
24.50
24.50
24.00
24.00
24.00
20.30
20.30
20.00
20.00
18.00
18.00
15.00
15.00
12.00
12.00
12.00
12.00
10.00
10.00
8.00
8.00
7.00
7.00
6.00
6.00
5.00
5.00
4.00
4.00
3.00
3.00
in
0.570
0.510
0.400
0.360
0.310
0.285
0.285
0.245
0.250
0.230
0.245
0.230
0.170
0.320
0.260
0.230
0.260
0.230
0.170
0.270
0.240
0.280
0.215
0.177
0.160
0.149
0.157
0.141
0.130
0.135
0.114
0.316
0.800
0.620
0.745
0.625
0.500
0.800
0.660
0.635
0.505
0.711
0.461
0.550
0.411
0.687
0.462
0.428
0.350
0.594
0.311
0.441
0.271
0.450
0.252
0.465
0.232
0.494
0.214
0.326
0.193
0.349
0.170
in
8.280
8.220
8.110
8.070
8.020
7.995
6.535
6.495
5.270
5.250
4.015
4.000
3.940
6.080
6.020
5.990
4.030
4.000
3.940
5.030
5.000
4.060
4.000
3.065
3.065
3.250
2.690
2.690
2.690
2.281
1.844
5.003
8.050
7.870
7.245
7.125
7.000
7.200
7.060
6.385
6.255
6.251
6.001
5.640
5.501
5.477
5.252
5.078
5.000
4.944
4.661
4.171
4.001
3.860
3.662
3.565
3.332
3.284
3.004
2.796
2.663
2.509
2.330
in
0.935
0.810
0.685
0.560
0.495
0.435
0.465
0.400
0.400
0.330
0.315
0.255
0.205
0.455
0.365
0.260
0.405
0.280
0.215
0.430
0.360
0.345
0.270
0.225
0.210
0.180
0.206
0.182
0.173
0.189
0.171
0.416
1.090
1.090
0.870
0.870
0.870
0.920
0.920
0.795
0.795
0.691
0.691
0.622
0.622
0.659
0.659
0.544
0.544
0.491
0.491
0.426
0.426
0.392
0.392
0.359
0.359
0.326
0.326
0.293
0.293
0.260
0.260
19.7
17.1
14.1
11.7
10.3
9.1
8.2
7.1
6.2
5.3
4.4
3.8
3.0
7.3
5.9
4.4
4.7
3.5
2.7
5.5
4.7
3.8
5.1
3.5
3.2
2.9
2.7
2.3
2.2
1.9
1.3
5.6
35.6
31.2
29.3
26.5
23.5
28.2
25.3
22.0
19.4
20.6
16.1
14.7
12.6
14.7
12.0
10.3
9.4
10.3
7.5
6.8
5.4
5.9
4.5
5.1
3.7
4.3
2.9
2.8
2.3
2.2
1.7
Victor Saouma
bf
2tf
4.4
5.1
5.9
7.2
8.1
9.2
7.0
8.1
6.6
8.0
6.4
7.8
9.6
6.7
8.2
11.5
5.0
7.1
9.2
5.8
6.9
5.9
7.4
6.8
7.3
9.1
6.5
7.4
7.8
6.0
5.4
6.0
3.7
3.6
4.2
4.1
4.0
3.9
3.8
4.0
3.9
4.5
4.3
4.5
4.4
4.2
4.0
4.7
4.6
5.0
4.7
4.9
4.7
4.9
4.7
5.0
4.6
5.0
4.6
4.8
4.5
4.8
4.5
hc
tw
11.1
12.4
15.8
17.6
20.4
22.2
22.2
25.8
27.5
29.9
28.1
29.9
40.5
15.5
19.1
21.6
19.1
21.6
29.2
14.0
15.8
10.6
60.3
62.5
63.6
68.0
58.4
59.3
65.0
53.8
47.0
11.2
26.4
34.1
28.3
33.7
42.1
21.6
26.2
27.1
34.1
21.8
33.6
23.2
31.0
13.9
20.7
23.4
28.6
13.8
26.4
14.5
23.7
12.3
21.9
9.9
19.9
7.5
17.4
8.7
14.7
5.6
11.4
Ix
Sx
rx
Iy
Sy
ry
Zx
Zy
in4
272
228
184
146
127
110
98
83
75
62
48
40
31
53
41
29
32
22
16
26
21
11
148
72
65
62
39
34
33
18
7
24
3160
2940
2390
2250
2100
1670
1580
1280
1190
926
804
486
447
305
272
229
218
147
124
65
58
42
37
26
22
15
12
7
6
3
3
in3
60
52
43
36
31
28
24
21
18
15
12
10
8
17
13
10
10
7
6
10
9
5
21
12
11
10
8
7
7
5
2
10
258
240
199
187
175
165
155
128
119
103
89
65
60
51
45
38
36
29
25
16
14
12
10
9
7
6
5
3
3
2
2
in
3.7
3.7
3.6
3.5
3.5
3.5
3.5
3.4
3.5
3.4
3.3
3.2
3.2
2.7
2.7
2.6
2.6
2.5
2.5
2.2
2.1
1.7
5.4
4.6
4.6
4.6
3.8
3.8
3.8
3.1
2.4
2.1
9.4
9.7
9.0
9.2
9.5
7.7
7.9
7.6
7.8
6.7
7.1
5.8
5.9
4.6
4.8
4.7
4.8
3.8
4.1
3.1
3.3
2.7
2.9
2.3
2.5
1.9
2.0
1.6
1.6
1.1
1.2
in4
89
75
61
49
43
37
22
18
10
8
3
3
2
17
13
9
4
3
2
9
8
4
3
1
1
1
1
1
0
0
0
8
83
77
48
45
42
50
47
30
28
24
21
16
14
16
14
10
9
8
7
4
4
3
3
2
2
2
1
1
1
1
0
in3
21
18
15
12
11
9
7
6
4
3
2
1
1
6
4
3
2
2
1
4
3
2
1
1
1
1
0
0
0
0
0
3
21
20
13
13
12
14
13
9
9
8
7
6
5
6
5
4
4
3
3
2
2
2
1
1
1
1
1
1
1
0
0
in
2.12
2.10
2.08
2.04
2.03
2.02
1.62
1.61
1.26
1.23
0.88
0.84
0.84
1.52
1.50
1.46
0.97
0.92
0.90
1.28
1.27
1.00
0.72
0.53
0.54
0.58
0.48
0.43
0.47
0.42
0.36
1.19
1.53
1.57
1.27
1.30
1.34
1.33
1.36
1.16
1.19
1.08
1.14
1.03
1.07
1.03
1.06
0.98
1.00
0.90
0.95
0.80
0.83
0.73
0.77
0.68
0.70
0.62
0.64
0.57
0.58
0.52
0.52
in3
70.2
59.8
49.0
39.8
34.7
30.4
27.2
23.2
20.4
17.0
13.6
11.4
8.9
18.9
14.9
10.8
11.7
8.3
6.2
11.6
9.6
6.3
24.9
14.3
13.2
12.2
9.2
8.2
7.7
5.4
2.8
11.0
306.0
279.0
240.0
222.0
204.0
198.0
183.0
153.0
140.0
125.0
105.0
77.1
69.3
61.2
53.1
44.8
42.0
35.4
28.4
19.3
16.5
14.5
12.1
10.6
8.5
7.4
5.7
4.0
3.5
2.4
2.0
in3
32.7
27.9
22.9
18.5
16.1
14.1
10.1
8.6
5.7
4.7
2.7
2.2
1.7
8.6
6.7
4.8
3.4
2.3
1.7
5.5
4.6
2.9
2.2
1.1
1.0
1.0
0.8
0.7
0.6
0.5
0.3
5.0
36.2
33.2
23.9
22.3
20.7
24.9
23.0
16.7
15.3
14.4
12.1
10.0
9.0
10.3
8.9
6.8
6.4
6.2
5.0
3.7
3.2
3.0
2.4
2.4
1.9
1.9
1.4
1.1
1.0
0.8
0.7
in4
5.1
3.3
2.0
1.1
0.8
0.5
0.5
0.3
0.3
0.2
0.1
0.1
0.0
0.5
0.2
0.1
0.2
0.1
0.0
0.3
0.2
0.2
0.1
0.1
0.0
0.0
0.0
0.0
0.0
0.0
0.0
0.3
12.8
10.1
7.6
6.0
4.9
8.4
6.6
4.6
3.6
4.2
2.4
2.1
1.5
2.8
1.8
1.1
0.9
1.3
0.6
0.6
0.3
0.4
0.2
0.4
0.2
0.3
0.1
0.1
0.1
0.1
0.0
Structural Engineering
312
Draft
Designation
C 15.x 50
C 15.x 40
C 15.x 34
C 12.x 30
C 12.x 25
C 12.x 21
C 10.x 30
C 10.x 25
C 10.x 20
C 10.x 15
C 9.x 20
C 9.x 15
C 9.x 13
C 8.x 19
C 8.x 14
C 8.x 12
C 7.x 15
C 7.x 12
C 7.x 10
C 6.x 13
C 6.x 11
C 6.x 8
C 5.x 9
C 5.x 7
C 4.x 7
C 4.x 5
C 3.x 6
C 3.x 5
C 3.x 4
MC18.x 58
MC18.x 52
MC18.x 46
MC18.x 43
MC13.x 50
MC13.x 40
MC13.x 35
MC13.x 32
MC12.x 50
MC12.x 45
MC12.x 40
MC12.x 35
MC12.x 31
MC12.x 11
MC10.x 41
MC10.x 34
MC10.x 29
MC10.x 25
MC10.x 22
MC10.x 8
MC10.x 7
MC 9.x 25
MC 9.x 24
MC 8.x 23
MC 8.x 21
MC 8.x 20
MC 8.x 19
MC 8.x 9
MC 7.x 23
MC 7.x 19
MC 6.x 18
MC 6.x 15
MC 6.x 16
MC 6.x 15
MC 6.x 12
STRUCTURAL MATERIALS
A
tw
bf
tf
in2
in
15.
15.
15.
12.
12.
12.
10.
10.
10.
10.
9.
9.
9.
8.
8.
8.
7.
7.
7.
6.
6.
6.
5.
5.
4.
4.
3.
3.
3.
18.
18.
18.
18.
13.
13.
13.
13.
12.
12.
12.
12.
12.
12.
10.
10.
10.
10.
10.
10.
10.
9.
9.
8.
8.
8.
8.
8.
7.
7.
6.
6.
6.
6.
6.
in
0.716
0.520
0.400
0.510
0.387
0.282
0.673
0.526
0.379
0.240
0.448
0.285
0.233
0.487
0.303
0.220
0.419
0.314
0.210
0.437
0.314
0.200
0.325
0.190
0.321
0.184
0.356
0.258
0.170
0.700
0.600
0.500
0.450
0.787
0.560
0.447
0.375
0.835
0.712
0.590
0.467
0.370
0.190
0.796
0.575
0.425
0.380
0.290
0.170
0.152
0.450
0.400
0.427
0.375
0.400
0.353
0.179
0.503
0.352
0.379
0.340
0.375
0.316
0.310
in
3.716
3.520
3.400
3.170
3.047
2.942
3.033
2.886
2.739
2.600
2.648
2.485
2.433
2.527
2.343
2.260
2.299
2.194
2.090
2.157
2.034
1.920
1.885
1.750
1.721
1.584
1.596
1.498
1.410
4.200
4.100
4.000
3.950
4.412
4.185
4.072
4.000
4.135
4.012
3.890
3.767
3.670
1.500
4.321
4.100
3.950
3.405
3.315
1.500
1.127
3.500
3.450
3.502
3.450
3.025
2.978
1.874
3.603
3.452
3.504
3.500
3.000
2.941
2.497
in
0.650
0.650
0.650
0.501
0.501
0.501
0.436
0.436
0.436
0.436
0.413
0.413
0.413
0.390
0.390
0.390
0.366
0.366
0.366
0.343
0.343
0.343
0.320
0.320
0.296
0.296
0.273
0.273
0.273
0.625
0.625
0.625
0.625
0.610
0.610
0.610
0.610
0.700
0.700
0.700
0.700
0.700
0.309
0.575
0.575
0.575
0.575
0.575
0.280
0.202
0.550
0.550
0.525
0.525
0.500
0.500
0.311
0.500
0.500
0.475
0.385
0.475
0.475
0.375
14.7
11.8
10.0
8.8
7.3
6.1
8.8
7.3
5.9
4.5
5.9
4.4
3.9
5.5
4.0
3.4
4.3
3.6
2.9
3.8
3.1
2.4
2.6
2.0
2.1
1.6
1.8
1.5
1.2
17.1
15.3
13.5
12.6
14.7
11.8
10.3
9.4
14.7
13.2
11.8
10.3
9.1
3.1
12.1
9.9
8.4
7.3
6.4
2.5
1.9
7.5
7.0
6.7
6.3
5.9
5.5
2.5
6.7
5.6
5.3
4.5
4.8
4.4
3.5
Victor Saouma
bf
2tf
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
hc
tw
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
Ix
Sx
rx
Iy
Sy
ry
Zx
Zy
in4
404.0
349.0
315.0
162.0
144.0
129.0
103.0
91.2
78.9
67.4
60.9
51.0
47.9
44.0
36.1
32.6
27.2
24.2
21.3
17.4
15.2
13.1
8.9
7.5
4.6
3.8
2.1
1.9
1.7
676.0
627.0
578.0
554.0
314.0
273.0
252.0
239.0
269.0
252.0
234.0
216.0
203.0
55.4
158.0
139.0
127.0
110.0
103.0
32.0
22.1
88.0
85.0
63.8
61.6
54.5
52.5
23.3
47.5
43.2
29.7
25.4
26.0
25.0
18.7
in3
53.8
46.5
42.0
27.0
24.1
21.5
20.7
18.2
15.8
13.5
13.5
11.3
10.6
11.0
9.0
8.1
7.8
6.9
6.1
5.8
5.1
4.4
3.6
3.0
2.3
1.9
1.4
1.2
1.1
75.1
69.7
64.3
61.6
48.4
42.0
38.8
36.8
44.9
42.0
39.0
36.1
33.8
9.2
31.5
27.8
25.3
22.0
20.5
6.4
4.4
19.6
18.9
16.0
15.4
13.6
13.1
5.8
13.6
12.3
9.9
8.5
8.7
8.3
6.2
in
5.24
5.44
5.62
4.29
4.43
4.61
3.42
3.52
3.66
3.87
3.22
3.40
3.48
2.82
2.99
3.11
2.51
2.60
2.72
2.13
2.22
2.34
1.83
1.95
1.47
1.56
1.08
1.12
1.17
6.29
6.41
6.56
6.64
4.62
4.82
4.95
5.06
4.28
4.36
4.46
4.59
4.71
4.22
3.61
3.75
3.89
3.87
3.99
3.61
3.40
3.43
3.48
3.09
3.13
3.05
3.09
3.05
2.67
2.77
2.37
2.38
2.33
2.37
2.30
in4
11.
9.23
8.13
5.14
4.47
3.88
3.94
3.36
2.81
2.28
2.42
1.93
1.76
1.98
1.53
1.32
1.38
1.17
0.97
1.05
0.87
0.69
0.63
0.48
0.43
0.32
0.31
0.25
0.20
17.80
16.40
15.10
14.40
16.50
13.70
12.30
11.40
17.40
15.80
14.30
12.70
11.30
0.38
15.80
13.20
11.40
7.35
6.50
0.33
0.11
7.65
7.22
7.07
6.64
4.47
4.20
0.63
7.29
6.11
5.93
4.97
3.82
3.51
1.87
in3
3.78
3.37
3.11
2.06
1.88
1.73
1.65
1.48
1.32
1.16
1.17
1.01
0.96
1.01
0.85
0.78
0.78
0.70
0.63
0.64
0.56
0.49
0.45
0.38
0.34
0.28
0.27
0.23
0.20
5.32
5.07
4.82
4.69
4.79
4.26
3.99
3.81
5.65
5.33
5.
4.67
4.39
0.31
4.88
4.38
4.02
3.
2.80
0.27
0.12
3.02
2.93
2.84
2.74
2.05
1.97
0.43
2.85
2.57
2.48
2.03
1.84
1.75
1.04
in
0.87
0.89
0.90
0.76
0.78
0.80
0.67
0.68
0.69
0.71
0.64
0.66
0.67
0.60
0.62
0.63
0.56
0.57
0.58
0.52
0.53
0.54
0.49
0.49
0.45
0.45
0.42
0.41
0.40
1.02
1.04
1.06
1.07
1.06
1.08
1.10
1.11
1.09
1.09
1.10
1.11
1.12
0.35
1.14
1.16
1.17
1.
1.
0.37
0.24
1.01
1.01
1.03
1.03
0.87
0.87
0.50
1.05
1.04
1.06
1.05
0.89
0.89
0.73
in3
68.20
57.20
50.40
33.60
29.20
25.40
26.60
23.
19.30
15.80
16.80
13.50
12.50
13.80
10.90
9.55
9.68
8.40
7.12
7.26
6.15
5.13
4.36
3.51
2.81
2.26
1.72
1.50
1.30
94.60
86.50
78.40
74.40
60.50
50.90
46.20
43.10
56.10
51.70
47.30
42.80
39.30
11.60
38.90
33.40
29.60
25.80
23.60
7.86
5.73
23.20
22.20
18.80
18.
16.20
15.40
6.91
16.20
14.30
11.50
9.82
10.20
9.69
7.38
in3
8.17
6.87
6.23
4.33
3.84
3.49
3.78
3.19
2.71
2.35
2.47
2.05
1.95
2.17
1.73
1.58
1.64
1.43
1.26
1.36
1.15
0.99
0.92
0.76
0.70
0.57
0.54
0.47
0.40
9.94
9.13
8.42
8.10
10.10
8.57
7.95
7.60
10.20
9.35
8.59
7.91
7.44
0.64
8.71
7.51
6.83
5.21
4.86
0.55
0.25
5.23
5.05
4.88
4.71
3.57
3.44
0.88
4.86
4.34
4.14
3.28
3.18
3.
1.79
in4
2.67
1.46
1.02
0.87
0.54
0.37
1.23
0.69
0.37
0.21
0.43
0.21
0.17
0.44
0.19
0.13
0.27
0.16
0.10
0.24
0.13
0.08
0.11
0.06
0.08
0.04
0.07
0.04
0.03
2.81
2.03
1.45
1.23
2.98
1.57
1.14
0.94
3.24
2.35
1.70
1.25
1.01
0.06
2.27
1.21
0.79
0.64
0.51
0.04
0.02
0.69
0.60
0.57
0.50
0.44
0.38
0.06
0.63
0.41
0.38
0.22
0.34
0.29
0.15
Structural Engineering
Draft
Designation
WT18.x180.
WT18.x164.
WT18.x150.
WT18.x140.
WT18.x130.
WT18.x123.
WT18.x115.
WT18.x128.
WT18.x116.
WT18.x105.
WT18.x 97.
WT18.x 91.
WT18.x 85.
WT18.x 80.
WT18.x 75.
WT18.x 68.
WT17.x177.
WT17.x159.
WT17.x146.
WT17.x132.
WT17.x121.
WT17.x111.
WT17.x101.
WT17.x 85.
WT17.x 76.
WT17.x 71.
WT17.x 65.
WT17.x 59.
WT15.x118.
WT15.x106.
WT15.x 96.
WT15.x 87.
WT15.x 74.
WT15.x 66.
WT15.x 62.
WT15.x 58.
WT15.x 54.
WT15.x 50.
WT14.x109.
WT14.x 97.
WT14.x 89.
WT14.x 81.
WT14.x 73.
WT14.x 65.
WT14.x 57.
WT14.x 51.
WT14.x 47.
WT14.x 42.
WT12.x 88.
WT12.x 81.
WT12.x 73.
WT12.x 66.
WT12.x 59.
WT12.x 52.
WT12.x 52.
WT12.x 47.
WT12.x 42.
WT12.x 38.
WT12.x 34.
WT12.x 31.
WT12.x 28.
WT11.x 83.
WT11.x 74.
WT11.x 66.
WT11.x 61.
WT11.x 56.
WT11.x 51.
WT11.x 47.
WT11.x 42.
WT11.x 37.
WT11.x 34.
WT11.x 31.
WT11.x 29.
WT11.x 25.
WT11.x 22.
WT 9.x 72.
WT 9.x 65.
WT 9.x 60.
WT 9.x 53.
WT 9.x 49.
WT 9.x 43.
WT 9.x 38.
WT 9.x 36.
WT 9.x 33.
WT 9.x 30.
WT 9.x 28.
WT 9.x 25.
WT 9.x 23.
WT 9.x 20.
WT 9.x 18.
313
tw
bf
tf
in2
in
18.70
18.54
18.37
18.26
18.13
18.04
17.95
18.71
18.56
18.34
18.25
18.17
18.08
18.00
17.92
17.77
17.77
17.58
17.42
17.26
17.09
16.97
16.84
16.91
16.75
16.65
16.55
16.43
15.65
15.47
15.34
15.22
15.34
15.15
15.09
15.01
14.91
14.82
14.22
14.06
13.90
13.80
13.69
13.81
13.65
13.55
13.46
13.35
12.63
12.50
12.37
12.24
12.13
12.03
12.26
12.15
12.05
11.96
11.86
11.87
11.78
11.24
11.03
10.91
10.84
10.76
10.68
10.81
10.72
10.62
10.56
10.49
10.53
10.41
10.33
9.74
9.63
9.48
9.36
9.30
9.19
9.10
9.23
9.18
9.12
9.06
8.99
9.03
8.95
8.85
in
1.120
1.020
0.945
0.885
0.840
0.800
0.760
0.960
0.870
0.830
0.765
0.725
0.680
0.650
0.625
0.600
1.160
1.040
0.960
0.870
0.830
0.775
0.715
0.670
0.635
0.605
0.580
0.550
0.830
0.775
0.710
0.655
0.650
0.615
0.585
0.565
0.545
0.520
0.830
0.750
0.725
0.660
0.605
0.610
0.570
0.515
0.490
0.460
0.750
0.705
0.650
0.605
0.550
0.500
0.550
0.515
0.470
0.440
0.415
0.430
0.395
0.750
0.720
0.650
0.600
0.550
0.500
0.580
0.515
0.455
0.430
0.400
0.405
0.380
0.350
0.730
0.670
0.655
0.590
0.535
0.480
0.425
0.495
0.450
0.415
0.390
0.355
0.360
0.315
0.300
in
16.730
16.630
16.655
16.595
16.550
16.510
16.470
12.215
12.120
12.180
12.115
12.075
12.030
12.000
11.975
11.950
16.100
15.985
15.905
15.805
15.860
15.805
15.745
11.500
11.565
11.535
11.510
11.480
15.055
15.105
15.040
14.985
10.480
10.545
10.515
10.495
10.475
10.450
14.115
14.035
14.085
14.020
13.965
10.010
10.070
10.015
9.990
9.960
12.890
12.955
12.900
12.855
12.800
12.750
9.000
9.065
9.020
8.990
8.965
7.040
7.005
12.420
12.510
12.440
12.390
12.340
12.290
8.420
8.355
8.295
8.270
8.240
6.555
6.530
6.500
11.220
11.160
11.265
11.200
11.145
11.090
11.035
7.635
7.590
7.555
7.530
7.495
6.060
6.015
6.000
in
2.010
1.850
1.680
1.570
1.440
1.350
1.260
1.730
1.570
1.360
1.260
1.180
1.100
1.020
0.940
0.790
2.090
1.890
1.730
1.570
1.400
1.275
1.150
1.220
1.055
0.960
0.855
0.740
1.500
1.315
1.185
1.065
1.180
1.000
0.930
0.850
0.760
0.670
1.500
1.340
1.190
1.080
0.975
1.100
0.930
0.830
0.745
0.640
1.340
1.220
1.090
0.960
0.850
0.750
0.980
0.875
0.770
0.680
0.585
0.590
0.505
1.360
1.150
1.035
0.960
0.875
0.800
0.930
0.835
0.740
0.685
0.615
0.650
0.535
0.450
1.320
1.200
1.060
0.940
0.870
0.770
0.680
0.810
0.750
0.695
0.630
0.570
0.605
0.525
0.425
52.7
48.2
44.1
41.2
38.2
36.0
33.8
37.7
34.1
30.9
28.5
26.8
25.0
23.5
22.1
19.9
52.1
46.7
42.8
38.7
35.4
32.5
29.5
24.8
22.4
20.8
19.2
17.3
34.5
31.0
28.1
25.4
21.7
19.4
18.2
17.1
15.9
14.5
31.9
28.5
26.1
23.7
21.5
18.9
16.8
15.0
13.8
12.4
25.8
23.9
21.5
19.3
17.2
15.3
15.1
13.8
12.4
11.2
10.0
9.1
8.1
24.4
21.6
19.4
17.9
16.3
14.9
13.7
12.2
10.7
10.0
9.1
8.4
7.4
6.5
21.0
19.1
17.5
15.6
14.3
12.7
11.2
10.4
9.6
8.8
8.1
7.3
6.8
5.9
5.2
Victor Saouma
bf
2tf
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
hc
tw
14.1
15.4
16.7
17.8
18.7
19.7
20.7
16.9
18.7
19.6
21.2
22.4
23.9
25.0
26.0
27.1
12.9
14.4
15.6
17.2
18.1
19.3
21.0
22.4
23.6
24.8
25.8
27.3
16.2
17.4
19.0
20.6
20.8
22.0
23.1
23.9
24.8
26.0
14.6
16.2
16.7
18.4
20.0
19.9
21.3
23.5
24.7
26.3
14.4
15.3
16.6
17.8
19.6
21.6
19.6
20.9
22.9
24.5
26.0
25.1
27.3
12.4
13.0
14.4
15.6
17.1
18.8
16.2
18.2
20.6
21.8
23.5
23.2
24.7
26.8
11.0
11.9
12.3
13.6
15.0
16.7
18.9
16.2
17.8
19.3
20.6
22.6
22.3
25.5
26.8
Ix
Sx
rx
Iy
Sy
ry
Zx
Zy
in4
1500.0
1350.0
1230.0
1140.0
1060.0
995.0
934.0
1200.0
1080.0
985.0
901.0
845.0
786.0
740.0
698.0
637.0
1320.0
1160.0
1050.0
943.0
871.0
799.0
725.0
649.0
592.0
552.0
513.0
469.0
674.0
610.0
549.0
497.0
466.0
421.0
396.0
373.0
349.0
322.0
502.0
444.0
414.0
372.0
336.0
323.0
289.0
258.0
239.0
216.0
319.0
293.0
264.0
238.0
212.0
189.0
204.0
186.0
166.0
151.0
137.0
131.0
117.0
226.0
204.0
181.0
166.0
150.0
135.0
144.0
127.0
110.0
103.0
93.8
90.4
80.3
71.1
142.0
127.0
119.0
104.0
93.8
82.4
71.8
78.2
70.7
64.7
59.5
53.5
52.1
44.8
40.1
in3
104.0
94.1
86.1
80.0
75.1
71.0
67.0
87.4
78.5
73.1
67.0
63.1
58.9
55.8
53.1
49.7
96.8
85.8
78.3
70.2
65.8
60.8
55.5
51.1
47.4
44.7
42.1
39.2
55.1
50.5
45.7
41.7
40.6
37.4
35.3
33.7
32.0
30.0
45.2
40.3
38.2
34.4
31.2
31.0
28.3
25.3
23.8
21.9
32.2
29.9
27.2
24.8
22.3
20.0
22.0
20.3
18.3
16.9
15.6
15.6
14.1
25.5
23.7
21.1
19.3
17.5
15.8
17.9
15.7
13.8
12.9
11.9
11.8
10.7
9.7
18.5
16.7
15.9
14.1
12.7
11.2
9.8
11.2
10.1
9.3
8.6
7.8
7.8
6.7
6.2
in
5.33
5.29
5.27
5.25
5.26
5.26
5.25
5.66
5.63
5.65
5.62
5.62
5.61
5.61
5.62
5.66
5.03
4.99
4.97
4.94
4.96
4.96
4.95
5.12
5.14
5.15
5.18
5.20
4.42
4.43
4.42
4.42
4.63
4.66
4.66
4.67
4.69
4.71
3.97
3.95
3.98
3.96
3.95
4.13
4.15
4.14
4.16
4.18
3.51
3.50
3.50
3.52
3.51
3.51
3.67
3.67
3.67
3.68
3.70
3.79
3.80
3.04
3.08
3.06
3.04
3.03
3.01
3.25
3.22
3.21
3.20
3.21
3.29
3.30
3.31
2.60
2.58
2.60
2.59
2.56
2.55
2.54
2.74
2.72
2.71
2.71
2.70
2.77
2.76
2.79
in4
786.00
711.00
648.00
599.00
545.00
507.00
470.00
264.00
234.00
206.00
187.00
174.00
160.00
147.00
135.00
113.00
729.00
645.00
581.00
517.00
466.00
420.00
375.00
155.00
136.00
123.00
109.00
93.60
427.00
378.00
336.00
299.00
113.00
98.00
90.40
82.10
73.00
63.90
352.00
309.00
278.00
248.00
222.00
92.20
79.40
69.60
62.00
52.80
240.00
221.00
195.00
170.00
149.00
130.00
59.70
54.50
47.20
41.30
35.20
17.20
14.50
217.00
188.00
166.00
152.00
137.00
124.00
46.40
40.70
35.30
32.40
28.70
15.30
12.50
10.30
156.00
139.00
126.00
110.00
100.00
87.60
76.20
30.10
27.40
25.00
22.50
20.00
11.30
9.55
7.67
in3
94.00
85.50
77.80
72.20
65.90
61.40
57.10
43.20
38.60
33.80
30.90
28.80
26.60
24.60
22.50
18.90
90.60
80.70
73.10
65.50
58.80
53.20
47.60
27.00
23.60
21.30
18.90
16.30
56.80
50.10
44.70
39.90
21.70
18.60
17.20
15.70
13.90
12.20
49.90
44.10
39.40
35.40
31.70
18.40
15.80
13.90
12.40
10.60
37.20
34.20
30.30
26.50
23.20
20.30
13.30
12.00
10.50
9.18
7.85
4.90
4.15
35.00
30.00
26.70
24.60
22.20
20.20
11.00
9.75
8.51
7.83
6.97
4.67
3.82
3.18
27.70
24.90
22.50
19.70
18.00
15.80
13.80
7.89
7.22
6.63
5.97
5.35
3.72
3.17
2.56
in
3.86
3.84
3.83
3.81
3.78
3.75
3.73
2.65
2.62
2.58
2.56
2.55
2.53
2.50
2.47
2.38
3.74
3.71
3.69
3.66
3.63
3.59
3.56
2.50
2.47
2.43
2.39
2.32
3.52
3.49
3.46
3.43
2.28
2.25
2.23
2.19
2.15
2.10
3.32
3.29
3.26
3.24
3.21
2.21
2.18
2.15
2.12
2.07
3.04
3.05
3.01
2.97
2.94
2.91
1.99
1.98
1.95
1.92
1.87
1.38
1.34
2.98
2.95
2.93
2.92
2.90
2.89
1.84
1.83
1.81
1.80
1.77
1.35
1.30
1.26
2.72
2.70
2.69
2.66
2.65
2.63
2.61
1.70
1.69
1.69
1.67
1.65
1.29
1.27
1.22
in3
187.00
168.00
153.00
142.00
133.00
125.00
118.00
156.00
140.00
131.00
120.00
113.00
105.00
100.00
95.50
94.30
174.00
154.00
140.00
125.00
116.00
107.00
97.70
90.80
84.50
79.80
75.60
74.80
98.20
89.50
80.80
73.40
72.20
66.80
63.10
60.40
57.70
57.40
81.10
71.80
67.60
60.80
55.00
55.10
50.40
45.00
42.40
39.20
57.80
53.30
48.20
43.90
39.20
35.10
39.20
36.10
32.50
30.10
27.90
28.40
25.60
46.30
42.40
37.60
34.30
31.00
27.90
31.80
28.00
24.40
22.90
21.10
21.20
20.80
17.60
34.00
30.50
28.70
25.20
22.60
19.90
17.30
20.00
18.00
16.50
15.30
13.80
13.90
12.00
12.00
in3
146.00
132.00
120.00
112.00
102.00
94.90
88.10
68.60
61.00
53.50
48.90
45.40
41.90
38.60
35.50
29.80
141.00
125.00
113.00
101.00
90.90
82.10
73.40
42.20
37.00
33.50
29.70
25.70
87.50
77.20
68.90
61.40
34.00
29.20
27.00
24.60
22.00
19.30
77.00
67.90
60.80
54.50
48.80
28.80
24.70
21.70
19.40
16.60
57.30
52.60
46.60
40.70
35.70
31.20
20.70
18.80
16.30
14.30
12.30
7.87
6.67
53.90
46.30
41.10
37.80
34.10
30.90
17.40
15.30
13.30
12.20
10.90
7.42
6.09
5.09
42.70
38.30
34.60
30.20
27.60
24.20
21.10
12.30
11.20
10.30
9.27
8.29
5.85
4.97
4.03
in4
54.30
42.10
32.00
26.20
20.70
17.30
14.30
26.60
19.80
13.90
11.10
9.19
7.51
6.17
5.04
3.48
57.20
42.10
32.40
24.20
17.90
13.70
10.20
8.80
6.16
4.84
3.67
2.64
19.90
13.90
10.30
7.61
7.30
4.85
3.98
3.21
2.49
1.88
18.50
13.20
9.74
7.31
5.44
5.60
3.65
2.64
2.01
1.40
12.00
9.22
6.70
4.74
3.35
2.35
3.50
2.62
1.84
1.34
0.93
0.85
0.59
11.90
7.69
5.62
4.47
3.40
2.60
3.01
2.16
1.51
1.22
0.51
0.88
0.57
0.38
9.70
7.30
5.30
3.73
2.92
2.04
1.41
1.74
1.36
1.08
0.83
0.61
0.61
0.40
0.25
Structural Engineering
314
STRUCTURAL MATERIALS
Draft
Designation
WT 8.x 50.
WT 8.x 45.
WT 8.x 39.
WT 8.x 34.
WT 8.x 29.
WT 8.x 25.
WT 8.x 23.
WT 8.x 20.
WT 8.x 18.
WT 8.x 16.
WT 8.x 13.
WT 7.x365.
WT 7.x333.
WT 7.x303.
WT 7.x275.
WT 7.x250.
WT 7.x228.
WT 7.x213.
WT 7.x199.
WT 7.x185.
WT 7.x171.
WT 7.x156.
WT 7.x142.
WT 7.x129.
WT 7.x117.
WT 7.x106.
WT 7.x 97.
WT 7.x 88.
WT 7.x 80.
WT 7.x 73.
WT 7.x 66.
WT 7.x 60.
WT 7.x 55.
WT 7.x 50.
WT 7.x 45.
WT 7.x 41.
WT 7.x 37.
WT 7.x 34.
WT 7.x 31.
WT 7.x 27.
WT 7.x 24.
WT 7.x 22.
WT 7.x 19.
WT 7.x 17.
WT 7.x 15.
WT 7.x 13.
WT 7.x 11.
WT 6.x168.
WT 6.x153.
WT 6.x140.
WT 6.x126.
WT 6.x115.
WT 6.x105.
WT 6.x 95.
WT 6.x 85.
WT 6.x 76.
WT 6.x 68.
WT 6.x 60.
WT 6.x 53.
WT 6.x 48.
WT 6.x 44.
WT 6.x 40.
WT 6.x 36.
WT 6.x 33.
WT 6.x 29.
WT 6.x 27.
WT 6.x 25.
WT 6.x 23.
WT 6.x 20.
WT 6.x 18.
WT 6.x 15.
WT 6.x 13.
WT 6.x 11.
WT 6.x 10.
WT 6.x 8.
WT 6.x 7.
WT 5.x 56.
WT 5.x 50.
WT 5.x 44.
WT 5.x 39.
WT 5.x 34.
WT 5.x 30.
WT 5.x 27.
WT 5.x 25.
WT 5.x 23.
WT 5.x 20.
WT 5.x 17.
WT 5.x 15.
WT 5.x 13.
WT 5.x 11.
WT 5.x 10.
WT 5.x 9.
WT 5.x 8.
WT 5.x 6.
tw
bf
tf
in2
in
8.48
8.38
8.26
8.16
8.22
8.13
8.06
8.01
7.93
7.94
7.84
11.21
10.82
10.46
10.12
9.80
9.51
9.34
9.15
8.96
8.77
8.56
8.37
8.19
8.02
7.86
7.74
7.61
7.49
7.39
7.33
7.24
7.16
7.08
7.01
7.16
7.09
7.02
6.95
6.96
6.89
6.83
7.05
6.99
6.92
6.95
6.87
8.41
8.16
7.93
7.70
7.53
7.36
7.19
7.01
6.86
6.70
6.56
6.45
6.36
6.26
6.19
6.13
6.06
6.09
6.03
6.09
6.03
5.97
6.25
6.17
6.11
6.16
6.08
5.99
5.95
5.68
5.55
5.42
5.30
5.20
5.11
5.05
4.99
5.05
4.96
4.86
5.24
5.16
5.09
5.12
5.05
4.99
4.93
in
0.585
0.525
0.455
0.395
0.430
0.380
0.345
0.305
0.295
0.275
0.250
3.070
2.830
2.595
2.380
2.190
2.015
1.875
1.770
1.655
1.540
1.410
1.290
1.175
1.070
0.980
0.890
0.830
0.745
0.680
0.645
0.590
0.525
0.485
0.440
0.510
0.450
0.415
0.375
0.370
0.340
0.305
0.310
0.285
0.270
0.255
0.230
1.775
1.625
1.530
1.395
1.285
1.180
1.060
0.960
0.870
0.790
0.710
0.610
0.550
0.515
0.470
0.430
0.390
0.360
0.345
0.370
0.335
0.295
0.300
0.260
0.230
0.260
0.235
0.220
0.200
0.755
0.680
0.605
0.530
0.470
0.420
0.370
0.340
0.350
0.315
0.290
0.300
0.260
0.240
0.250
0.240
0.230
0.190
in
10.425
10.365
10.295
10.235
7.120
7.070
7.035
6.995
6.985
5.525
5.500
17.890
17.650
17.415
17.200
17.010
16.835
16.695
16.590
16.475
16.360
16.230
16.110
15.995
15.890
15.800
15.710
15.650
15.565
15.500
14.725
14.670
14.605
14.565
14.520
10.130
10.070
10.035
9.995
8.060
8.030
7.995
6.770
6.745
6.730
5.025
5.000
13.385
13.235
13.140
13.005
12.895
12.790
12.670
12.570
12.480
12.400
12.320
12.220
12.160
12.125
12.080
12.040
12.000
10.010
9.995
8.080
8.045
8.005
6.560
6.520
6.490
4.030
4.005
3.990
3.970
10.415
10.340
10.265
10.190
10.130
10.080
10.030
10.000
8.020
7.985
7.960
5.810
5.770
5.750
4.020
4.010
4.000
3.960
in
0.985
0.875
0.760
0.665
0.715
0.630
0.565
0.505
0.430
0.440
0.345
4.910
4.520
4.160
3.820
3.500
3.210
3.035
2.845
2.660
2.470
2.260
2.070
1.890
1.720
1.560
1.440
1.310
1.190
1.090
1.030
0.940
0.860
0.780
0.710
0.855
0.785
0.720
0.645
0.660
0.595
0.530
0.515
0.455
0.385
0.420
0.335
2.955
2.705
2.470
2.250
2.070
1.900
1.735
1.560
1.400
1.250
1.105
0.990
0.900
0.810
0.735
0.670
0.605
0.640
0.575
0.640
0.575
0.515
0.520
0.440
0.380
0.425
0.350
0.265
0.225
1.250
1.120
0.990
0.870
0.770
0.680
0.615
0.560
0.620
0.530
0.435
0.510
0.440
0.360
0.395
0.330
0.270
0.210
14.7
13.1
11.3
9.8
8.4
7.4
6.6
5.9
5.3
4.6
3.8
107.0
97.8
88.9
80.9
73.5
66.9
62.6
58.5
54.4
50.3
45.7
41.6
37.8
34.2
31.0
28.4
25.9
23.4
21.3
19.4
17.7
16.0
14.6
13.2
12.0
10.9
10.0
9.0
7.8
7.1
6.3
5.6
5.0
4.4
3.8
3.3
49.4
44.8
41.0
37.0
33.9
30.9
27.9
25.0
22.4
20.0
17.6
15.6
14.1
12.8
11.6
10.6
9.5
8.5
7.8
7.3
6.6
5.9
5.2
4.4
3.8
3.2
2.8
2.4
2.1
16.5
14.7
12.9
11.3
10.0
8.8
7.9
7.2
6.6
5.7
4.8
4.4
3.8
3.2
2.8
2.5
2.2
1.8
Victor Saouma
bf
2tf
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
hc
tw
12.1
13.5
15.6
18.0
16.5
18.7
20.6
23.3
24.1
25.8
28.4
1.9
2.0
2.2
2.4
2.6
2.8
3.0
3.2
3.4
3.7
4.0
4.4
4.9
5.3
5.8
6.4
6.9
7.7
8.4
8.8
9.7
10.9
11.8
13.0
11.2
12.7
13.7
15.2
15.4
16.8
18.7
19.8
21.5
22.7
24.1
26.7
2.7
3.0
3.2
3.5
3.8
4.1
4.6
5.1
5.6
6.1
6.8
8.0
8.8
9.4
10.3
11.3
12.4
13.5
14.1
13.1
14.5
16.5
18.1
20.9
23.6
20.9
23.1
24.7
27.2
5.2
5.8
6.5
7.4
8.4
9.4
10.6
11.6
11.2
12.5
13.6
14.8
17.0
18.4
17.7
18.4
19.2
23.3
Ix
Sx
rx
Iy
Sy
ry
Zx
Zy
in4
76.8
67.2
56.9
48.6
48.7
42.3
37.8
33.1
30.6
27.4
23.5
739.0
622.0
524.0
442.0
375.0
321.0
287.0
257.0
229.0
203.0
176.0
153.0
133.0
116.0
102.0
89.8
80.5
70.2
62.5
57.8
51.7
45.3
40.9
36.4
41.2
36.0
32.6
28.9
27.6
24.9
21.9
23.3
20.9
19.0
17.3
14.8
190.0
162.0
141.0
121.0
106.0
92.1
79.0
67.8
58.5
50.6
43.4
36.3
32.0
28.9
25.8
23.2
20.6
19.1
17.7
18.7
16.6
14.4
16.0
13.5
11.7
11.7
10.1
8.7
7.7
28.6
24.5
20.8
17.4
14.9
12.9
11.1
10.0
10.2
8.8
7.7
9.3
7.9
6.9
6.7
6.1
5.4
4.3
in3
11.4
10.1
8.6
7.4
7.8
6.8
6.1
5.3
5.1
4.6
4.1
95.4
82.1
70.6
60.9
52.7
45.9
41.4
37.6
33.9
30.4
26.7
23.5
20.7
18.2
16.2
14.4
13.0
11.4
10.2
9.6
8.6
7.6
6.9
6.2
7.1
6.3
5.7
5.1
4.9
4.5
4.0
4.2
3.8
3.5
3.3
2.9
31.2
27.0
24.1
20.9
18.5
16.4
14.2
12.3
10.8
9.5
8.2
6.9
6.1
5.6
5.0
4.5
4.1
3.8
3.5
3.8
3.4
3.0
3.2
2.8
2.4
2.6
2.3
2.0
1.8
6.4
5.6
4.8
4.0
3.5
3.0
2.6
2.4
2.5
2.2
1.9
2.2
1.9
1.7
1.7
1.6
1.5
1.2
in
2.28
2.27
2.24
2.22
2.41
2.40
2.39
2.37
2.41
2.45
2.47
2.62
2.52
2.43
2.34
2.26
2.19
2.14
2.10
2.05
2.01
1.96
1.92
1.88
1.84
1.81
1.78
1.76
1.73
1.71
1.73
1.71
1.68
1.67
1.66
1.85
1.82
1.81
1.80
1.88
1.87
1.86
2.04
2.04
2.07
2.12
2.14
1.96
1.90
1.86
1.81
1.77
1.73
1.68
1.65
1.62
1.59
1.57
1.53
1.51
1.50
1.49
1.48
1.47
1.50
1.51
1.60
1.58
1.57
1.76
1.75
1.75
1.90
1.90
1.92
1.92
1.32
1.29
1.27
1.24
1.22
1.21
1.19
1.18
1.24
1.24
1.26
1.45
1.44
1.46
1.54
1.56
1.57
1.57
in4
93.10
81.30
69.20
59.50
21.60
18.60
16.40
14.40
12.20
6.20
4.80
2360.00
2080.00
1840.00
1630.00
1440.00
1280.00
1180.00
1090.00
994.00
903.00
807.00
722.00
645.00
576.00
513.00
466.00
419.00
374.00
338.00
274.00
247.00
223.00
201.00
181.00
74.20
66.90
60.70
53.70
28.80
25.70
22.60
13.30
11.70
9.79
4.45
3.50
593.00
525.00
469.00
414.00
371.00
332.00
295.00
259.00
227.00
199.00
172.00
151.00
135.00
120.00
108.00
97.50
87.20
53.50
47.90
28.20
25.00
22.00
12.20
10.20
8.66
2.33
1.88
1.41
1.18
118.00
103.00
89.30
76.80
66.80
58.10
51.70
46.70
26.70
22.50
18.30
8.35
7.05
5.71
2.15
1.78
1.45
1.09
in3
17.90
15.70
13.40
11.60
6.06
5.26
4.67
4.12
3.50
2.24
1.74
264.00
236.00
211.00
189.00
169.00
152.00
141.00
131.00
121.00
110.00
99.40
89.70
80.70
72.50
65.00
59.30
53.50
48.10
43.70
37.20
33.70
30.60
27.60
25.00
14.60
13.30
12.10
10.70
7.16
6.40
5.65
3.94
3.45
2.91
1.77
1.40
88.60
79.30
71.30
63.60
57.50
51.90
46.50
41.20
36.40
32.10
28.00
24.70
22.20
19.90
17.90
16.20
14.50
10.70
9.58
6.97
6.21
5.51
3.73
3.12
2.67
1.16
0.94
0.71
0.59
22.60
20.00
17.40
15.10
13.20
11.50
10.30
9.34
6.65
5.64
4.60
2.87
2.44
1.99
1.07
0.89
0.72
0.55
in
2.51
2.49
2.47
2.46
1.60
1.59
1.57
1.57
1.52
1.17
1.12
4.69
4.62
4.55
4.49
4.43
4.38
4.34
4.31
4.27
4.24
4.20
4.17
4.13
4.10
4.07
4.05
4.02
4.00
3.98
3.76
3.74
3.73
3.71
3.70
2.48
2.48
2.46
2.45
1.92
1.91
1.89
1.55
1.53
1.49
1.08
1.04
3.47
3.42
3.38
3.34
3.31
3.28
3.25
3.22
3.19
3.16
3.13
3.11
3.09
3.07
3.05
3.04
3.02
2.51
2.48
1.96
1.94
1.93
1.54
1.52
1.51
0.85
0.82
0.77
0.75
2.68
2.65
2.63
2.60
2.59
2.57
2.56
2.54
2.01
1.98
1.94
1.37
1.36
1.33
0.87
0.84
0.81
0.79
in3
20.70
18.10
15.30
13.00
13.80
12.00
10.80
9.43
8.93
8.27
8.12
211.00
182.00
157.00
136.00
117.00
102.00
91.70
82.90
74.40
66.20
57.70
50.40
43.90
38.20
33.40
29.40
26.30
22.80
20.20
18.60
16.50
14.40
12.90
11.50
13.20
11.50
10.40
9.16
8.87
8.00
7.05
7.45
6.74
6.25
5.89
5.20
68.40
59.10
51.90
44.80
39.40
34.50
29.80
25.60
22.00
19.00
16.20
13.60
11.90
10.70
9.49
8.48
7.50
6.97
6.46
6.90
6.12
5.30
5.71
4.83
4.20
4.63
4.11
3.72
3.32
13.40
11.40
9.65
8.06
6.85
5.87
5.05
4.52
4.65
3.99
3.48
4.01
3.39
3.02
3.10
2.90
3.03
2.50
in3
27.40
24.00
20.50
17.70
9.43
8.16
7.23
6.37
5.42
3.52
2.74
408.00
365.00
326.00
292.00
261.00
234.00
217.00
201.00
185.00
169.00
152.00
137.00
123.00
110.00
99.00
90.20
81.40
73.00
66.30
56.60
51.20
46.40
41.80
37.80
22.40
20.30
18.50
16.40
11.00
9.82
8.66
6.07
5.32
4.49
2.77
2.19
137.00
122.00
110.00
97.90
88.40
79.70
71.30
63.00
55.60
49.00
42.70
37.50
33.70
30.20
27.20
24.60
22.00
16.30
14.60
10.70
9.50
8.41
5.73
4.78
4.08
1.83
1.49
1.13
0.95
34.60
30.50
26.50
22.90
20.00
17.50
15.70
14.20
10.10
8.59
7.01
4.42
3.75
3.05
1.68
1.40
1.15
0.87
in4
3.85
2.72
1.78
1.19
1.10
0.76
0.65
0.40
0.27
0.23
0.13
714.00
555.00
430.00
331.00
255.00
196.00
164.00
135.00
110.00
88.30
67.50
51.80
39.30
29.60
22.20
17.30
13.20
9.84
7.56
6.13
4.67
3.55
2.68
2.03
2.53
1.94
1.51
1.10
0.97
0.73
0.52
0.40
0.28
0.19
0.18
0.10
120.00
92.00
70.90
53.50
41.60
32.20
24.40
17.70
12.80
9.22
6.43
4.55
3.42
2.54
1.92
1.46
1.09
1.05
0.79
0.89
0.66
0.48
0.37
0.23
0.15
0.15
0.09
0.05
0.04
7.50
5.41
3.75
2.55
1.78
1.23
0.91
0.69
0.75
0.49
0.29
0.31
0.20
0.12
0.12
0.08
0.05
0.03
Structural Engineering
Draft
Designation
315
bf
2tf
tw
bf
tf
in2
9.8
8.6
7.1
5.9
5.1
4.6
4.1
3.5
3.1
2.6
2.2
1.9
1.5
3.7
2.9
2.2
2.4
1.8
1.3
2.8
2.3
1.9
in
4.50
4.38
4.25
4.13
4.06
4.00
4.03
3.96
4.14
4.07
4.05
3.99
3.94
3.19
3.10
2.99
3.14
3.02
2.95
2.58
2.51
2.08
in
0.570
0.510
0.400
0.360
0.310
0.285
0.285
0.245
0.250
0.230
0.245
0.230
0.170
0.320
0.260
0.230
0.260
0.230
0.170
0.270
0.240
0.280
in
8.280
8.220
8.110
8.070
8.020
7.995
6.535
6.495
5.270
5.250
4.015
4.000
3.940
6.080
6.020
5.990
4.030
4.000
3.940
5.030
5.000
4.060
in
0.935
0.810
0.685
0.560
0.495
0.435
0.465
0.400
0.400
0.330
0.315
0.255
0.205
0.455
0.365
0.260
0.405
0.280
0.215
0.430
0.360
0.345
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
9.
6.
5.
3.
2.
9.
2.5
1.7
1.3
1.0
0.6
2.8
7.00
6.00
5.00
4.00
3.00
2.50
0.215
0.177
0.157
0.135
0.114
0.316
4.000
3.065
2.690
2.281
1.844
5.003
0.270
0.225
0.206
0.189
0.171
0.416
ST12.x 61.
ST12.x 53.
ST12.x 50.
ST12.x 45.
ST12.x 40.
ST10.x 48.
ST10.x 43.
ST10.x 38.
ST10.x 33.
ST 9.x 35.
ST 9.x 27.
ST 8.x 25.
ST 8.x 21.
ST 6.x 25.
ST 6.x 20.
ST 6.x 18.
ST 6.x 16.
ST 5.x 18.
ST 5.x 13.
ST 4.x 12.
ST 4.x 9.
ST 4.x 10.
ST 4.x 8.
ST 3.x 9.
ST 3.x 6.
ST 3.x 7.
ST 3.x 5.
ST 2.x 5.
ST 2.x 4.
ST 2.x 4.
ST 2.x 3.
17.8
15.6
14.7
13.2
11.7
14.1
12.7
11.0
9.7
10.3
8.0
7.3
6.3
7.3
6.0
5.2
4.7
5.2
3.7
3.4
2.7
2.9
2.3
2.5
1.8
2.2
1.5
1.4
1.1
1.1
0.8
12.25
12.25
12.00
12.00
12.00
10.15
10.15
10.00
10.00
9.00
9.00
7.50
7.50
6.00
6.00
6.00
6.00
5.00
5.00
4.00
4.00
3.50
3.50
3.00
3.00
2.50
2.50
2.00
2.00
1.50
1.50
0.800
0.620
0.745
0.625
0.500
0.800
0.660
0.635
0.505
0.711
0.461
0.550
0.411
0.687
0.462
0.428
0.350
0.594
0.311
0.441
0.271
0.450
0.252
0.465
0.232
0.494
0.214
0.326
0.193
0.349
0.170
8.050
7.870
7.245
7.125
7.000
7.200
7.060
6.385
6.225
6.251
6.001
5.640
5.501
5.477
5.252
5.078
5.000
4.944
4.661
4.171
4.001
3.860
3.662
3.565
3.332
3.284
3.004
2.796
2.663
2.509
2.330
HP14.x117.
HP14.x102.
HP14.x 89.
HP14.x 73.
HP13.x100.
HP13.x 87.
HP13.x 73.
HP13.x 60.
HP12.x 84.
HP12.x 74.
HP12.x 63.
HP12.x 53.
HP10.x 57.
HP10.x 42.
HP 8.x 36.
34.4
30.0
26.1
21.4
29.4
25.5
21.6
17.5
24.6
21.8
18.4
15.5
16.8
12.4
10.6
14.21
14.01
13.83
13.61
13.15
12.95
12.75
12.54
12.28
12.13
11.94
11.78
9.99
9.70
8.02
0.805
0.705
0.615
0.505
0.765
0.665
0.565
0.460
0.685
0.605
0.515
0.435
0.565
0.415
0.445
14.885
14.785
14.695
14.585
13.205
13.105
13.005
12.900
12.295
12.215
12.125
12.045
10.225
10.075
8.155
WT 4.x 34.
WT 4.x 29.
WT 4.x 24.
WT 4.x 20.
WT 4.x 18.
WT 4.x 16.
WT 4.x 14.
WT 4.x 12.
WT 4.x 11.
WT 4.x 9.
WT 4.x 8.
WT 4.x 7.
WT 4.x 5.
WT 3.x 13.
WT 3.x 10.
WT 3.x 8.
WT 3.x 8.
WT 3.x 6.
WT 3.x 5.
WT 3.x 10.
WT 3.x 8.
WT 2.x 7.
MT
MT
MT
MT
MT
MT
7.x
6.x
5.x
4.x
3.x
3.x
Victor Saouma
hc
tw
Ix
Sx
rx
Iy
Sy
ry
Zx
Zy
5.6
6.2
7.9
8.8
10.2
11.1
11.1
12.9
13.8
15.0
14.0
15.0
20.2
7.8
9.6
10.8
9.6
10.8
14.6
7.0
7.9
5.3
in4
10.9
9.1
6.8
5.7
4.8
4.3
4.2
3.5
3.9
3.4
3.3
2.9
2.2
2.3
1.8
1.4
1.7
1.3
0.9
1.0
0.9
0.5
in3
3.0
2.6
2.0
1.7
1.4
1.3
1.3
1.1
1.2
1.0
1.1
1.0
0.7
0.9
0.7
0.6
0.7
0.6
0.4
0.5
0.4
0.3
in
1.05
1.03
0.99
0.99
0.97
0.97
1.01
1.00
1.12
1.14
1.22
1.23
1.20
0.79
0.77
0.80
0.84
0.86
0.84
0.61
0.60
0.52
in4
44.30
37.50
30.50
24.50
21.30
18.50
10.80
9.14
4.89
3.98
1.70
1.37
1.05
8.53
6.64
4.66
2.21
1.50
1.10
4.56
3.75
1.93
in3
10.70
9.13
7.52
6.08
5.31
4.64
3.31
2.81
1.85
1.52
0.85
0.68
0.53
2.81
2.21
1.56
1.10
0.75
0.56
1.82
1.50
0.95
in
2.12
2.10
2.08
2.04
2.03
2.02
1.62
1.61
1.26
1.23
0.88
0.84
0.84
1.52
1.50
1.45
0.97
0.92
0.90
1.28
1.27
1.00
in3
6.29
5.25
3.94
3.25
2.71
2.39
2.38
1.98
2.11
1.86
1.91
1.74
1.27
1.68
1.29
1.03
1.25
1.01
0.72
0.97
0.80
0.62
in3
16.30
13.90
11.40
9.25
8.06
7.04
5.05
4.29
2.84
2.33
1.33
1.08
0.83
4.28
3.36
2.37
1.70
1.16
0.86
2.76
2.29
1.46
in4
2.52
1.66
0.98
0.56
0.38
0.27
0.27
0.17
0.14
0.09
0.07
0.04
0.02
0.23
0.12
0.05
0.11
0.05
0.02
0.15
0.09
0.08
0
0
0
0
0
0
30.1
31.3
29.2
26.9
23.5
5.6
13.1
6.6
3.5
1.6
0.6
1.0
2.7
1.6
1.0
0.6
0.3
0.5
2.27
1.95
1.62
1.28
0.94
0.62
1.32
0.49
0.31
0.17
0.08
3.93
0.66
0.32
0.23
0.15
0.09
1.57
0.72
0.53
0.48
0.42
0.36
1.19
4.88
2.89
1.81
1.01
0.52
1.03
1.16
0.58
0.41
0.26
0.16
2.66
0.06
0.03
0.02
0.01
0.01
0.17
1.090
1.090
0.870
0.870
0.870
0.920
0.920
0.795
0.795
0.691
0.691
0.622
0.622
0.659
0.659
0.545
0.544
0.491
0.491
0.425
0.425
0.392
0.392
0.359
0.359
0.326
0.326
0.293
0.293
0.260
0.260
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
13.2
17.0
14.1
16.8
21.1
10.8
13.1
13.6
17.0
10.9
16.8
11.6
15.5
7.0
10.3
11.7
14.3
6.9
13.2
7.3
11.8
6.1
10.9
5.0
10.0
3.8
8.7
4.3
7.3
2.8
5.7
259.0
216.0
215.0
190.0
162.0
143.0
125.0
109.0
93.1
84.7
62.4
40.6
33.0
25.2
18.9
17.2
14.9
12.5
7.8
5.0
3.5
3.4
2.2
2.1
1.3
1.3
0.7
0.5
0.3
0.2
0.1
30.1
24.1
26.3
22.6
18.7
20.3
17.2
15.8
12.9
14.0
9.6
7.7
6.0
6.1
4.3
4.0
3.3
3.6
2.1
1.8
1.1
1.4
0.8
1.0
0.6
0.7
0.4
0.3
0.2
0.2
0.1
3.82
3.72
3.83
3.79
3.72
3.18
3.14
3.15
3.10
2.87
2.79
2.35
2.29
1.85
1.78
1.83
1.78
1.56
1.45
1.22
1.14
1.07
0.99
0.92
0.83
0.76
0.68
0.58
0.53
0.43
0.38
41.70
38.50
23.80
22.50
21.10
25.10
23.40
14.90
13.80
12.10
10.40
7.85
7.19
7.85
6.78
4.94
4.68
4.18
3.39
2.15
1.86
1.59
1.32
1.15
0.91
0.83
0.61
0.45
0.38
0.29
0.23
10.40
9.80
6.58
6.31
6.04
6.97
6.63
4.66
4.43
3.86
3.47
2.78
2.61
2.87
2.58
1.95
1.87
1.69
1.46
1.03
0.93
0.82
0.72
0.65
0.55
0.51
0.41
0.32
0.29
0.23
0.19
1.53
1.57
1.27
1.30
1.34
1.33
1.36
1.16
1.19
1.08
1.14
1.03
1.07
1.03
1.06
0.98
1.00
0.90
0.95
0.80
0.83
0.73
0.77
0.68
0.70
0.62
0.64
0.57
0.58
0.52
0.52
54.50
43.30
47.50
41.10
33.60
36.90
31.10
28.60
23.40
25.10
17.30
14.00
10.80
11.00
7.71
7.12
5.94
6.58
3.70
3.19
2.07
2.47
1.48
1.85
1.01
1.34
0.65
0.59
0.38
0.35
0.20
18.10
16.60
12.00
11.20
10.40
12.50
11.60
8.37
7.70
7.21
6.07
5.01
4.54
5.19
4.45
3.41
3.22
3.11
2.49
1.84
1.59
1.48
1.23
1.18
0.93
0.94
0.69
0.57
0.48
0.41
0.33
6.38
5.04
3.76
3.01
2.43
4.15
3.30
2.28
1.78
2.05
1.18
1.05
0.77
1.39
0.87
0.54
0.45
0.63
0.30
0.27
0.17
0.22
0.12
0.18
0.08
0.16
0.06
0.06
0.04
0.04
0.02
0.805
0.705
0.615
0.505
0.765
0.665
0.565
0.460
0.685
0.610
0.515
0.435
0.565
0.420
0.445
9.2
10.5
11.9
14.4
8.6
9.9
11.5
14.0
9.0
10.0
11.8
13.8
9.0
12.0
9.2
14.2
16.2
18.5
22.6
13.6
15.7
18.4
22.7
14.2
16.0
18.9
22.3
13.9
18.9
14.2
1220.0
1050.0
904.0
729.0
886.0
755.0
630.0
503.0
650.0
569.0
472.0
393.0
294.0
210.0
119.0
172.0
150.0
131.0
107.0
135.0
117.0
98.8
80.3
106.0
93.8
79.1
66.8
58.8
43.4
29.8
5.96
5.92
5.88
5.84
5.49
5.45
5.40
5.36
5.14
5.11
5.06
5.03
4.18
4.13
3.36
443.00
380.00
326.00
261.00
294.00
250.00
207.00
165.00
213.00
186.00
153.00
127.00
101.00
71.70
40.30
59.50
51.40
44.30
35.80
44.50
38.10
31.90
25.50
34.60
30.40
25.30
21.10
19.70
14.20
9.88
3.59
3.56
3.53
3.49
3.16
3.13
3.10
3.07
2.94
2.92
2.88
2.86
2.45
2.41
1.95
194.00
169.00
146.00
118.00
153.00
131.00
110.00
89.00
120.00
105.00
88.30
74.00
66.50
48.30
33.60
91.40
78.80
67.70
54.60
68.60
58.50
48.80
39.00
53.20
46.60
38.70
32.20
30.30
21.80
15.20
8.02
5.40
3.60
2.01
6.25
4.12
2.54
1.39
4.24
2.98
1.83
1.12
1.97
0.81
0.77
Structural Engineering
316
Draft
Designation
L
L
L
L
L
L
L
L
L
L
L
L
L
L
L
L
L
L
L
L
L
L
L
L
L
L
L
L
L
L
L
L
L
L
L
L
L
L
L
L
L
L
L
L
L
L
L
L
L
L
L
L
L
L
L
L
L
L
L
L
L
L
L
L
L
L
L
L
L
L
L
L
L
L
L
L
L
L
L
L
L
L
L
L
L
L
L
L
L
L
L
L
L
L
L
L
L
L
L
L
L
L
L
L
L
L
L
L
L
L
L
L
L
L
L
L
L
L
L
8.0x8.0x1.125
8.0x8.0x1.000
8.0x8.0x0.875
8.0x8.0x0.750
8.0x8.0x0.625
8.0x8.0x0.563
8.0x8.0x0.500
8.0x6.0x1.000
8.0x6.0x0.875
8.0x6.0x0.750
8.0x6.0x0.625
8.0x6.0x0.563
8.0x6.0x0.500
8.0x6.0x0.438
8.0x4.0x1.000
8.0x4.0x0.750
8.0x4.0x0.563
8.0x4.0x0.500
7.0x4.0x0.750
7.0x4.0x0.625
7.0x4.0x0.500
7.0x4.0x0.375
6.0x6.0x1.000
6.0x6.0x0.875
6.0x6.0x0.750
6.0x6.0x0.625
6.0x6.0x0.563
6.0x6.0x0.500
6.0x6.0x0.438
6.0x6.0x0.375
6.0x6.0x0.313
6.0x4.0x0.875
6.0x4.0x0.750
6.0x4.0x0.625
6.0x4.0x0.563
6.0x4.0x0.500
6.0x4.0x0.438
6.0x4.0x0.375
6.0x4.0x0.313
6.0x3.5x0.500
6.0x3.5x0.375
6.0x3.5x0.313
5.0x5.0x0.875
5.0x5.0x0.750
5.0x5.0x0.625
5.0x5.0x0.500
5.0x5.0x0.438
5.0x5.0x0.375
5.0x5.0x0.313
5.0x3.5x0.750
5.0x3.5x0.625
5.0x3.5x0.500
5.0x3.5x0.438
5.0x3.5x0.375
5.0x3.5x0.313
5.0x3.5x0.250
5.0x3.0x0.625
5.0x3.0x0.500
5.0x3.0x0.438
5.0x3.0x0.375
5.0x3.0x0.313
5.0x3.0x0.250
4.0x4.0x0.750
4.0x4.0x0.625
4.0x4.0x0.500
4.0x4.0x0.438
4.0x4.0x0.375
4.0x4.0x0.313
4.0x4.0x0.250
4.0x3.5x0.500
4.0x3.5x0.438
4.0x3.5x0.375
4.0x3.5x0.313
4.0x3.5x0.250
4.0x3.0x0.500
4.0x3.0x0.438
4.0x3.0x0.375
4.0x3.0x0.313
4.0x3.0x0.250
3.5x3.5x0.500
3.5x3.5x0.438
3.5x3.5x0.375
3.5x3.5x0.313
3.5x3.5x0.250
3.5x3.0x0.500
3.5x3.0x0.438
3.5x3.0x0.375
3.5x3.0x0.313
3.5x3.0x0.250
3.5x2.5x0.500
3.5x2.5x0.438
3.5x2.5x0.375
3.5x2.5x0.313
3.5x2.5x0.250
3.0x3.0x0.500
3.0x3.0x0.438
3.0x3.0x0.375
3.0x3.0x0.313
3.0x3.0x0.250
3.0x3.0x0.188
3.0x2.5x0.500
3.0x2.5x0.438
3.0x2.5x0.375
3.0x2.5x0.313
3.0x2.5x0.250
3.0x2.5x0.188
3.0x2.0x0.500
3.0x2.0x0.438
3.0x2.0x0.375
3.0x2.0x0.313
3.0x2.0x0.250
3.0x2.0x0.188
2.5x2.5x0.500
2.5x2.5x0.375
2.5x2.5x0.313
2.5x2.5x0.250
2.5x2.5x0.188
2.5x2.0x0.375
2.5x2.0x0.313
Victor Saouma
STRUCTURAL MATERIALS
A
in2
16.70
15.00
13.20
11.40
9.61
8.68
7.75
13.00
11.50
9.94
8.36
7.56
6.75
5.93
11.00
8.44
6.43
5.75
7.69
6.48
5.25
3.98
11.00
9.73
8.44
7.11
6.43
5.75
5.06
4.36
3.65
7.98
6.94
5.86
5.31
4.75
4.18
3.61
3.03
4.50
3.42
2.87
7.98
6.94
5.86
4.75
4.18
3.61
3.03
5.81
4.92
4.00
3.53
3.05
2.56
2.06
4.61
3.75
3.31
2.86
2.40
1.94
5.44
4.61
3.75
3.31
2.86
2.40
1.94
3.50
3.09
2.67
2.25
1.81
3.25
2.87
2.48
2.09
1.69
3.25
2.87
2.48
2.09
1.69
3.00
2.65
2.30
1.93
1.56
2.75
2.43
2.11
1.78
1.44
2.75
2.43
2.11
1.78
1.44
1.09
2.50
2.21
1.92
1.62
1.31
1.00
2.25
2.00
1.73
1.46
1.19
0.90
2.25
1.73
1.46
1.19
0.90
1.55
1.31
wgt
k/f t
56.90
51.00
45.00
38.90
32.70
29.60
26.40
44.20
39.10
33.80
28.50
25.70
23.00
20.20
37.40
28.70
21.90
19.60
26.20
22.10
17.90
13.60
37.40
33.10
28.70
24.20
21.90
19.60
17.20
14.90
12.40
27.20
23.60
20.00
18.10
16.20
14.30
12.30
10.30
15.30
11.70
9.80
27.20
23.60
20.00
16.20
14.30
12.30
10.30
19.80
16.80
13.60
12.00
10.40
8.70
7.00
15.70
12.80
11.30
9.80
8.20
6.60
18.50
15.70
12.80
11.30
9.80
8.20
6.60
11.90
10.60
9.10
7.70
6.20
11.10
9.80
8.50
7.20
5.80
11.10
9.80
8.50
7.20
5.80
10.20
9.10
7.90
6.60
5.40
9.40
8.30
7.20
6.10
4.90
9.40
8.30
7.20
6.10
4.90
3.71
8.50
7.60
6.60
5.60
4.50
3.39
7.70
6.80
5.90
5.00
4.10
3.07
7.70
5.90
5.00
4.10
3.07
5.30
4.50
Ix
in4
98.0
89.0
79.6
69.7
59.4
54.1
48.6
80.8
72.3
63.4
54.1
49.3
44.3
39.2
69.6
54.9
42.8
38.5
37.8
32.4
26.7
20.6
35.5
31.9
28.2
24.2
22.1
19.9
17.7
15.4
13.0
27.7
24.5
21.1
19.3
17.4
15.5
13.5
11.4
16.6
12.9
10.9
17.8
15.7
13.6
11.3
10.0
8.7
7.4
13.9
12.0
10.0
8.9
7.8
6.6
5.4
11.4
9.4
8.4
7.4
6.3
5.1
7.7
6.7
5.6
5.0
4.4
3.7
3.0
5.3
4.8
4.2
3.6
2.9
5.1
4.5
4.0
3.4
2.8
3.6
3.3
2.9
2.5
2.0
3.5
3.1
2.7
2.3
1.9
3.2
2.9
2.6
2.2
1.8
2.2
2.0
1.8
1.5
1.2
1.0
2.1
1.9
1.7
1.4
1.2
0.9
1.9
1.7
1.5
1.3
1.1
0.8
1.2
1.0
0.8
0.7
0.5
0.9
0.8
Sx
in3
17.5
15.8
14.0
12.2
10.3
9.3
8.4
15.1
13.4
11.7
9.9
8.9
8.0
7.1
14.1
10.9
8.4
7.5
8.4
7.1
5.8
4.4
8.6
7.6
6.7
5.7
5.1
4.6
4.1
3.5
3.0
7.2
6.3
5.3
4.8
4.3
3.8
3.3
2.8
4.2
3.2
2.7
5.2
4.5
3.9
3.2
2.8
2.4
2.0
4.3
3.7
3.0
2.6
2.3
1.9
1.6
3.5
2.9
2.6
2.2
1.9
1.5
2.8
2.4
2.0
1.8
1.5
1.3
1.0
1.9
1.7
1.5
1.3
1.0
1.9
1.7
1.5
1.2
1.0
1.5
1.3
1.1
1.0
0.8
1.5
1.3
1.1
1.0
0.8
1.4
1.3
1.1
0.9
0.8
1.1
1.0
0.8
0.7
0.6
0.4
1.0
0.9
0.8
0.7
0.6
0.4
1.0
0.9
0.8
0.7
0.5
0.4
0.7
0.6
0.5
0.4
0.3
0.5
0.5
rx
in
2.42
2.44
2.45
2.47
2.49
2.50
2.50
2.49
2.51
2.53
2.54
2.55
2.56
2.57
2.52
2.55
2.58
2.59
2.22
2.24
2.25
2.27
1.80
1.81
1.83
1.84
1.85
1.86
1.87
1.88
1.89
1.86
1.88
1.90
1.90
1.91
1.92
1.93
1.94
1.92
1.94
1.95
1.49
1.51
1.52
1.54
1.55
1.56
1.57
1.55
1.56
1.58
1.59
1.60
1.61
1.62
1.57
1.59
1.60
1.61
1.61
1.62
1.19
1.20
1.22
1.23
1.23
1.24
1.25
1.23
1.24
1.25
1.26
1.27
1.25
1.25
1.26
1.27
1.28
1.06
1.07
1.07
1.08
1.09
1.07
1.08
1.09
1.10
1.11
1.09
1.09
1.10
1.11
1.12
0.90
0.90
0.91
0.92
0.93
0.94
0.91
0.92
0.93
0.94
0.94
0.95
0.92
0.93
0.94
0.95
0.96
0.97
0.74
0.75
0.76
0.77
0.78
0.77
0.78
Iy
in4
98.00
89.00
79.60
69.70
59.40
54.10
48.60
38.80
34.90
30.70
26.30
24.00
21.70
19.30
11.60
9.36
7.43
6.74
9.05
7.84
6.53
5.10
35.50
31.90
28.20
24.20
22.10
19.90
17.70
15.40
13.00
9.75
8.68
7.52
6.91
6.27
5.60
4.90
4.18
4.25
3.34
2.85
17.80
15.70
13.60
11.30
10.00
8.74
7.42
5.55
4.83
4.05
3.63
3.18
2.72
2.23
3.06
2.58
2.32
2.04
1.75
1.44
7.67
6.66
5.56
4.97
4.36
3.71
3.04
3.79
3.40
2.95
2.55
2.09
2.42
2.18
1.92
1.65
1.36
3.64
3.26
2.87
2.45
2.01
2.33
2.09
1.85
1.58
1.30
1.36
1.23
1.09
0.94
0.78
2.22
1.99
1.76
1.51
1.24
0.96
1.30
1.18
1.04
0.90
0.74
0.58
0.67
0.61
0.54
0.47
0.39
0.31
1.23
0.98
0.85
0.70
0.55
0.51
0.45
Sy
in3
17.50
15.80
14.00
12.20
10.30
9.34
8.36
8.92
7.94
6.92
5.88
5.34
4.79
4.23
3.94
3.07
2.38
2.15
3.03
2.58
2.12
1.63
8.57
7.63
6.66
5.66
5.14
4.61
4.08
3.53
2.97
3.39
2.97
2.54
2.31
2.08
1.85
1.60
1.35
1.59
1.23
1.04
5.17
4.53
3.86
3.16
2.79
2.42
2.04
2.22
1.90
1.56
1.39
1.21
1.02
0.83
1.39
1.15
1.02
0.89
0.75
0.61
2.81
2.40
1.97
1.75
1.52
1.29
1.05
1.52
1.35
1.16
0.99
0.81
1.12
0.99
0.87
0.73
0.60
1.49
1.32
1.15
0.98
0.79
1.10
0.98
0.85
0.72
0.59
0.76
0.68
0.59
0.50
0.41
1.07
0.95
0.83
0.71
0.58
0.44
0.74
0.66
0.58
0.49
0.40
0.31
0.47
0.42
0.37
0.32
0.26
0.20
0.72
0.57
0.48
0.39
0.30
0.36
0.31
ry
in
2.42
2.44
2.45
2.47
2.49
2.50
2.50
1.73
1.74
1.76
1.77
1.78
1.79
1.80
1.03
1.05
1.07
1.08
1.09
1.10
1.11
1.13
1.80
1.81
1.83
1.84
1.85
1.86
1.87
1.88
1.89
1.11
1.12
1.13
1.14
1.15
1.16
1.17
1.17
0.97
0.99
1.00
1.49
1.51
1.52
1.54
1.55
1.56
1.57
0.98
0.99
1.01
1.01
1.02
1.03
1.04
0.81
0.83
0.84
0.85
0.85
0.86
1.19
1.20
1.22
1.23
1.23
1.24
1.25
1.04
1.05
1.06
1.07
1.07
0.86
0.87
0.88
0.89
0.90
1.06
1.07
1.07
1.08
1.09
0.88
0.89
0.90
0.90
0.91
0.70
0.71
0.72
0.73
0.74
0.90
0.90
0.91
0.92
0.93
0.94
0.72
0.73
0.74
0.74
0.75
0.76
0.55
0.55
0.56
0.57
0.57
0.58
0.74
0.75
0.76
0.77
0.78
0.58
0.58
Zx
in3
31.60
28.50
25.30
22.00
18.60
16.80
15.10
27.30
24.20
21.10
17.90
16.20
14.50
12.80
24.30
18.90
14.50
13.00
14.80
12.60
10.30
7.87
15.50
13.80
12.00
10.20
9.26
8.31
7.34
6.35
5.35
12.70
11.20
9.51
8.66
7.78
6.88
5.97
5.03
7.50
5.76
4.85
9.33
8.16
6.95
5.68
5.03
4.36
3.68
7.65
6.55
5.38
4.77
4.14
3.49
2.83
6.27
5.16
4.57
3.97
3.36
2.72
5.07
4.33
3.56
3.16
2.74
2.32
1.88
3.50
3.11
2.71
2.29
1.86
3.41
3.03
2.64
2.23
1.82
2.68
2.38
2.08
1.76
1.43
2.63
2.34
2.04
1.73
1.41
2.53
2.26
1.97
1.67
1.36
1.93
1.72
1.50
1.27
1.04
0.79
1.88
1.68
1.47
1.25
1.02
0.78
1.78
1.59
1.40
1.19
0.97
0.75
1.31
1.02
0.87
0.71
0.55
0.99
0.84
Zy
in3
31.60
28.50
25.30
22.00
18.60
16.80
15.10
16.20
14.40
12.50
10.50
9.52
8.51
7.50
7.72
5.81
4.38
3.90
5.65
4.74
3.83
2.90
15.50
13.80
12.00
10.20
9.26
8.31
7.34
6.35
5.35
6.31
5.47
4.62
4.19
3.75
3.30
2.85
2.40
2.91
2.20
1.85
9.33
8.16
6.95
5.68
5.03
4.36
3.68
4.10
3.47
2.83
2.49
2.16
1.82
1.47
2.61
2.11
1.86
1.60
1.35
1.09
5.07
4.33
3.56
3.16
2.74
2.32
1.88
2.73
2.42
2.11
1.78
1.44
2.03
1.79
1.56
1.31
1.06
2.68
2.38
2.08
1.76
1.43
1.98
1.76
1.53
1.30
1.05
1.40
1.24
1.07
0.91
0.74
1.93
1.72
1.50
1.27
1.04
0.79
1.35
1.20
1.05
0.89
0.72
0.55
0.89
0.79
0.68
0.58
0.47
0.36
1.31
1.02
0.87
0.71
0.55
0.66
0.56
J
in4
7.13
5.08
3.46
2.21
1.30
0.96
0.68
4.35
2.96
1.90
1.12
0.82
0.58
0.40
3.68
1.61
0.70
0.50
1.47
0.87
0.46
0.20
3.68
2.51
1.61
0.95
0.70
0.50
0.34
0.22
0.13
2.07
1.33
0.79
0.58
0.42
0.28
0.18
0.11
0.40
0.17
0.10
2.07
1.33
0.79
0.42
0.28
0.18
0.11
1.11
0.66
0.35
0.24
0.15
0.09
0.05
0.61
0.32
0.22
0.14
0.08
0.04
1.02
0.61
0.32
0.22
0.14
0.08
0.04
0.30
0.21
0.13
0.08
0.04
0.28
0.19
0.12
0.07
0.04
0.28
0.19
0.12
0.07
0.04
0.26
0.18
0.11
0.07
0.04
0.23
0.16
0.10
0.06
0.03
0.23
0.16
0.10
0.06
0.03
0.01
0.21
0.15
0.09
0.06
0.03
0.01
0.19
0.13
0.09
0.05
0.03
0.01
0.19
0.08
0.05
0.03
0.01
0.07
0.04
Structural Engineering
Draft
3.6.1
317
Victor Saouma
Structural Engineering
318
Draft
RA
RI
RO
RO38
RO34
RT
RX
RY
RY38
RY34
RZ
SX
SY
SW
T
TF
TW
VL
WGT
WNO
XB
XI
XJ
XK
X2
YB
YI
ZX
ZY
STRUCTURAL MATERIALS
Minimum llet radius, detailing value (in.); ange toe value for M, S, C, MC shapes
Minimum llet radius, design
ro shear center coordinate
ro double angles 3/8 back to back
ro double angles 3/4 back to back
The radius of gyration of a section comprising the compression ange plus 1/3 of the compression web area, taken about an axis in the plane of the web
rx radius of gyration about axis XX
ry radius of gyration about axis YY
ry double angles 3/8 back to back
ry double angles 3/4 back to back
rz radius of gyration about principal axis
Sx elastic section modulus about axis XX
Sy elastic section modulus about axis YY
Sw warping statical moment
Thickness of leg or wall
Thickness of ange
Thickness of web
Vertical leg or side dimension
Nominal weight
Wno normalized warping function
x centroid of section in X direction from outer web
Ix moment of inertia about axis XX
J torsional constant
k distance from outer face of ange to web toe llet of rolled shape
X2 beam buckling factor LRFD Formula (F1-9)
y centroid of section in Y direction from outer top ange face
Iy moment of inertia about axis YY
Zx plastic modulus about axis XX
Zy plastic modulus about axis YY
program form
c
c
c
c
c
c
c
c
c
c
c
c
c
100
c
c
c
Victor Saouma
Structural Engineering
3.7 Joists
319
Draft
daf,
cw,
xk,
daf,
cw,
end
3.7
41
Joists
Victor Saouma
Structural Engineering
320
STRUCTURAL MATERIALS
4"
4"
Span
4"
Draft
Victor Saouma
Structural Engineering
3.7 Joists
321
Draft
Joint 8K1
Desig.
Depth 8
(in.)
W 5.1
(lbs/ft)
Span
(ft.)
8
550
550
9
550
550
10
550
480
11
532
377
12
444
288
13
377
225
14
324
179
15
281
145
16
246
119
17
18
19
20
21
22
23
24
25
26
27
28
29
30
31
32
10K1 12K1 12K3 12K5 14K1 14K3 14K4 14K6 16K2 16K3 16K4 16K5 16K6 16K7 16K9
10
12
12
12
14
14
14
14
16
16
16
16
16
16
16
5.7
7.1
5.2
6.7
7.7
5.5
6.3
7.5
8.1
8.6
10.0
550
550
550
510
500
425
434
344
380
282
336
234
299
197
268
167
241
142
218
123
199
106
181
93
166
81
550
550
550
510
550
463
543
428
476
351
420
291
374
245
335
207
302
177
273
153
249
132
227
116
208
101
550
550
550
510
550
463
550
434
550
396
550
366
507
317
454
269
409
230
370
198
337
172
308
150
282
132
550
550
511
475
448
390
395
324
352
272
315
230
284
197
257
170
234
147
214
128
196
113
180
100
166
88
154
79
143
70
550
550
550
507
550
467
495
404
441
339
395
287
356
246
322
212
293
184
268
160
245
141
226
124
209
110
193
98
180
88
550
550
550
507
550
467
550
443
530
397
475
336
428
287
388
248
353
215
322
188
295
165
272
145
251
129
233
115
216
103
550
550
550
507
550
467
550
443
550
408
550
383
525
347
475
299
432
259
395
226
362
199
334
175
308
56
285
139
265
124
550
550
512
488
456
409
408
347
368
297
333
255
303
222
277
194
254
170
234
150
216
133
200
119
186
106
173
95
161
86
151
78
142
71
550
550
550
526
508
456
455
386
410
330
371
285
337
247
308
216
283
189
260
167
240
148
223
132
207
118
193
106
180
96
168
87
158
79
550
550
550
526
550
490
547
452
493
386
447
333
406
289
371
252
340
221
313
195
289
173
268
155
249
138
232
124
216
112
203
101
190
92
550
550
550
526
550
490
550
455
550
426
503
373
458
323
418
282
384
248
353
219
326
194
302
173
281
155
261
139
244
126
228
114
214
103
550
550
550
526
550
490
550
455
550
426
548
405
498
351
455
307
418
269
384
238
355
211
329
188
306
168
285
151
266
137
249
124
233
112
550
550
550
526
550
490
550
455
550
426
550
406
550
385
507
339
465
298
428
263
395
233
366
208
340
186
317
167
296
151
277
137
259
124
550
550
550
526
550
490
550
455
550
426
550
406
550
385
550
363
550
346
514
311
474
276
439
246
408
220
380
198
355
178
332
161
311
147
550
550
550
542
550
455
479
363
412
289
358
234
313
192
277
159
246
134
221
113
199
97
Victor Saouma
Structural Engineering
322
Draft
STRUCTURAL MATERIALS
Victor Saouma
Structural Engineering
Draft
Chapter 4
4.1
Introduction
1 In the analysis of structures (hand calculations), it is often easier (but not always necessary) to start
by determining the reactions.
2 Once the reactions are determined, internal forces are determined next; nally, deformations (deections and rotations) are determined last1 .
Depending on the type of structures, there can be dierent types of support conditions, Fig. 4.1.
is the sequence of operations in the exibility method which lends itself to hand calculation. In the stiness
method, we determine displacements rsts, then internal forces and reactions. This method is most suitable to computer
implementation.
42
Draft
Roller: provides a restraint in only one direction in a 2D structure, in 3D structures a roller may provide
restraint in one or two directions. A roller will allow rotation.
Hinge: allows rotation but no displacements.
Fixed Support: will prevent rotation and displacements in all directions.
4.2
Equilibrium
Fx
10
Fy
= Mz
(4.2)
For reaction calculations, the externally applied load may be reduced to an equivalent force3 .
Summation of the moments can be taken with respect to any arbitrary point.
Whereas forces are represented by a vector, moments are also vectorial quantities and are represented
by a curved arrow or a double arrow vector.
11
12
Equations
Fx
Fy
Fy
Fz
Fx
Fy
Fz
Alternate Set
MzA MzB
Fx
MzA MzB
A
Mz
MzB MzC
Mz
Mz
Mx
Mx
My
My
Mz
13
14
15
3 However
Victor Saouma
Structural Engineering
43
Draft
If your reaction is negative, then it will be in a direction opposite from the one assumed.
Summation of all external forces (including reactions) is not necessarily zero (except at hinges and at
points outside the structure).
16
Summation of external forces is equal and opposite to the internal ones. Thus the net force/moment
is equal to zero.
17
18
The external forces give rise to the (non-zero) shear and moment diagram.
4.3
Equations of Conditions
If a structure has an internal hinge (which may connect two or more substructures), then this will
provide an additional equation (M = 0 at the hinge) which can be exploited to determine the reactions.
19
Those equations are often exploited in trusses (where each connection is a hinge) to determine reactions.
20
In an inclined roller support with Sx and Sy horizontal and vertical projection, then the reaction
R would have, Fig. 4.2.
21
Rx
Sy
=
Ry
Sx
(4.3)
4.4
Static Determinacy
In statically determinate structures, reactions depend only on the geometry, boundary conditions and
loads.
22
If the reactions can not be determined simply from the equations of static equilibrium (and equations
of conditions if present), then the reactions of the structure are said to be statically indeterminate.
23
24 the degree of static indeterminacy is equal to the dierence between the number of reactions and
the number of equations of equilibrium, Fig. 4.3.
Failure of one support in a statically determinate system results in the collapse of the structures.
Thus a statically indeterminate structure is safer than a statically determinate one.
25
For statically indeterminate structures4 , reactions depend also on the material properties (e.g. Youngs
and/or shear modulus) and element cross sections (e.g. length, area, moment of inertia).
26
4 Which
Victor Saouma
Structural Engineering
44
Draft
If the rigid plate supports a load P, determine the stress in each of the three cables. Solution:
1. We have three unknowns and only two independent equations of equilibrium. Hence the problem
is statically indeterminate to the rst degree.
right
left
= PAl
Mz = 0; PAl
Fy = 0; 2PAl + PSt = P
= PA
PL
L =
= L
L
AE
=indeterminate
5 This example problem will be the only statically
E
problem analyzed in CVEN3525.
Victor Saouma
Structural Engineering
Draft
45
PAl L
PSt L
PAl
(EA)Al
=
=
EAl AAl
ESt ASt
PSt
(EA)St
Al
St
=
PSt
(EA)
St (EA)Al 0
1
P
(EA)Al 1
=
0
2(EA)Al + (EA)St (EA)St 2
Determinant
4.5
Geometric Instability
The stability of a structure is determined not only by the number of reactions but also by their
arrangement.
27
28
29
4.6
Examples
Examples of reaction calculation will be shown next. Each example has been carefully selected as it
brings a dierent twist from the preceding one. Some of those same problems will be revisited later
for the determination of the internal forces and/or deections. Many of those problems are taken from
Prof. Gerstle textbok Basic Structural Analysis.
30
Structural Engineering
46
Draft
Solution:
The beam has 3 reactions, we have 3 equations of static equilibrium, hence it is statically determinate.
(+ ) Fx = 0;
(+ ) Fy = 0;
(+ )
Mzc = 0;
Rax 36 k = 0
Ray + Rdy 60 k (4) k/ft(12) ft = 0
12Ray 6Rdy (60)(6) = 0
1 0
0
Rax 36
Rax 36 k
0 1
1
108
Ray
Ray
56 k
=
0 12 6
360
Rdy
Rdy
52 k
or
Victor Saouma
Structural Engineering
4.6 Examples
47
Draft
Solution:
Since there are no axial forces, there are two unknowns and two equations of equilibrium. Considering
an innitesimal element of length dx, weight dW , and moment dM :
x=L
x 2
w0
dx x (Rb )(L) = 0
(+ )
Ma = 0;
x=0
L
w
dW
dM
M
L4
= 14 w0 L
Rb = L1 w0 4L
2
x=L 2
x
1
w0
dx = 0
(+
) Fy = 0; Ra + w0 L
L
x=0
4
Rb
w0 L3
L2 3
Ra =
14 w0 L
1
12 w0 L
Solution:
We have 4 unknowns (Rax , Ray , Rcy and Rdy ), three equations of equilibrium and one equation of
condition (Mb = 0), thus the structure is statically determinate.
Victor Saouma
Structural Engineering
48
Draft
1. Isolating ab:
M b = 0; (9)(Ray ) (40)(5) = 0
(+ )
Ma = 0; (40)(4) (S)(9) = 0
Fx = 0;
Ray = 22.2 k
S = 17.7 k
Rax = 30 k
2. Isolating bd:
(+ )
Md = 0; (17.7)(18) (40)(15) (4)(8)(8) (30)(2) + Rcy (12) = 0
Rcy = 1,236
12 = 103 k
(+ )
Mc = 0; (17.7)(6) (40)(3) + (4)(8)(4) + (30)(10) Rdy (12) = 0
Rdy = 201.3
12 = 16.7 k
3. Check
Fy = 0; ; 22.2 40 40 + 103 32 30 + 16.7 = 0
Victor Saouma
Structural Engineering
4.6 Examples
49
Draft
Solution:
1. Due to symmetry, we will consider only the dead load on one side of the frame.
2. Due to symmetry, there is no vertical force transmitted by the hinge for snow and dead load.
3. Roof dead load per frame is
DL = (20) psf(30) ft
302 + 152 ft
1
lbs/k = 20.2 k
1, 000
1
lbs/k = 27. k
1, 000
1
lbs/k = 15.75 k
1, 000
6. There are 4 reactions, 3 equations of equilibrium and one equation of condition statically
determinate.
7. The horizontal reaction H due to a vertical load V at midspan of the roof, is obtained by taking
moment with respect to the hinge
(+ )
MC = 0; 15(V ) 30(V ) + 35(H) = 0
H=
15V
35
= .429V
=
=
=
=
B
VDL
B
HDL
B
VSL
B
HSL
=
=
=
=
(.429)(20.2) =
(.429)(27.)
20.2 k
8.66 k
27. k
11.58 k
= 0;
= 0;
= 0;
= 0;
B
(15.75)( 20+15
2 ) VW L (60) = 0
B
HW L (35) (4.6)(30) = 0
A
15.75 3.95 HW
L = 0
B
A
VW L VW L = 0
B
VW
L = 4.60 k
B
HW
L = 3.95 k
A
HW L = 11.80 k
A
VW
L = 4.60 k
Structural Engineering
410
Draft
= 24.19 k
= 52.3 k
Solution:
A priori we would identify 5 reactions, however we do have 2 equations of conditions (one at each inclined
support), thus with three equations of equilibrium, we have a statically determinate system.
(+ )
Mb = 0; (Ray )(20) (40)(12) (30)(6) + (44.72)(6) (Rcy )(12) = 0
20Ray = 12Rcy + 391.68
(+ ) Fx = 0; 34 Ray 22.36 43 Rcy = 0
Rcy = 0.5625Ray 16.77
Solving for those two equations:
20
12
Ray
391.68
Ray
14.37 k
=
=
8.69 k
0.5625 1
Rcy
Rcy
16.77
The horizontal components of the reactions at a and c are
Rax
Rcx
=
=
3
4 14.37
4
3 8.69
=
=
10.78 k
11.59 k
Victor Saouma
Structural Engineering
4.7 Arches
Draft
4.7
31
411
Arches
Victor Saouma
Structural Engineering
412
Draft
Victor Saouma
Structural Engineering
Draft
Chapter 5
TRUSSES
5.1
Introduction
5.1.1
Assumptions
1 Cables and trusses are 2D or 3D structures composed of an assemblage of simple one dimensional
components which transfer only axial forces along their axis.
Cables can carry only tensile forces, trusses can carry tensile and compressive forces.
Cables tend to be exible, and hence, they tend to oscillate and therefore must be stiened.
Trusses are extensively used for bridges, long span roofs, electric tower, space structures.
A truss would typically be composed of triangular elements with the bars on the upper chord under
compression and those along the lower chord under tension. Depending on the orientation of the
diagonals, they can be under either tension or compression.
8 It can be easily determined that in a Pratt truss, the diagonal members are under tension, while in
a Howe truss, they are in compression. Thus, the Pratt design is an excellent choice for steel whose
members are slender and long diagonal member being in tension are not prone to buckling. The vertical
members are less likely to buckle because they are shorter. On the other hand the Howe truss is often
preferred for for heavy timber trusses.
In a truss analysis or design, we seek to determine the internal force along each member, Fig. 5.2
5.1.2
Basic Relations
Sign Convention: Tension positive, compression negative. On a truss the axial forces are indicated as
forces acting on the joints.
Stress-Force: =
P
A
Stress-Strain: = E
1 In practice the bars are riveted, bolted, or welded directly to each other or to gusset plates, thus the bars are not free
to rotate and so-called secondary bending moments are developed at the bars. Another source of secondary moments
is the dead weight of the element.
52
TRUSSES
Draft
Victor Saouma
Structural Engineering
5.2 Trusses
53
Draft
Force-Displacement: =
L
L
Equilibrium: F = 0
5.2
5.2.1
Trusses
Determinacy and Stability
Trusses are statically determinate when all the bar forces can be determined from the equations
of statics alone. Otherwise the truss is statically indeterminate.
10
A truss may be statically/externally determinate or indeterminate with respect to the reactions (more
than 3 or 6 reactions in 2D or 3D problems respectively).
11
12
If we refer to j as the number of joints, R the number of reactions and m the number of members,
then we would have a total of m + R unknowns and 2j (or 3j) equations of statics (2D or 3D at each
joint). If we do not have enough equations of statics then the problem is indeterminate, if we have too
many equations then the truss is unstable, Table 5.1.
13
2D
3D
Static Indeterminacy
External
R>3
R>6
Internal
m + R > 2j m + R > 3j
Unstable m + R < 2j m + R < 3j
Table 5.1: Static Determinacy and Stability of Trusses
If m < 2j 3 (in 2D) the truss is not internally stable, and it will not remain a rigid body when it is
detached from its supports. However, when attached to the supports, the truss will be rigid.
14
Since each joint is pin-connected, we can apply M = 0 at each one of them. Furthermore, summation
of forces applied on a joint must be equal to zero.
15
For 2D trusses the external equations of equilibrium which can be used to determine the reactions
are FX = 0, FY = 0 and MZ = 0. For 3D trusses the available equations are FX = 0, FY = 0,
FZ = 0 and MX = 0, MY = 0, MZ = 0.
16
17
Fig. 5.3 shows a truss with 4 reactions, thus it is externally indeterminate. This truss has 6 joints
(j = 6), 4 reactions (R = 4) and 9 members (m = 9). Thus we have a total of m + R = 9 + 4 = 13
unknowns and 2 j = 2 6 = 12 equations of equilibrium, thus the truss is statically indeterminate.
18
19
5.2.2
20
Method of Joints
Victor Saouma
Structural Engineering
54
TRUSSES
Draft
(5.1)
Always keep track of the x and y components of a member force (Fx , Fy ), as those might be needed
later on when considering the force equilibrium at another joint to which the member is connected.
21
This method should be used when all member forces must be determined.
In truss analysis, there is no sign convention. A member is assumed to be under tension (or
compression). If after analysis, the force is found to be negative, then this would imply that the wrong
assumption was made, and that the member should have been under compression (or tension).
23
On a free body diagram, the internal forces are represented by arrow acting on the joints and
not as end forces on the element itself. That is for tension, the arrow is pointing away from the joint,
and for compression toward the joint, Fig. 5.5.
24
Victor Saouma
Structural Engineering
5.2 Trusses
55
Draft
Solution:
1. R = 3, m = 13, 2j = 16, and m + R = 2j
Structural Engineering
56
TRUSSES
Draft
(+
) Fy = 0; FAHy + 58 = 0
FAH = lly (FAHy )
ly = 32
FAH = 40
32 (58) = 72.5 k Compression
(+ ) Fx = 0; FAHx + FAB = 0
24
x
FAB = L
Ly (FAHy ) = 32 (58) = 43.5 k Tension
l=
322 + 242 = 40
Node B:
(+ ) Fx = 0; FBC
) Fy = 0; FBH
(+
=
=
43.5 k Tension
20 k Tension
Node H:
(5.2)
Solving we obtain
FHC
FHG
Victor Saouma
=
=
7.5 k Tension
52 k Compression
Structural Engineering
5.2 Trusses
57
Draft
Node E:
Fy = 0; FEFy = 62
Fx = 0; FED = FEFx
FEF =
FED =
242 +322
(62)
32
24
24
(F
)
EFy = 32 (62)
32
= 77.5 k
= 46.5 k
4. We could check our calculations by verifying equilibrium of forces at a node not previously used,
such as D
5.2.2.1
25
26
27
Matrix Method
(5.3)
Victor Saouma
Structural Engineering
58
TRUSSES
Draft
3. Assume
Y
- ve
+ ve
+ ve
+ ve
X
- ve
- ve
+ ve
- ve
=
=
Lx
L
Ly
L
5. Write the two equations of equilibrium at each joint j in terms of the unknowns (member forces
and reactions), Fig. 5.7
e
e
e
Fy = L y F = F
L
e
e
e
Fx = Lx F = F
L
28
This method may be the only one appropriate to analyze statically determinate trusses which solutions defy the previous two methods, Fig. 5.8.
29
30
The matrix [B] will have 2j rows and m + r columns. It can only be inverted if ti is symmetric (i.e
2j = m + r, statically determinate).
31
32
Victor Saouma
Structural Engineering
5.2 Trusses
59
Draft
x(1)
0.
10.
5.
x(2)
0.
0.
5.
P (1)
0.
0.
0.
P (2)
0.
0.
-10.
R(1)
1
0
0
R(2)
1
1
0
where x(1), x(2), P (1), and P (2) are the x and y coordinates; the x and y component of
applied nodal load. R(1), R(2) correspond to the x and y boundary conditions, they will be
set to 1 if there is a corresponding reaction, and 0 otherwise.
(b) Element Connectivity
Element
1
2
3
Node(1)
1
2
3
Node(2)
2
3
1
2. Determine the size of the matrix (2 times the number of joints) and initialize a square matrix of
this size to zero.
3. Assemble the rst submnatrix of the Statics matrix
(a) Loop over each element (e), determine Lix , Liy (as measured from the rst node), L, ei =
ie =
Liy
e
e
e
e
L , j = i , j = i , where
ei in row 2i 1 column e, ie in
(b) Store
2j column e.
Lix
L
Structural Engineering
510
Draft
TRUSSES
Solution:
1. We rst determine the directions cosines
Victor Saouma
Structural Engineering
5.2 Trusses
Draft
511
Member
1
Nodes
1-2
11 = 1
2
2-3
3-1
Node 2
12 = 1
21 = 0
Node 3
23 = .707 32 = .707
Node 1
31 = .707
13 = .707
Node 1
11 = 0
Node 2
22 = .7071
22 = .707
Node 3
33 = .707 33 = .707
Node 1
Node 2
Node 3
Fx
Fy
Fx
Fy
Fx
Fy
=0
=0
=0
=0
=0
=0
F1
11
11
1
2
1
2
0
0
F2
0
0
22
22
23
32
F3
31
13
0
0
33
33
R1x
1
0
0
0
0
0
R1y
0
1
0
0
0
0
R2y
0
F1
F2
F3
R1x
R1y
R2y
F1
F2
F3
R1x
R1y
R2y
{F }
0
0
0
0
0
10
{P }
=0
Or
Node 1 Fx
Fy
Node 2 Fx
Fy
Node 3 Fx
Fy
=0
=0
=0
=0
=0
=0
1
0
.707
0
0
.707
1 .707
0
0
.707
0
0
.707 .707
0 .707 .707
1
0
0
0
0
0
0
1
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
1
0
0
[B]
F1
F3
R1x
1y
R2y
{F }
0
0
0
0
0
10
{P }
=0
7.07
7.07
=
0
Victor Saouma
Structural Engineering
512
TRUSSES
Draft
# 1
# 2
# 3
# 4
# 5
# 6
# 7
# 8
Fx
Fy
Fx
Fy
Fx
Fy
Fx
Fy
Fx
Fy
Fx
Fy
Fx
Fy
Fx
Fy
1
1
=
=
=
=
3
5
4
5
10
26
24
26
= 0.6
= 0.8
= 0.38
= 0.92
.6
.8
1
1
1
1
1
.6
.8
1
1
.6
.8
1
1
1
.6
.8
.6
.8
.6
.8
1
.6
.8
.6
.8
.92
.38
.92
.38
.92
.38
.92
.38
[B]
F1
FF23
F4
F5
F6
FF78
9
FF10
F11
FF12
13
R1
R1xy
R5
y
?
0
0
0
20
0
40
0
40
0
0
0
0
0
8
0
12
0, 0, 0, -8,
0, -12}
Victor Saouma
Structural Engineering
=0
5.2 Trusses
513
Draft
-14
, -58., -62.}
which correspond to the unknown element internal forces and external reactions.
5.2.3
Method of Sections
When only forces in selected members (away from loaded joints) is to be determined, this method
should be used.
33
34
Victor Saouma
Structural Engineering
514
TRUSSES
Draft
(+ )
MH = 0
5.3
3m
D
C
1m
E
2m
G
F
3m
0.5 m
7.5 m
Victor Saouma
Structural Engineering
515
Draft
800 kN
1
j=6
3m
m=9
r=3
3
6
1m
4
4
8
2m
7
9
5
111
000
000
111
000
111
3m
6
0000
1111
1111
0000
0000
1111
0.5 m
7.5 m
Victor Saouma
Structural Engineering
516
Draft
TRUSSES
Victor Saouma
Structural Engineering
Draft
Chapter 6
CABLES
6.1
Funicular Polygons
1 A cable is a slender exible member with zero or negligible exural stiness, thus it can only transmit
tensile forces1 .
2 The tensile force at any point acts in the direction of the tangent to the cable (as any other component
will cause bending).
Its strength stems from its ability to undergo extensive changes in slope at the point of load application.
Cables resist vertical forces by undergoing sag (h) and thus developing tensile forces. The horizontal
component of this force (H) is called thrust.
h
l
(6.1)
7 When a set of concentrated loads is applied to a cable of negligible weight, then the cable deects into
a series of linear segments and the resulting shape is called the funicular polygon.
If a cable supports vertical forces only, then the horizontal component H of the cable tension T remains
constant.
1 Due
to the zero exural rigidity it will buckle under axial compressive forces.
62
CABLES
Draft
Solution:
We have 4 external reactions, however the horizontal ones are equal and we can use any one of a number
of equations of conditions in addition to the three equations of equilibrium. First, we solve for Ay ,
Dy and H = Ax = Dx . For this problem we could use the following 3 equations of static equilibrium
Fx = Fy = M = 0, however since we do not have any force in the x direction, the second equation
is of no avail. Instead we will consider the following set Fy = MA = MD = 0
1. First we solve for Dy
(+ )
MA = 0; 12(30) + 6(70) Dy (100) = 0 Dy = 7.8 k
(6.2)
(6.3)
(6.4)
30(7.8)
30Dy
=
= 4.6 ft
H
51
5. We now solve for the cable internal forces or tractions in this case
6
= 0.200 A = 11.31 deg
TAB ;
tan A =
30
H
51
=
= 51.98 k
=
cos A
0.981
6 4.6
TBC ;
= 0.035 B = 2 deg
tan B =
40
H
51
=
= 51.03 k
=
cos B
0.999
4.6
TCD ;
= 0.153 C = 8.7 deg
tan C =
30
H
51
=
= 51.62 k
=
cos C
0.988
Victor Saouma
(6.5)
(6.6-a)
(6.6-b)
(6.6-c)
(6.6-d)
(6.6-e)
(6.6-f)
Structural Engineering
63
Draft
6.2
6.2.1
Uniform Load
qdx; Parabola
9 Whereas the forces in a cable can be determined from statics alone, its conguration must be derived
from its deformation. Let us consider a cable with distributed load p(x) per unit horizontal projection of the cable length2 . An innitesimal portion of that cable can be assumed to be a straight line,
Fig. 6.1 and in the absence of any horizontal load we have H =constant. Summation of the vertical
T
V
q(x)
x q(x)
y(x)
dy
ds
dx
ds
L
dx
V+dV
H
T+dT
x
h
x
y
L/2
(6.7-a)
dV + qdx =
(6.7-b)
where V is the vertical component of the cable tension at x3 . Because the cable must be tangent to T ,
we have
V
tan =
(6.8)
H
10
(6.9)
or
d
(H tan ) = q
dx
Since H is constant (no horizontal load is applied), this last equation can be rewritten as
d
(tan ) = q
dx
(6.11)
dy
dx
11
2 Thus
3 Note
(6.10)
d2 y
q
=
dx2
H
(6.12)
Victor Saouma
Structural Engineering
64
CABLES
Draft
For a cable subjected to a uniform load p. we can determine its shape by double integration of Eq.
6.12
12
Hy
Hy
qx + C1
qx2
+ C1 x + C2
2
(6.13-a)
(6.13-b)
To solve for C1 and C2 this last equation must satisfy the boundary conditions: y = 0 at x = 0 and at
x = L C2 = 0 and C1 = qL
2 . Thus
q
(6.14)
Hy = x(L x)
2
13 This equation gives the shape y(x) in terms of the horizontal force H, it can be rewritten in terms of
the maximum sag h which occurs at midspan, hence at x = L2 we would have4
qL2
8
Hh =
(6.15)
This relation clearly shows that the horizontal force is inversely proportional to the sag h, as h
H . Furthermore, this equation can be rewritten as
14
8h
qL
=
H
L
(6.16)
15
(6.17)
4hx
(L x)
L2
(6.18)
16
qL
= 8r
H
y=
4h 2
x
L2
(6.19)
Thus the cable assumes a parabolic shape (as the moment diagram of the applied load).
The maximum tension occurs at the support where the vertical component is equal to V = qL
2 and
the horizontal one to H, thus
2
2
qL/2
qL
Tmax = V 2 + H 2 =
+ H2 = H 1 +
(6.20)
2
H
17
Tmax = H
4 Note
M=
1 + 16r2 H(1 + 8r2 )
(6.21)
the analogy between this equation and the maximum moment in a simply supported uniformly loaded beam
qL2
.
8
5 Recalling
1
2
Thus for b << 1, 1 + b = (1 + b) 2 1 + 2b
Victor Saouma
n(n1) n2 2
a
b
2!
+ or (1 + b)n = 1 + nb +
n(n1)b2
2!
n(n1)(n2)b3
3!
+ ;
Structural Engineering
65
Draft
6.2.2
qds; Catenary
Let us consider now the case where the cable is subjected to its own weight (plus ice and wind if any).
We would have to replace qdx by qds in Eq. 6.7-b
18
dV + qds = 0
(6.22)
The dierential equation for this new case will be derived exactly as before, but we substitute qdx by
qds, thus Eq. 6.12 becomes
d2 y
q ds
=
2
dx
H dx
19
q
d2 y
=
2
dx
H
1+
(6.23)
dy
dx
2
(6.24)
solution of this dierential equation is considerably more complicated than for a parabola.
20
dp
q
=
1 + p2
dx
H
rearranging
dp
=
1 + p2
(6.25)
q
dx
H
(6.26)
21
(6.27)
qx
+ C1
=
H
(6.28-a)
= e
= p + e
(6.28-b)
A
(6.28-c)
= p 2pe + e
e2A 1
eA eA
= sinh A
=
=
2eA
2
qx
dy
= sinh
+ C1
=
H
dx
qx
qx
H
=
sinh
+ C1 dx = cosh
+ C1 + C2
H
q
H
2
2A
(6.28-d)
(6.28-e)
(6.28-f)
(6.28-g)
Victor Saouma
L
at x =
2
qx
q H
=
sinh
+ C1
H q
H
q L
q L
= sinh
+ C1 C1 =
H2
H2
q L
H
x + C2
= cosh
q
H 2
= 0
(6.29-a)
(6.29-b)
(6.29-c)
(6.29-d)
Structural Engineering
66
CABLES
Draft
+ C2
q
H 2
2
H
= h+
q
h
C2
22
(6.30-a)
(6.30-b)
If we move the origin at the lowest point along the cable at x = x L/2 and y = h y, we obtain
q
q
y = cosh
x 1
H
H
23
(6.31)
This equation is to be contrasted with 6.19, we can rewrite those two equations as:
q
1 q 2
y=
x
Parabola
H
2 H
q
q
y = cosh
x 1 Catenary
H
H
(6.32-a)
(6.32-b)
The hyperbolic cosine of the catenary can be expanded into a Taylor power series as
qy
1 qx 2
1 qx 4
1 qx 6
=
+
+
+ ...
H
2 H
24 H
720 H
(6.33)
The rst term of this development is identical as the formula for the parabola, and the other terms
constitute the dierence between the two. The dierence becomes signicant only for large qx/H, that
is for large sags in comparison with the span, Fig. 6.3.
3
Parabola
Catenary
2.5
1.5
0.5
0
2
1.5
0.5
0
qx/H
0.5
1.5
6.2.2.1
Historical Note
It should be mentioned that solution of this problem constitued one of the major mathematical/Mechanics
challenges of the early 18th century. Around 1684, dierential and integral calculus took their rst eective forms, and those powerful new techniques allowed scientists to tackle complex problems for the rst
time, (Penvenuto 1991). One of these problems was the solution to the catenary problem as presented by
Jakob Bernouilli. Immediately thereafter, Leibniz presented a solution based on innitesimal calculus,
another one was presented by Huygens. Finally, the brother of the challenger, Johann Bernoulli did also
present a solution.
24
Victor Saouma
Structural Engineering
67
Draft
Huygens solution was complex and relied on geometrical arguments. The one of Leibniz was ellegant
and correct (y/a = (bx/a + bx/a )/2 (we recognize Eq. 6.31 albeit written in slightly dierent form, Fig.
6.3. Finally, Bernoulli presented two correct solution, and in his solution he did for the rst time express
25
The total dead load is estimated at 200 psf. Assume a sag to span ratio of
Solution:
1
5
1
=
1. The dead load carried by each cable will be one half the total dead load or p1 = 12 (200) psf(50) ft 1,000
5.0 k/ft
Victor Saouma
Structural Engineering
68
CABLES
Draft
pl2
8h
(6.28) k/ft(300)2 ft2
(8) 300
5 ft
=
=
=
(6.34-a)
(6.34-b)
1, 177 k
(6.34-c)
1 + 16r2
(6.35-a)
2
1
(1, 177) k 1 + (16)
5
(6.35-b)
1, 507 k
(6.35-c)
5. Note that if we used the approximate formula in Eq. 6.21 we would have obtained
Tmax
H(1 + 8r2 )
2
1
1, 177 1 + 8
5
=
=
=
(6.36-a)
(6.36-b)
1, 554 k
(6.36-c)
or 3% dierence!
6. The required cross sectional area of the cable along the main span should be equal to
Tmax
1, 507 k
=
= 7.93 in2
all
190 ksi
A=
which corresponds to a diameter
d=
4A
=
(4)(7.93)
= 3.18 in
7. We seek next to determine the cable force in AB. Since the pylon can not take any horizontal
force, we should have the horizontal
component of Tmax (H) equal and opposite to the horizontal
component of TAB or
TAB
H
TAB
(100)2 +(120)2
100
thus
(100)2 + (120)2
= (1, 177)(1.562) = 1, 838 k
=H
100
1, 838 k
= 9.68 in2
190 ksi
!
d=
(6.37)
(4)(9.68)
= 3.51 in
8. To determine the vertical load acting on the pylon, we must add the vertical components of Tmax
and of TAB (VBC and VAB respectively). We can determine VBC from H and Tmax , thus
120
(1, 177) + (1, 507)2 (1, 177)2 = 1, 412 + 941 = 2, 353 k
(6.38)
P =
100
Using A36 steel with an allowable stress of 21 ksi, the cross sectional area of the tower should be
2
A = 2,353
21 = 112 in . Note that buckling of such a high tower might govern the nal dimensions.
Victor Saouma
Structural Engineering
69
Draft
9. If the cables were to be anchored to a concrete block, the volume of the block should be at least
equal to
(1, 412) k(1, 000)
V =
= 9, 413 ft3
150 lbs/ft3
or a cube of approximately 21 ft
6.3
26
6.3.1
27
Geometry
A longitudinal and plan elevation of the bridge is shown in Fig. 6.4. For simplicity we will assume in
??
377 ft
610 ft
327 ft
3,500 ft
650 ft
4,760 ft
ELEVATION
N.J.
HUDSON RIVER
N.Y.
PLAN
Figure 6.4: Longitudinal and Plan Elevation of the George Washington Bridge
our analysis that the two approaching spans are equal to 650 ft.
There are two cables of three feet diameter on each side of the bridge. The centers of each pair are 9
ft apart, and the pairs themselves are 106 ft apart. We will assume a span width of 100 ft.
28
The cables are idealized as supported by rollers at the top of the towers, hence the horizontal components of the forces in each side of the cable must be equal (their vertical components will add up).
29
The cables support the road deck which is hung by suspenders attached at the cables. The cables are
made of 26,474 steel wires, each 0.196 inch in diameter. They are continuous over the tower supports
and are rmly anchored in both banks by huge blocks of concrete, the anchors.
30
Because the cables are much longer than they are thick (small LI ), they can be idealized as perfectly
exible members with no shear/bending resistance but with high axial strength.
31
Victor Saouma
Structural Engineering
610
CABLES
Draft
The towers are 578 ft tall and rest on concrete caissons in the river. Because of our assumption
regarding the roller support for the cables, the towers will be subjected only to axial forces.
32
6.3.2
Loads
The dead load is composed of the weight of the deck and the cables and is estimated at 390 and 400
psf respectively for the central and side spans respectively. Assuming an average width of 100 ft, this
would be equivalent to
33
DL = (390) psf(100) ft
= 39 k/ft
(6.39)
for the main span and 40 k/ft for the side ones.
For highway bridges, design loads are given by the AASHTO (Association of American State Highway
Transportation Ocials). The HS-20 truck is often used for the design of bridges on main highways, Fig.
6.5. Either the design truck with specied axle loads and spacing must be used or the equivalent uniform
load and concentrated load. This loading must be placed such that maximum stresses are produced.
34
35
(6.40)
6.3.3
37
Cable Forces
The thrust H (which is the horizontal component of the cable force) is determined from Eq. 6.15
H
=
=
=
Victor Saouma
wL2cs
8h
(47) k/ft(3, 500)2 ft2
(8)(327) ft
220, 000 k
(6.41-a)
(6.41-b)
(6.41-c)
Structural Engineering
611
Draft
wD,S = 40 k/ft
wD = 39 k/ft
wD,S = 40 k/ft
DEAD LOADS
wL = 8 k/ft
327
h
=
= 0.0934
Lcs
3, 500
= H 1 + 16r2
= (220, 000) k 1 + (16)(0.0934)2
6.3.4
38
(6.42-a)
(6.42-b)
(6.42-c)
(6.42-d)
Reactions
The vertical force in the columns due to the central span (cs) is simply the support reaction, 6.8
Vcs =
Victor Saouma
1
1
wLcs = (47) k/ft(3, 500) ft = 82, 250 k
2
2
(6.43)
Structural Engineering
612
CABLES
Draft
wTOT = 39 + 8 = 47 k/ft
B
REACTIONS AT
TOP OF TOWER
POINT OF NO
MOMENT
L = 3,500 FT
2 + H2 =
Vcs
(82, 250)2 + (220, 000)2 = 235, 000 k
(6.44)
Along the side spans (ss), the total load is T L = 40 + 8 = 48 k/ft. We determine the vertical reaction
by taking the summation of moments with respect to the anchor:
40
Lss
Vss Lss
2
(650) ft
= (377) k(220, 000) k + (48) k/ft(650) ft
650Vss
2
Vss
MD = 0; +;
hss H + (wss Lss )
(6.45-a)
(6.45-b)
143, 200 k
(6.45-c)
Note: that we have used equilibrium to determine the vertical component of the cable force. It would
377
have been wrong to determine Vss from Vss = 220, 000 650
as we did in the previous example, because
the cable is now loaded. We would have to determine the shape of the cable and the tangent at the
support. Beginiing with Eq. 6.13-b:
41
Hy
1 2
wx + C1 x + C2
2
w x2
C1
C2
+
x+
H 2
H
H
(6.46-a)
(6.46-b)
(6.46-c)
(48) k
C1
x2
x
ft(220, 000) k
(220, 000) k
(6.47-a)
(6.47-b)
y|x=650
C1
=
=
(6.47-c)
(6.47-d)
y
dy
dx
(6.47-e)
(6.47-f)
"
dy ""
dx "x=650
V
V
H
(6.47-g)
(6.47-h)
Victor Saouma
(6.48)
Structural Engineering
613
Draft
43
The vertical reaction at the anchor is given by summation of the forces in the y direction, Fig. 6.9:
(+ ) Fy = 0; (wss Lss ) + Vss + Ranchor
(48) k/ft(650) ft + (143, 200) k + Ranchor
Ranchor
= 0
(6.49-a)
= 0
(6.49-b)
112,000 k
(6.49-c)
(6.49-d)
225,450 k
220,000 k
112,000 k
Figure 6.9: Cable Reactions in Side Span
44
45
The axial force in the side cable is determined the vector sum of the horizontal and vertical reactions.
#
ss
Tanchor
=
+ H 2 = (112, 000)2 + (220, 000)2 = 247, 000 k
R2
(6.50-a)
anchor
#
ss
2 + H2 =
=
Vss
(143, 200)2 + (220, 000)2 = 262,500 k
(6.50-b)
Ttower
Atotal
Central Span
ss
Side Span Tower tower
ss
Side Span Anchor tower
(3.14)(0.196)2
D2
=
= 0.03017 in2
(6.51-a)
4
4
2
(4)cables(26, 474)wires/cable(0.03017) in2 /wire = 3, 200 in(6.51-b)
H
(220, 000) k
=
= 68.75 ksi
(6.51-c)
A
(3, 200) in2
ss
Ttower
(262, 500) in2
= 82 ksi
(6.51-d)
=
A
(3, 200) in2
ss
Tanchor
(247, 000) in2
=
= 77.2 ksi
(6.51-e)
A
(3, 200) in2
73.4 ksi
81.9 ksi
68.75 ksi
77.2 ksi
Structural Engineering
614
CABLES
Draft
If the cables were to be anchored to a concrete block, the volume of the block should be at least equal
to V = (112,000) k(1,000)3 lbs/ k = 747, 000 ft3 or a cube of approximately 91 ft
46
150
lbs/ft
The deck, for all practical purposes can be treated as a continuous beam supported by elastic springs
with stiness K = AL/E (where L is the length of the supporting cable). This is often idealized as
a beam on elastic foundations, and the resulting shear and moment diagrams for this idealization are
shown in Fig. 6.11.
47
K=AL/E
Shear
Moment
Victor Saouma
Structural Engineering
Draft
Chapter 7
Safety Provisions
1 Structures and structural members must always be designed to carry some reserve load above what is
expected under normal use. This is to account for
Variability in Resistance: The actual strengths (resistance) of structural elements will dier from
those assumed by the designer due to:
1. Variability in the strength of the material (greater variability in concrete strength than in
steel strength).
2. Dierences between the actual dimensions and those specied (mostly in placement of steel
rebars in R/C).
3. Eect of simplifying assumptions made in the derivation of certain formulas.
Variability in Loadings: All loadings are variable. There is a greater variation in the live loads than
in the dead loads. Some types of loadings are very dicult to quantify (wind, earthquakes).
Consequences of Failure: The consequence of a structural component failure must be carefully assessed. The collapse of a beam is likely to cause a localized failure. Alternatively the failure of a
column is likely to trigger the failure of the whole structure. Alternatively, the failure of certain
components can be preceded by warnings (such as excessive deformation), whereas other are sudden and catastrophic. Finally, if no redistribution of load is possible (as would be the case in a
statically determinate structure), a higher safety factor must be adopted.
The purpose of safety provisions is to limit the probability of failure and yet permit economical
structures.
72
Draft
7.2
5 This is the simplest of the two methods, and the one which has been historically used by structural
engineers.
6 Structural elements are designed for their service loads, and are dimensioned such that the stresses
do not exceed some predesignated allowable strength, Fig. 7.1.
In this method:
1. All loads are assumed to have the same average variability.
2. The entire variation of the loads and the strengths is placed on the strength side of the equation.
< all =
yld
F.S.
(7.1)
11
7.3
7.3.1
The normal distribution has been found to be an excellent approximation to a large class of distributions, and has some very desirable mathematical properties:
12
Victor Saouma
Structural Engineering
Draft
73
Steel, AISC/ASD
Tension, Gross Area
Ft = 0.6Fy
Tension, Eective Net Area
Ft = 0.5Fu
Bending
Fb = 0.66Fy
Shear
Fv = 0.40Fy
Concrete, ACI/WSD
Tension
0
Compression
0.45fc
(7.2)
xmax
f (x)dx
(7.3)
xmin
13
2.0
2.5
3.0
0.40
0.35
0.30
0.25
0.20
0.15
0.10
0.05
0.5
1.0
1.5
2.0
2.5
3.0
0.5
1.0
1.5
2.0
2.5
3.0
CDF
0.00
3.0 2.5 2.0 1.5 1.0 0.5 0.0
1.0
0.9
0.8
0.7
0.6
0.5
0.4
0.3
0.2
0.1
0.0
3.0 2.5 2.0 1.5 1.0 0.5 0.0
x
1 x 2
1
e 2 [ ]
(x) =
2
Victor Saouma
(7.4)
Structural Engineering
74
Draft
14
y=
(7.5)
7.3.2
(7.6)
Reliability Index
15
In this approach, it is assumed that the load Q and the resistance R are random variables.
16
Typical frequency distributions of such random variables are shown in Fig. 7.3.
17
18
Q and R can be combined and the result expressed logarithmically, Fig. 7.4.
X = ln
R
Q
(7.7)
21
1
For standard distributions and for = 3.5, it can be shown that the probability of failure is Pf = 9,091
or 1.1 104 . That is 1 in every 10,000 structural members designed with = 3.5 will fail because of
either excessive load or understrength sometime in its lifetime.
22
Reliability indices are a relative measure of the current condition and provide a qualitative estimate
of the structural performance.
23
Structures with relatively high reliable indices will be expected to perform well. If the value is too
low, then the structure may be classied as a hazard.
24
Victor Saouma
Structural Engineering
75
Draft
10
10
10
10
Good
Above Average
Below Average
10
Poor
1/(Probability of Failure)
10
Unsatisfactory
10
Hazardous
10
0.0
0.5
1.0
1.5
2.0
2.5
3.0
3.5
4.0
4.5
25
Target values for are shown in Table 30.2, and in Fig. 30.3
Because the strengths and the loads vary independently, it is desirable to have one factor to account
for variability in resistance, and another one for the variability in loads.
26
These factors are referred to as resistance factor and Load Factor respectively. The resistance
factor is dened as
Rm
exp(0.55VR )
(7.8)
=
Rn
27
where RM RN and VR are the mean resistance, the nominal resistance (to be dened later), and the
coecient of variation of the resistance.
7.3.3
Discussion
28 ACI refers to this method as the Strength Design Method, (previously referred to as the Ultimate
Strength Method).
Victor Saouma
Structural Engineering
76
Draft
Type of Load/Member
AISC
DL + LL; Members
DL + LL; Connections
DL + LL + WL; Members
DL + LL +EL; Members
ACI
Ductile Failure
Sudden Failures
3.0
4.5
3.5
1.75
3-3.5
3.5-4
29
Terms such as failure load should be avoided; it is preferable to refer to a structures Limit State
load.
30
31
(7.9)
where
is a strength reduction factor, less than 1, and must account for the type of structural element,
Table 7.3.
Type of Member
ACI
Axial Tension
Flexure
Axial Compression, spiral reinforcement
Axial Compression, other
Shear and Torsion
Bearing on concrete
AISC
Tension, yielding
Tension, fracture
Compression
Beams
Fasteners, Tension
Fasteners, Shear
0.9
0.9
0.75
0.70
0.85
0.70
0.9
0.75
0.85
0.9
0.75
0.65
the notes we will refer by this symbol the relevant design specication in the AISC code.
Victor Saouma
Structural Engineering
7.4 Example
77
Draft
AISC
1. 1.4D
2. 1.2D+1.6L+0.5(Lr or S)
3. 1.2D+0.5L (or 0.8W)+1.6(Lr or S)
4. 1.2D+0.5L+0.5(Lr or S)+1.3W
5. 1.2D+0.5L(or 0.2 S)+1.5E
6. 0.9D+1.3W(or 1.5 E)
ACI
1. 1.4D+1.7L
2. 0.75(1.4D+1.7L+1.7W)
3. 0.9D+1.3W
4. 1.05D+1.275W
5. 0.9D+1.7H
6. 1.4D +1.7L+1.7H
7. 0.75(1.4D+1.4T+1.7L)
8. 1.4(D+T)
where D= dead; L= live; Lr= roof live; W= wind; E= earthquake; S= snow; T= temperature; H= soil.
We must select the one with the largest limit state load.
Thus, in this method, we must perform numerous analysis, one for each load, of a given structure.
For trusses, this is best achieved if we use the matrix method, invert the statics matrix [B], and multiply
[B]1 by each one of the load cases, (Refer to Section 5.2.2.1). For the WSD method, we need not
perform more than one analysis in general.
33
Serviceability Limit States must be assessed under service loads (not factored). The most important ones being
34
1. Deections
2. Crack width (for R/C)
3. Stability
35
x Rn > Qu
(7.10)
where Rn is the nominal strength of the member, Qu is the ultimate (factored) load eect (force, moment,
shear, torque). Design load is also at times dened as
Rd =
7.4
Qu
x
(7.11)
Example
Structural Engineering
78
Draft
To illustrate the dierences between the two design approaches, let us consider the design of an axial
member, subjected to a dead load of 100 k and live load of 80 k. Use A36 steel.
ASD: We consider the total load P = 100 + 80 = 180 k. From Table 7.1, the allowable stress is
0.6yld = 0.6 36 = 21.6 ksi. Thus the required cross sectional area is
A=
180
= 8.33 in2
21.6
1.4(100)
= 140 k
1.2(100) + 1.6(80) = 248 k
From Table 7.3 = 0.9, and Rn = (0.9)Ayld . Hence, applying Eq. 7.9 the cross sectional area
should be
i Qi
248
= 7.65 in2
A=
=
yld
(0.9)(36)
Note that whereas in this particular case the USD design required a smaller area, this may not be the
case for dierent ratios of dead to live loads.
Victor Saouma
Structural Engineering
Draft
Chapter 8
DESIGN I
8.1
8.1.1
1 The tower was built out of wrought iron, less expensive than steel,and Eiel had more experience with
this material, Fig. 8.1
To avoid overturning
M gravity
M wind
82
DESIGN I
Draft
4 The tower is 984 feet high, and 328 feet wide at the base. The large base was essential to provide
adequate stability in the presence of wind load.
5 We can assume that the shape of the tower is parabolic. If we take the x axis to be along the vertical
axis of symmetry and y the half width, then we know that at x = 984 the (half) width y = 0 and at
x = 0 the half width is 328/2 = 164, thus the equation of the half width is given by
y = 164
2
984 x
984
(8.1)
av(x)2
dy
dx
d
ax2
dx
dy dv
dv dx
(8.2-a)
= 2ax
(8.2-b)
984 x
1
= 2(164)
984
984
dy
dv
(8.3-a)
dv
dx
984 x
2, 952
(8.3-b)
Also
dy
dy
= tan = tan1
dx
dx
where is the angle measured from the x axis to the tangent to the curve.
7
(8.4)
Location
Support
First platform
second platform
Intermediate platform
Top platform
Top
Height
0
186
380
644
906
984
Width/2
164
108
62
20
1
0
Width
Estimated Actual
328
216
240
123
110
40
2
0
dy
dx
.333
.270
.205
.115
.0264
0.000
18.4o
15.1o
11.6o
6.6o
1.5o
0o
The tower is supported by four inclined supports, each with a cross section of 800 in2 . An idealization
of the tower is shown in Fig. 8.2.
8.1.2
9
10
Loads
Location
Ground- second platform
Second platform-intermediate platform
intermediate platform - top
Victor Saouma Total
Height
380 ft
264 ft
340 ft
984 ft
Dead Weight
15, 500 k
2, 200 k
1, 100 k
18,Structural
800 k
Engineering
83
Draft
ACTUAL
CONTINUOUS
CONNECTION
IDEALIZED
CONTINUOUS
CONNECTION
ACTUAL
POINTS OF
CONNECTION
Figure 8.3: Eiel Tower, Dead Load Idealization; (Billington and Mark 1983)
Victor Saouma
Structural Engineering
84
DESIGN I
Draft
From the actual width of the lower two platforms we can estimate the live loads (the intermediate
and top platforms would have negligible LL in comparison):
11
1st platform:
kip
(50) psf(240)2 ft2 (1,000)
lbs
2nd platform:
Total:
(50) psf(110) ft
2, 880 k
(1,000)
600 k
3, 480 k
lbs
Hence the total vertical load is Pvert = DL + LL = 18, 800 + 3, 480 = 22, 280 k.
The wind pressure is known to also have a parabolic distribution (maximum at the top), the cross
sectional area over which the wind is acting is also parabolic (maximum at the base). Hence we will
simplify our analysis by considering an equivalent wind force obtained from a constant wind pressure
(force/length) and constant cross section Fig. 8.4: The pressure is assumed to be 2.6 k/ft, thus the
12
Figure 8.4: Eiel Tower, Wind Load Idealization; (Billington and Mark 1983)
lateral wind force is, Fig. 8.5
LOADS
TOTAL
LOADS
P=2560k
00000
11111
L/2
H0
00000
11111
Q=22,280k
00000
11111
00
11
00
11
00
11
V0 11
00
REACTIONS
11
00
00
11
00
11
M0
Figure 8.5: Eiel Tower, Wind Loads, (Billington and Mark 1983)
Victor Saouma
acting at
984
= 492 ft
2
(8.5)
Structural Engineering
85
Draft
8.1.3
Reactions
Simplifying the three dimensional structure with 4 supports into a two dimensional one with two
supports, the reactions can be easily determined for this statically determinate structure, Fig. 8.6.
13
WINDWARD
SIDE
VERTICAL
FORCES
WIND
FORCES
LEEWARD
SIDE
TOTAL
= 22, 280
22, 280
=
= 11,140 k
2
(8.6-a)
(8.6-b)
Lateral Load
Lateral Moment (we essentially have a cantilevered beam subjected to a uniform load). The
moment at a distance x from the support along the cantilevered beam subjected to a uniform
pressure p is given by
Lx
(L x)2
=p
Mlat = p(L x)
2
2
(8.7)
Thus the lateral moment caused by the wind is parabolic. At the base (x = 0), the maximum
moment is equal to
Mlat = p
(984 0)2 2
(L x)2
= (2.6) k/ft
ft = 1,260,000 k.ft
2
2
(8.8)
We observe that the shape of the moment diagram is also parabolic, just like the tower itself.
This is not accidental, as nearly optimum structures have a shape which closely approximate
their moment diagram (such as the varying depth of continuous long span bridges).
To determine the resulting internal forces caused by the lateral (wind) moment, and since we
have two supports (one under tension and the other under compression) we use
wind
=
Rvert
(8.9)
Lateral Forces to be resisted by each of the two pairs. By symmetry, the lateral force will be
equally divided among the two pairs of supports and will be equal to
wind
=
Rlat
Victor Saouma
(2, 560) k
= 1,280 k
2
(8.10)
Structural Engineering
86
DESIGN I
Draft
8.1.4
14
Internal Forces
Fy
cos
sin
tan
Fx
(8.11-a)
F
Fy
(8.11-b)
F
Fy
(8.11-c)
Fx
Fx
15
Gravity load are rst considered, remember those are caused by the dead load and the live load,
Fig. 8.7:
16
=18.4
=18.4
INCLINED
INTERNAL
FORCE: N
CONSEQUENT
HORIZONTAL
COMPONENT: H
KNOWN VERTICAL
COMPONENT: V
H
FORCE POLYGON
Figure 8.7: Eiel Tower, Internal Gravity Forces; (Billington and Mark 1983)
cos
tan
V
V
N =
N
cos
11, 140 k
= 11,730 kip
cos 18.4o
H
H = V tan
V
11, 140 k(tan 18.4o ) = 3,700 kip
(8.12-a)
(8.12-b)
(8.12-c)
(8.12-d)
The horizontal forces which must be resisted by the foundations, Fig. 8.8.
3700 k
3700 k
Figure 8.8: Eiel Tower, Horizontal Reactions; (Billington and Mark 1983)
17
Because the vertical load decreases with height, the axial force will also decrease with height.
18
At the second platform, the total vertical load is Q = 1, 100 + 2, 200 = 3, 300 k and at that height the
Victor Saouma
Structural Engineering
87
Draft
angle is 11.6o thus the axial force (per pair of columns) will be
Nvert
3,300
2
= 1, 685 k
(8.13-a)
cos 11.6o
3, 300 k
(tan 11.6o) = 339 k
Hvert =
(8.13-b)
2
Note that this is about seven times smaller than the axial force at the base, which for a given axial
strength, would lead the designer to reduce (or taper) the cross-section.
The horizontal force will be resisted by the axial forces in the second platform itself.
Wind Load: We now have determined at each pair of support the vertical and the horizontal forces
caused by the wind load, the next step is to determine their axial components along the inclined leg,
Fig. 8.9:
19
18.4
3,850 k
18.4
1,280 k
Figure 8.9: Eiel Tower, Internal Wind Forces; (Billington and Mark 1983)
Nc
Nt
8.1.5
20
wind
wind
= Rvert
cos Rlat
sin
o
= (3, 850) k(cos 18.4 ) (1, 280) k(sin 18.40 )
(8.14-a)
(8.14-b)
(8.14-c)
-4,050 k Leeward
= R
cos + R
sin
o
= (3, 850) k(cos 18.4 ) + (1, 280) k(sin 18.40 )
(8.14-d)
(8.14-e)
(8.14-f)
wind
vert
wind
lat
4,050 k Winward
Internal Stresses
The total forces caused by both lateral and gravity forces can now be determined:
NLTotal
gravity
lateral
(8.15-a)
Total
NW
gravity
lateral
(8.15-b)
We observe that even under wind load, the windward side is still under compression.
In the idealization of the towers geometry, the area of each pair of the simplied columns is 1, 600 in2 .
and thus the maximum stresses will be determined from
21
comp =
22
NLT
15, 780 k
= -9.9 ksi
=
A
1, 600 in2
(8.16)
Victor Saouma
45 ksi
ultimate stress
=
= 4.5
actual stress
9.9 ksi
(8.17)
Structural Engineering
88
DESIGN I
Draft
8.2
8.2.1
Geometry
This storage house, built by Maillart in Chiasso in 1924, provides a good example of the marriage
between aesthetic and engineering.
23
The most striking feature of the Magazini Generali is not the structure itself, but rather the shape of
its internal supporting frames, Fig. 8.10.
24
HINGE IDEALIZATION
OF THIN SECTIONS
ACTUAL FRAME
9.2 ft
63.6 ft
Figure 8.10: Magazzini Generali; Overall Dimensions, (Billington and Mark 1983)
The frame can be idealized as a simply supported beam hung from two cantilever column supports.
Whereas the beam itself is a simple structural idealization, the overhang is designed in such a way as to
minimize the net moment to be transmitted to the supports (foundations), Fig. 8.11.
25
8.2.2
Loads
The load applied on the frame is from the weights of the roof slab, and the frame itself. Given the
space between adjacent frames is 14.7 ft, and that the roof load is 98 psf, and that the total frame
weight is 13.6 kips, the total uniform load becomes, Fig. 8.12:
26
qroof
qf rame
qtotal
Victor Saouma
(8.18-a)
(8.18-b)
(8.18-c)
Structural Engineering
89
Draft
B
P
MB =B*d1
MP =P*d 2
d2
d1
B
MR=MB -M P
Figure 8.11: Magazzini Generali; Support System, (Billington and Mark 1983)
q ROOF = 1.4 k/ft + q FRAME = 0.2 k/ft
q ROOF = 1.4 k/ft
+ q FRAME = 0.2 k/ft
q TOTAL = 1.6 k/ft
8.2.3
27
Reactions
Reactions for the beam are determined rst taking advantage of symmetry, Fig. 8.13:
W
(8.19-a)
(8.19-b)
We note that these reactions are provided by the internal shear forces.
q TOTAL = 1.6 k/ft
63.6 ft
51 k
51 k
Figure 8.13: Magazzini Generali; Beam Reactions, (Billington and Mark 1983)
Victor Saouma
Structural Engineering
810
DESIGN I
Draft
8.2.4
Forces
The internal forces are primarily the shear and moments. Those can be easily determined for a
simply supported uniformly loaded beam. The shear varies linearly from 51 kip to -51 kip with zero at
the center, and the moment diagram is parabolic with the maximum moment at the center, Fig. 8.14,
equal to:
(1.6) k/ft(63.6) ft2
qL2
=
= 808 k.ft
(8.20)
Mmax =
8
8
28
SHEAR FORCE
51 K
25 K
L
L/2
25 K
MOMENT
51 K
Mmax
L
0
L/2
L/4
3L/4
Figure 8.14: Magazzini Generali; Shear and Moment Diagrams (Billington and Mark 1983)
The externally induced moment at midspan must be resisted by an equal and opposite internal
moment. This can be achieved through a combination of compressive force on the upper bers, and
tensile ones on the lower. Thus the net axial force is zero, however there is a net internal couple, Fig.
8.15.
29
q TOTAL
C
d
VA
T
Figure 8.15: Magazzini Generali; Internal Moment, (Billington and Mark 1983)
Mext
T =C
Victor Saouma
= Cd C =
=
Mext
d
(808) k.ft
= 88 k
(9.2) ft
(8.21-a)
(8.21-b)
Structural Engineering
811
Draft
30 Because the frame shape (and thus d(x)) is approximately parabolic, and the moment is also parabolic,
then the axial forces are constants along the entire frame, Fig. 8.16.
FRAME
MOMENT DIAGRAM
CABLE :
FRAME :
CURVE OF DIAGRAM
SHAPE OF DIAGRAM
Figure 8.16: Magazzini Generali; Similarities Between The Frame Shape and its Moment Diagram,
(Billington and Mark 1983)
The axial force at the end of the beam is not balanced, and the 88 kip compression must be transmitted
to the lower chord, Fig. 8.17. Fig. 8.18 This is analogous to the forces transmitted to the support by a
31
88 k
Tension
88 k
88 k
88 k
Compression
Horizontal Component
Tied Arch
Cable Force
Axial Force
Vertical Reaction
Figure 8.17: Magazzini Generali; Equilibrium of Forces at the Beam Support, (Billington and Mark
1983)
tied arch.
It should be mentioned that when a rigorous computer analysis was performed, it was determined
that the supports are contributing a compression force of about 8 kips which needs to be superimposed
over the central values, Fig. 8.18.
32
8.2.5
33
Internal Stresses
The net compressive stress, for a top chord with a cross sectional area of 75 in2 is equal to
=
(88) k
P
=
= 1.17 ksi
A
(75) in2
(8.22)
this is much lower than the allowable compressive stress of concrete which is about 1,350 ksi. It should
be noted that if the frame was cast along with the roof (monolithic construction), than this stress would
be even lower.
Victor Saouma
Structural Engineering
812
DESIGN I
Draft
FRAME ACTS AS A
UNIT, UNLIKE THE
ABSTRACTION
-88 k - 8 k = -96 k
16 k
88 k - 8 k = 80 k
16 k
Figure 8.18: Magazzini Generali; Eect of Lateral Supports, (Billington and Mark 1983)
Since concrete has practically no tensile strength, the tensile force in the lower chord must be resisted
by steel. The lower chord has 4 bars with 0.69 in2 and 6 other bars with 0.58 in2 , thus we have a total
of
(8.23)
As = 4(0.69) + 6(0.58) = 6.24 in2
34
P
(88) k
=
= 14.1 ksi
A
(6.24) in2
(8.24)
8.3
8.3.1
35
Buildings
Buildings Structures
Wall Subsystem: in which very rigid walls made up of solid masonry, paneled or braced timber, or
steel trusses constitute a rigid subsystem. This is only adequate for small rise buildings.
Vertical Shafts: made up of four solid or trussed walls forming a tubular space structure. The tubular
structure may be interior (housing elevators, staircases) and/or exterior. Most ecient for very
high rise buildings.
Rigid Frame: which consists of linear vertical components (columns) rigidly connected to sti horizontal ones (beams and girders). This is not a very ecient structural form to resist lateral
(wind/earthquake) loads.
8.3.1.1
Wall Subsystems
Whereas exterior wall provide enclosure and interior ones separation, both of them can also have a
structural role in transferring vertical and horizontal loads.
36
Victor Saouma
Structural Engineering
8.3 Buildings
813
Draft
37
If the wall is braced by oors, then it can provide an excellent resistance to horizontal load in the
plane of the wall (but not orthogonal to it).
38
When shear-walls subsystem are used, it is best if the center of orthogonal shear resistance is close
to the centroid of lateral loads as applied. If this is not the case, then there will be torsional design
problems.
39
8.3.1.1.1
We consider a reinforced concrete wall 20 ft wide, 1 ft thick, and 120 ft high with a vertical load of
400 k acting on it at the base. As a result of wind, we assume a uniform horizontal force of 0.8 kip/ft
of vertical height acting on the wall. It is required to compute the exural stresses and the shearing
stresses in the wall to resist the wind load, Fig. 8.19.
40
w=0.8 k/ft
20
11111
00000
00000
11111
00000
11111
00000
11111
00000
11111
W11111
00000
00000
40011111
k
00000
11111
00000
11111
00000
11111
00000
11111
00000
11111
00000
11111
00000
11111
H=96 k;
M =5760 k
60
120
V
-f
HORIZONTAL
+f
2/(3d)
+F
-F
VERTICAL
+ FDL
11111
00000
00000
11111
+140
+ 740 PSI
+ 600
7.7 IN TENSION
Figure 8.19: Design of a Shear Wall Subsystem, (Lin and Stotesbury 1981)
1. Maximum shear force and bending moment at the base
Vmax
Mmax
wL = (0.8) k.ft(120) ft = 96 k
(0.8) k.ft(120)2 ft2
wL2
=
= 5, 760 k.ft
2
2
(8.25-a)
(8.25-b)
(8.26)
(20) ft
L
=
= 3.3 ft < eActual N.G.
6
6
(8.27)
Structural Engineering
814
DESIGN I
Draft
I=
(8.28)
(8.29)
(96) k
V
=
= 4.8 ksf = 33.3 psi
A
(1)(20) ft2
(8.30)
A concrete with nominal shear reinforcement can carry at least 100 psi in shear, those computed
shear stresses are permissible.
7. At the base of the wall, the axial stresses will be
=
(400) k
= (20) ksf = 140 psi
(1)(20) ft2
(8.31-a)
(Tension)
(8.32-a)
(Compression)
(8.32-b)
9. The compressive stress of 740 psi can easily be sustained by concrete, as to the tensile stress of
460 psi, it would have to be resisted by some steel reinforcement.
10. Given that those stresses are service stresses and not factored ones, we adopt the WSD approach,
and use an allowable stress of 20 ksi, which in turn will be increased by 4/3 for seismic and wind
load,
4
all = (20) = 26.7 ksi
(8.33)
3
11. The stress distribution is linear, compression at one end, and tension at the other. The length of
the tension area is given by (similar triangles)
20
460
x
=
x=
(20) = 7.7 ft
460
460 + 740
460 + 740
(8.34)
12. The total tensile force inside this triangular stress block is
T =
1
(460) ksi(7.7 12) in (12) in = 250 k
2
(8.35)
width
(250) k
= 9.4 in2
(26.7) ksi
(8.36)
This amount of reinforcement should be provided at both ends of the wall since the wind or
earthquake can act in any direction. In addition, the foundations should be designed to resist
tensile uplift forces (possibly using piles).
Victor Saouma
Structural Engineering
8.3 Buildings
815
Draft
120
20
W
400 k
60
H=96 k
24
1
1.2
~1.6
V
+FM
-F
We consider the same problem previously analyzed, but use a trussed shear wall instead of a concrete
one, Fig. 8.20.
41
1. Using the maximum moment of 5, 760 kip-ft (Eq. 8.25-b), we can compute the compression and
tension in the columns for a lever arm of 20 ft.
F =
(8.37)
2. If we now add the eect of the 400 kip vertical load, the forces would be
C
(400) k
288 = 488 k
2
(400) k
+ 288 = 88 k
(8.38-a)
(8.38-b)
3. The force in the diagonal which must resist a base shear of 96 kip is (similar triangles)
(20)2 + (24)2
(20)2 + (24)2
F
=
F =
(96) = 154 k
96
20
20
(8.39)
4. The design could be modied to have no tensile forces in the columns by increasing the width of
the base (currently at 20 ft).
8.3.1.2
Shaft Systems
Vertical shear-resisting shafts in buildings act as a tubular section and generally have a rectangular
cross section. If there is only one shaft, it is generally located in the center and houses the elevators. If
there are many shafts, then they should be symmetrically arranged.
42
If the shaft is relatively short and wide, with an aspect ratio under 1 or 2, then the dominant structural
action is that of a sti shear resisting tube. If the aspect ratio is between 3 and 5, then the shear forces
may not be the controlling criterion, and exure dominates.
43
Victor Saouma
Structural Engineering
816
DESIGN I
Draft
8.3.1.2.1
44
With reference to Fig. 8.21, the reinforced concrete shaft is 20 ft square, 120 ft high, and with 1 ft
~ 20
20
20
111111
000000
000000
111111
000000
111111
000000
111111
000000
111111
000000
111111
000000
111111
000000
111111
000000
111111
000000
111111
000000
111111
000000
111111
000000
111111
000000
111111
000000
111111
000000
111111
000000
111111
000000
111111
000000
111111
000000
111111
000000
111111
000000
111111
000000
111111
000000
111111
000000
111111
000000
111111
000000
111111
000000
111111
000000
111111
000000
111111
000000
111111
000000
111111
000000
111111
000000
111111
000000
111111
000000
111111
000000
111111
000000
111111
000000
111111
000000
111111
w = 0.8 k/ft
H = 96 k
60
~ 20
120
N.A.
Figure 8.21: Design Example of a Tubular Structure, (Lin and Stotesbury 1981)
thick walls. It is subjected to a lateral force of 0.8 k/ft.
1. Comparing this structure with the one analyzed in Sect. 8.3.1.1.1 the total vertical load acting on
the base is now increased to
V = 4(400) = 1, 600 k
(8.40)
2. As previously, the maximum moment and shear are 5, 760 k.ft and 96 k respectively.
3. The moment of inertia for a tubular section is
I =
(20)(20)3
(18)(18)3
bd3
=
= 4, 600 ft4
12
12
12
(8.41)
(8.42)
(96) k
V
= 2.4 ksf = 17 psi
=
A
2(20)(1) ft2
(8.43)
(1, 600) k
P
=
= 20 ksf = 140 psi
A
(4(20)(1) ft2
(8.44)
ax + f l
(8.45-a)
140 + 87 = 53 psi
(8.45-b)
(8.45-c)
thus we do not have any tensile stresses, and those stresses are much better than those obtained
from a single shear wall.
Victor Saouma
Structural Engineering
817
Draft
8.3.1.3
Rigid Frames
Rigid frames can carry both vertical and horizontal loads, however their analysis is more complex
than for tubes.
45
The rigorous and exact analysis of a rigid frame can only be accomplished through a computer analysis.
However, for preliminary design it is often sucient to perform approximate analysis.
46
There are two approximate methods for the analysis of rigid frames subjected to lateral loads: 1)
Portal and 2) Cantilever method.
47
48
The portal frame method is based on the following major assumptions, Fig. 8.22:
L
P
L/2
h/2
PI
H 1=P/2
H 2=P/2
h/2
V1 =P/(2L)
V2 =P/(2L)
8.4
100
Garage and hotel Building
510
It is necessary to determine preliminary dimensions for the size of the arch section. The arches are
spaced 60 ft on centers and carry four-story loading totaling 27 k/ft along each arch.
1. To the initial DL and LL of 27 k/ft we add the arch own weight estimated to be 25% of the
load, thus the total load is
(8.46)
w = (1 + .25)27 = 33.7 33 k/ft
Victor Saouma
Structural Engineering
818
DESIGN I
Draft
(33)(510)2
wL2
=
= 10, 700 k
8h
8(100)
(33)(510)
wL
=
= 8, 400 k
=
2
2
H 2 + V 2 = (10, 700)2 + (8, 400)2 = 13, 600 k
=
(8.47-a)
(8.47-b)
(8.47-c)
3. If we use concrete-lled steel pipe for arch section, and selecting a pipe diameter of 6 ft with a
thickness of 1/2 inch, then the steel cross sectional area is
As = 2rt = Dt = (3.14)(6) ft(12) in/ ft(0.5) in = 113 in2
(8.48)
(6)2 2
D2
= (3.14)
ft (144) in2 /f tsq = 4, 070 in2
4
4
(8.49)
5. Assuming that the steel has an allowable stress of 20 ksi and the concrete 2.5 ksi (noting that the
strength of conned concrete can be as high as three times the one of fc ), then the load carry(113)(20)ksi
=
2,260 k
Steel Ac
ing capacity of each component is Concrete As (4, 070)(2.5)ksi = 10,180 k
Total
12,440 kip
which is o.k. for the crown section (H=10,700 k) but not quite for the abutments at R=13,600 k.
6. This process of trial and error can be repeated until a satisfactory preliminary design is achieved.
Furthermore, a new estimate for the arch self weight should be undertaken.
8.5
8.5.1
Geometry
The Salginatobel bridge, perhaps the most famous and inuential structure of Maillart is located in
high up in the Swiss Alps close to Shuders.
49
It is a three hinged pedestrian bridge which crosses a deep valley with a most beautiful shape which
blends perfectly with its surrounding, Fig. 8.23
50
The load supporting structure is the arch itself, whereas the bridge deck and the piers are transferring
the vertical load into the arch.
51
52
The arch cross section is not constant, and can be idealized as in Fig. 8.24
53
The basic shape of the supporting structure is a three hinged arch as shown in Fig. 8.25
The arch is parabolic (which as we saw an the optimal shape which minimizes exure), and the cross
section at the quarter point has an area of
54
(8.50)
(8.51)
and the eective depth of the section is d = 12.79 ft, Fig. 8.26.
56
Victor Saouma
(8.52)
Structural Engineering
Draft
20 ft
20 ft
87.5 ft
87.5 ft
20 ft
20 ft
20 ft
42.6 ft
20 ft
819
295 ft
42.6 ft
IDEALIZATION
(ONE DEMENSIONAL)
295 ft
CONCRETE
CORK PADS
HINGE
IDEALIZATION
CORK PAD
CONCRETE
HINGE
HARD WOOD
IDEALIZATION
Structural Engineering
820
DESIGN I
42.6 ft
Draft
ACTUAL ARCH
295 ft
SECTIONS
12.46 ft
0.59 ft
12.17 ft
d=12.79 ft
13.41 ft
0.62 ft
0.62 ft
8.5.2
Loads
The dead load WD is assumed to be linearly distributed (even though it is greater where the arch is
deeper, and the vertical members longer) and is equal to 1,680 kips, Fig. 8.27.
57
wD =
(1, 680) k
WD
=
= 5.7 k/ft
L
(295) ft
(8.53)
wD = 5.7 k/ft
WD = 1680 k
L = 295 ft
Figure 8.27: Salginatobel Bridge; Dead Load, (Billington and Mark 1983)
For the sake of simplicity we will neglect the snow load (which is actually negligible compared to the
dead load).
58
The live load is caused by trac, and we consider the case in which two trucks, each weighing 55
kips, are placed at the quarter-point, Fig. 8.28. This placement of the load actually corresponds to one
59
Victor Saouma
Structural Engineering
821
Draft
of the most critical loading arrangement. The total vertical load is shown in Fig. 8.29
8.5.3
60
Reactions
=
=
HD
VD =
840 k
(8.54-a)
55 k
(8.54-b)
8.5.4
HL
2
= (840) + (1, 455)2
RL = (55)2 + (95)2
0
0
(8.54-c)
(8.54-d)
1, 455 k
0
(8.54-e)
(8.54-f)
95 k
(8.54-g)
1, 680 k
(8.54-h)
110 k
(8.54-i)
Internal Forces
61
The shear diagrams for the dead, live and combined load is shown in Fig. 8.31.
62
(8.55)
where
2d
(8.56)
L
and = 16.1o at this location. The horizontal force for the dead and live loads was determined previously
as 1, 455 and 95 kips respectively, and the vertical forces are obtained from the shear diagram, thus
tan =
qr
ND
(8.57-a)
NLqr
(8.57-b)
(8.58-a)
NLcr
(8.58-b)
63
The uniform dead load will not produce a moment on the parabolic arch.
64
The (point) live load will create a moment which can be decomposed into two parts,
1. Vertical load will cause a trapezoidal moment diagram, and the max moment is
MLV =
11o 295
PL
=
= 4, 050 k.ft
2 4
2 4
(8.59)
2. The second is caused by the horizontal reaction, and the resulting moment is MLH = Hd(x), since
d varies parabolically, and H is constant, that second moment is parabolic with a peak value equal
to
(8.60)
MLV = Hdmax = (95)(32.6) = 4, 050 k.ft
Victor Saouma
Structural Engineering
822
DESIGN I
Draft
PLAN
P = 55 k
ROADWAY
295 ft
P = 55 k
ARCH ABUTMENT
42.5 ft
Figure 8.28: Salginatobel Bridge; Truck Load, (Billington and Mark 1983)
Victor Saouma
Structural Engineering
823
Draft
P = 55 k
B
VB,D = 840 k
VA,D = 840 k
P = 55 k
DEAD LOAD
42.6 ft
Q D = 1680 k
VA,L = 55 k
LIVE LOAD
VB,L = 55 k
295 ft
Figure 8.29: Salginatobel Bridge; Total Vertical Load, (Billington and Mark 1983)
d=42.6 ft
A
l/4=73.75 ft
V
l/2=147.5 ft
Figure 8.30: Salginatobel Bridge; Reactions, (Billington and Mark 1983)
840 k
3L/4
L/4
295 ft
L/2
55 k
SHEAR FORCE
SHEAR FORCE
420 k
420 k
840 k
295 ft
SHEAR FORCE
+ 895 k
L/2
L
-55 k
295 ft
=
+ 475 k
+ 420 k
L
- 420 k
- 475 k
- 895 k
295 ft
Figure 8.31: Salganitobel Bridge; Shear Diagrams, (Billington and Mark 1983)
Victor Saouma
Structural Engineering
824
DESIGN I
Draft
3(32.6)
= 3, 040 k.ft
4
(8.61)
The overall bending moment diagram from the live loads is determined by simply adding those two
components, Fig. 8.32.
65
L/4
-4,050 k-ft
BENDING
MOMENT
BENDING
L/4
-3,040 k-ft
MOMENT
L/4
L/2
x
3L/4
295 ft
MOMENT
BENDING
295 ft
Figure 8.32: Salginatobel Bridge; Live Load Moment Diagram, (Billington and Mark 1983)
We observe that the actual shape of the arch follows this bending moment diagram for one of the
most critical live load case.
66
67
(8.62)
which would produce internal forces in the upper and lower anges equal to:
Fint =
8.5.5
(8.63)
Internal Stresses
68 The axial stresses at the springlines were determined to be 1, 680 and 110 kips for the dead and
live loads respectively.
69
At the support the area of concrete is Ac = 2, 240 in2 , thus the axial stresses are
D
sp
L
sp
s spT otal
(1, 680) k
1, 000 = 750 psi
(2, 240) in2
(110) k
1, 000 = 49 psi
(2, 240) in2
(8.64-a)
(8.64-b)
(8.64-c)
At the crown, we repeat the same calculations, where the axial force is equal to the horizontal
component of the reactions
70
D
cr
Victor Saouma
(1, 455) k
1, 000 = 839 psi
(1, 735) in2
(8.65-a)
Structural Engineering
Draft
825
L
cr
(95) k
1, 000 = 55 psi
(1, 735) in2
(8.65-b)
s cr T otal
(8.65-c)
The stresses at the quarter point are determined next. Note that we must include the eect of both
axial and exural stresses
71
top
qr
(1, 514) k
(106) k
(79) k
1, 000 +
1, 000
2
2
(4, 291) in
(4, 291) in
(1, 113) in2
DeadLoad
LiveLoad
Flexural
(8.66-a)
AxialStresses
(8.66-b)
(1, 514) k
(106) k
(79) k
1, 000 +
1, 000
2
2
(4, 291) in
(4, 291) in
(1, 113) in2
DeadLoad
LiveLoad
Flexural
(8.66-c)
AxialStresses
8.5.6
(8.66-d)
72
wL
/10
wL
wL a
wL
Unstiffened Arch
wL
wL
wL a
2
wL a
2
Stiffened Arch
Victor Saouma
Structural Engineering
826
Draft
DESIGN I
Victor Saouma
Structural Engineering
Draft
Chapter 9
9.1
Introduction
6 Tension members are encountered mostly in truss structures (bridges, roof trusses, transmission towers,
wind bracing of multistoried buildings).
We will separately cover the design of compression members due to the possibility of buckling.
9.2
10
Geometric Considerations
Before we consider the design of tension members, due consideration must be given to
1. The denition of the cross sectional area which will be used to dimension our design
2. Stiness of the member
1 If
the circle becomes an ellipse, than the stress concentration factor becomes greater than three; At the limit if the
ellipse collapses into a crack, then we would have theoretically an innite stress. This is why one should always avoid sharp
corners in a structure.
92
Draft
9.2.1
Areas
The presence of a hole, and the resulting stress concentration must be accounted for in design. This
is accomplished by introducing the concept of eective areas.
11
The eective area Ae is dened in terms of the net area An when the load is transmitted by bolts
or rivets, and gross area Ag for welded members:
12
Ae
Ae
=
=
U An
U Ag
Bolts, Rivets
Welds
(9.1)
Net Area, An
13
The net area must be dened whenever we have holes due to bolts or rivets.
14
Holes are usually punched 1/16 in. larger than the diameter of the bolt or rivet.
1
When holes are punched, a small zone (R 32
in) around it is damaged, thus the total width to
1
in.
be deducted in determining the net area is D = 16
15
16
1
16 , and an
1
8 from the
Accordingly, for a plate of width w and thickness t, and with a single hole which accomodates a bolt
of diameter D, the net area would be
17
1
An = wt D +
t
8
(9.2)
Whenever there is a need for more than two rivets or bolts, the holes are not aligned but rather
staggered. Thus there is more than one potential failure line which can be used to determine the net
area.
18
19
For staggered holes, we dene the net are in terms of, Fig. 9.3,
Structural Engineering
93
Draft
11111111111111111111111111
00000000000000000000000000
00000000000000000000000
11111111111111111111111
00000000000000000000000000
11111111111111111111111111
00000000000000000000000
11111111111111111111111
00000000000000000000000000
11111111111111111111111111
00000000000000000000000
11111111111111111111111
00000000000000000000000000
11111111111111111111111111
00000000000000000000000
11111111111111111111111
00000000000000000000000000
11111111111111111111111111
00000000000000000000000
11111111111111111111111
00000000000000000000000000
11111111111111111111111111
00000000000000000000000
11111111111111111111111
00000000000000000000000000
11111111111111111111111111
00000000000000000000000
11111111111111111111111
00000000000000000000000000
11111111111111111111111111
00000000000000000000000
11111111111111111111111
00000000000000000000000000
11111111111111111111111111
00000000000000000000000
11111111111111111111111
00000000000000000000000000
11111111111111111111111111
00000000000000000000000
11111111111111111111111
00000000000000000000000000
11111111111111111111111111
00000000000000000000000
11111111111111111111111
00000000000000000000000000
11111111111111111111111111
00000000000000000000000
11111111111111111111111
00000000000000000000000000
11111111111111111111111111
00000000000000000000000
11111111111111111111111
00000000000000000000000000
11111111111111111111111111
00000000000000000000000
11111111111111111111111
00000000000000000000000000
11111111111111111111111111
00000000000000000000000
11111111111111111111111
00000000000000000000000000
11111111111111111111111111
00000000000000000000000
11111111111111111111111
00000000000000000000000000
11111111111111111111111111
00000000000000000000000
11111111111111111111111
00000000000000000000000000
11111111111111111111111111
00000000000000000000000
11111111111111111111111
00000000000000000000000000
11111111111111111111111111
00000000000000000000000
11111111111111111111111
00000000000000000000000000
11111111111111111111111111
00000000000000000000000
11111111111111111111111
00000000000000000000000000
11111111111111111111111111
00000000000000000000000
11111111111111111111111
00000000000000000000000000
11111111111111111111111111
00000000000000000000000
11111111111111111111111
00000000000000000000000000
11111111111111111111111111
00000000000000000000000
11111111111111111111111
00000000000000000000000000
11111111111111111111111111
00000000000000000000000
11111111111111111111111
00000000000000000000000000
11111111111111111111111111
Hole size
D
00000000000000000000000000
11111111111111111111111111
D+
1
16
D+
1
8
Bolt size
Victor Saouma
Structural Engineering
94
Draft
s2
4g
(9.3)
1
# of holes
D+
= Ag 1
8
# of correct. s
t + 1
t
4g
(9.4)
In this example the two possible failure lines have the following net lengths:
1
A-B =Length of A-B (width of hole + 16
in.)
1
A-C =Length of A-B 2(width of hole + 16
in.) +
s2
4g
The minimum net area will obviously be equal to the net length multiplied by the plate thickness.
20 When holes are staggered on two legs of an angle, the gage length g is obtained by using a length
between the centers of the holes measured along the centerline of the angle thickness, i.e., the distance
t
t
A-B in Fig. 9.4. Thus the gage distance is g = ga + gb or
2
2
g = ga + gb t
(9.5)
It should be mentioned that every rolled angle has a standard value for the location of holes (i.e.
gage distances ga and gb ) depending on the length of the leg, Table 9.1.
21
Victor Saouma
15
16
Structural Engineering
95
Draft
Leg
g
g1
g2
8
1
42
3
3
7
4
1
22
3
6
1
32
1
24
1
22
5
3
2
3
14
4
1
22
32
2
3
3
14
22
3
18
2
1
18
14
1
12
18
14
7
8
7
8
3
4
5
8
(9.6-a)
(9.6-b)
(9.6-c)
15
16
Solution:
For the net area calculation, the angle may be visualized as being attened into a plate as shown below.
Victor Saouma
Structural Engineering
96
Draft
and
An = Ag Dt +
s2
t
4g
(9.7)
Where D is the width to be deducted for the hole, We consider the following paths:
AC :
ABC :
9.2.1.2
1
4.75 2 15
16 + 16 0.5
& 2
(3)
1
4.75 3 15
16 + 16 0.5 + 4(2.5) +
(3)
4(4.25)
'
= 3.75 in2
0.5 = 3.96 in
(9.8-a)
(9.8-b)
Often tension members are connected at the end by connection to some but not all of the cross sectional
elements. For instance, an angle section may be connected through one leg only. Thus, away from the
connection we used the gross or net area to resist the full tensile load, but right at the connection, only
one leg is connected and the other is for all practical purposes unstressed.
22
To account for this, the AISC code stipulates that the net area must be reduced by U , Table 9.2
where Ae = U An or Ae = U Ag .
23
bf
10.13
=
= 0.71 > 0.67
d
14.31
(9.9)
9.2.2
24
Stiness
Victor Saouma
Structural Engineering
97
Draft
Type of members
Minimum Number
of Fasteners/line
Fastened Rolled Sections
Members having all cross sectional elements con1 (or welds)
Special
Requirements
Ae
An
3 (or welds)
b
d
0.67
0.9An
3 (or welds)
0.85An
3 (or welds)
b
d
0.67
0.9An
anges only
All members with bolted or riveted connections
0.75An
Welded Plates
Welds
Welds
Welds
l > 2w
2w > l > 1.5w
l/w.1
Ag
0.87Ag
0.75Ag
Victor Saouma
Structural Engineering
98
Draft
25
To limit this, the AISC code imposes a constraint on the element stiness.
P
Recall that stiness is dened as K =
, and for exural member it will be shown later that
M
4EI
Kf = = L where I is the moment of inertia.
26
Since
# for steel E, the elastic modulus is constant, and given the denition of the radius of gyration
I
L
, the AISC code (LRFD-B7) species that the slenderness ratio rmin
should not exceed 300
r= A
27
L
< 300
rmin
(9.10)
28
9.3
29
Recall the general form of the structural safety requirement under LRFD (Eq. 7.9):
Rn i Qi
(9.11)
t T n T u
(9.12)
where
30
=
=
=
From Table 7.3, t is 0.75 and 0.9 for fracture and yielding failure respectively.
9.3.1
31
t
Tn
Tu
Tension Failure
The design strength t Tn is the smaller of that based on, Fig. 9.5
1. Yielding in the gross section: We can not allow yielding of the gross section, because this will
result in unacceptable elongation of the entire member.
t Tn = t Fy Ag = 0.90Fy Ag
(9.13)
or
2. Fracture in the net section: Yielding is locally allowed, because Ae is applicable only on a small
portion of the element. Local excessive elongation is allowed, however fracture must be prevented.
This mode of failure usually occurs if there is insucient distance behind the pin.
t Tn = t Fu Ae = 0.75Fu Ae
Victor Saouma
(9.14)
Structural Engineering
Draft
99
o o
o o
o o
o o
o
o
o o
o o
o o
o o
o
0.75FuA e
0.9FyA g
o o
o
0.75FuA e
9.3.2
32
For bolted connections, tearing failure may occur and control the strength of the tension member.
33
For instance, with reference to Fig. 9.6 the angle tension member attached to the gusset plate3 may
00000
11111
00000
11111
11111
00000
00000
11111
00000
11111
00000
11111
00000
11111
00000
11111
0000
1111
0000
1111
1111
0000
0000
1111
0000
1111
0000
1111
0000
1111
0000
1111
00000
11111
11111
00000
00000
11111
00000
11111
00000
11111
00000
11111
00000
11111
00000
11111
00000
11111
0000
1111
1111
0000
0000
1111
0000
1111
0000
1111
0000
1111
0000
1111
0000
1111
0000
1111
34
LRFD-J4 indicates that the following two equations must be considered to account for either one of
the two combinations
35
Shear yielding-tension fracture: fracture on the net area in tension followed by yielding on the gross
3A
gusset plate is a plate at the intersection of members to which they are connected.
Victor Saouma
Structural Engineering
910
Draft
section in shear
(9.15)
Shear fracture -tension yielding: Fracture on the net section in shear followed by yielding on the
gross section in tension.
(9.16)
Avg =
Atg =
Ans =
Ant =
and the largest
36
Note that a conservative simplication of the above two equations is given below
(9.17)
t Tn = 0.75(0.6Fu )Ans
In this equation Ans is the area along the entire failure path (including both tension and shear failure),
whereas in Eq. 9.15 and 9.16 Ans is the net area where actual shear failure occurs (not including tension
failure).
Note that in the preceding equation, we assumed the shear yield stress y = 0.6Fy , and the shear
tensile strength u = 0.6Fu .
37
9.3.3
38
Summary
Victor Saouma
Structural Engineering
911
Draft
Solution:
1. The net area is given by
(a) Section 1-1:
An = Ag 1 hole = 4.75
7 1
+
8 8
0.50 = 4.25 in2
(9.18)
An
=
=
s2
Ag 2 holes +
t
4g
7 1
(2)2
+
(0.5) = 3.95 in2
4.75 2
0.50 +
8 8
4(2.5)
(9.19-a)
(9.19-b)
2. Since not both legs are connected, From Table 9.2 U = 0.85 and
Ae = U An = (0.85)(3.95) = 3.36 in2
(9.20)
= t Fy Ag
(9.21-a)
= 0.90(50)(4.75) = 214 k
(9.21-b)
t Fu Ae
(9.22-a)
0.75(65)(3.36) = 163.8 k
(9.22-b)
Victor Saouma
= 163.8 = 6.0D
(9.23-a)
(9.23-b)
= (3)(27.3) = 81.9 k
27.3 k
(9.23-c)
Structural Engineering
912
Draft
Example 9-5: Shear Rupture
Investigate the shear rupture failure mode on the angle L4x4x 41 attached with three
bolts to a 38 in. gusset plate. The material is A36 steel.
7
8
in. diameter
Solution:
1. Checking yielding failure of the gross area (Eq. 9.13)
t T n
t Fy Ag
(9.24-a)
=
=
0.90(36)(1.94)
62.9 k
(9.24-b)
(9.24-c)
=
=
=
t Fu Ae = t Fu U An
(9.25-a)
7 1
0.75(58)(0.85)[1.94 ( + )(0.25)]
8 8
62.5 k
(9.25-b)
(9.25-c)
t T n
(9.26-a)
(9.26-b)
= 1.5 in2
(9.26-c)
= (0.6Fu )Ans
= 0.75(0.6)(58)(1.5)
(9.26-d)
(9.26-e)
(9.26-f)
39.15 k
Thus, block shear gives a lower design strength than yielding or fracture.
5. Had we instead used the larger of Eq. 9.15 and 9.16 we would have obtained
Victor Saouma
Structural Engineering
913
Draft
=
=
=
(9.28-c)
6. Hence, when the more correct equations are used, the strength is controlled by block shear; t Tn =
43.8 k which is less than the fracture strength of 62.5 k.
7. This general result is expected when minimum number of connectors are used along with thin
elements such as 14 in. or less.
C15X33.9
3"
15"
t =0.4"
w
3"
3"
1.5"
3"
3"
Solution:
1. Checking yielding failure of the gross area (Eq. 9.13)
t T n
= t Fy Ag
(9.29-a)
= 0.90(36)(9.96) = 322 k
(9.29-b)
(9.29-c)
Victor Saouma
3 1
= = 9.96 4( + )(0.4) = 9.96 4(0.875)(0.4) = 8.56 in2
4 8
= U An = 0.85(8.56) = 7.276 in2
(9.30-b)
= t Fu Ae = t Fu U An
(9.30-c)
= 0.75(58)(0.85)(7.276)] = 269. k
(9.30-d)
(9.30-a)
Structural Engineering
914
Draft
(9.31-a)
t T n
=
=
(0.6Fu )Ans
0.75(0.6)(58)(6.8)
(9.31-b)
(9.31-c)
177.5 k
(9.31-d)
Thus, block shear gives a lower design strength than yielding or fracture.
5. Had we instead used the larger of Eq. 9.15 and 9.16 we would have obtained
(a) Shear yielding-tension fracture:
Avg
(9.32-a)
Ant
(9.32-b)
t T n
=
=
(9.32-c)
(9.32-d)
(9.32-e)
(9.33-a)
Atg
t T n
=
=
(9.33-b)
(9.33-c)
(9.33-d)
(9.34-a)
(9.34-b)
(9.34-c)
(9.34-d)
(9.34-e)
= (0.2)(137) = 27 k
(9.34-f)
LL = (0.8)(137) = 109 k
(9.34-g)
Structural Engineering
915
Draft
Solution:
Loading: First we must determine the joint load in order to analyze the truss.
1. The total roof load is
5.5 + 2.5 + 3.0 + 3.0 = 14.0 psf
(9.35)
(9.36-a)
(9.36-b)
2. Next we must translate this vertical uniform load into joint loads on the truss
U0 , U0 : Snow Load:
Roof Load:
U1 , U1
: Snow Load:
Roof Load:
: Snow Load:
Roof Load:
1
1
2 (6.42)(800) 1,000
1
1
2 (6.42)(280) 1,000
1
2 (6.42
1
2 (6.42
1
+ 6.00)(800) 1,000
1
+ 6.00)(280) 1,000
1
(6.00)(800) 1,000
1
(6.00)(280) 1,000
= 2.57 k (9.37-a)
= 0.9 k (9.37-b)
= 4.97 k (9.37-c)
= 1.74 k (9.37-d)
= 4.80 k (9.37-e)
= 1.68 k (9.37-f)
Analysis: With the load dened, we are now ready to perform a structural analysis of the truss:
1. We have three types of loads (Dead, Snow, and Live), and according to the AISC code (Sect.
7.3.3 we must consider the following three load conditions:
(a) 1.4 D
(b) 1.2D+1.6L+0.5S
(c) 1.2D+1.6S+0.5L
2. We have 22 joints, 3 reactions and 41 members; 22(2) = 41 + 3
determinate.
3. In this case, the structure is symmetrical. That is there is no horizontal displacements at joints
L5 and U5 , however those joints undergo a vertical displacement. Hence, we can analyze the
left half of the truss, and assume that we do have roller supports along the y axis at joints
Victor Saouma
Structural Engineering
916
Draft
L5 and U5 . This substructure will have 3 reactions, 21 elements, and 12 joints. Thus, it is
statically determinate.
Note that at joint U5 we will apply only one half of the load due to symmetry.
4. Hence, we shall analyze the structure for each load (D, S, and L), and then determine the
various load combinations. This is best achieved by the Matrix method described in Sect.
5.2.2.1.
5. We renumber the truss as shown below.
joint
Joint
1
2
3
4
5
6
7
8
9
10
11
12
13
14
15
16
17
18
19
20
21
1
1
2
2
3
3
4
4
5
5
6
6
7
7
8
8
9
9
10
10
11
6.42
0
6.42
6.42
0.
6.0
6.0
6.0
0.
6.0
6.0
6.0
0.
6.0
6.0
6.0
0.
6.0
6.0
6.0
0.
0.
4.50
-4.50
0.54
5.04
0.
-5.04
.501
5.54
0.
-5.54
.501
6.04
0.
-6.04
.501
6.54
0.
-6.54
.501
7.04
6.42
4.50
7.84
6.44
5.04
6.0
7.84
6.02
5.54
6.0
8.17
6.02
6.04
6.0
8.51
6.02
6.54
6.0
8.88
6.02
7.04
1.0
0.
.82
1.0
0.
1.0
.77
1.0
0.
1.0
.73
1.0
0.
1.0
.71
1.0
0.
1.0
.68
1.0
0.
0.
1.0
-.57
.08
1.0
0.
-.64
.08
1.0
0.
-.68
.08
1.0
0.
-.71
.08
1.0
0.
-.74
.08
1.0
3
2
3
4
4
5
5
6
6
7
7
8
8
9
9
10
10
11
11
12
12
-6.42
0.
-6.42
-6.42
0.
-6.0
-6.0
-6.0
0.
-6.0
-6.0
-6.0
0.
-6.0
-6.0
-6.0
0.
-6.0
-6.0
-6.0
0.
0.
-4.50
4.50
-0.54
-5.04
0.
5.04
-.501
-5.54
0.
5.54
-.501
-6.04
0.
6.04
-.501
-6.54
0.
6.54
-.501
-7.04
-1.0
0.
-.82
-1.0
0.
-1.0
-.77
-1.0
0.
-1.0
-.73
-1.0
0.
-1.0
-.71
-1.0
0.
-1.0
-.68
-1.0
0.
0.
-1.0
.57
-.08
-1.0
0.
.64
-.08
-1.0
0.
.68
-.08
-1
0.
.71
-.08
-1.0
0.
.74
-.08
-1.0
7. Having determined the directions cosines,and assuming all members under tension, the statics
[B] matrix can be assembled5 .
[B] = [BL |BR ]
4 Note
that the upper chord have an elevation of y = 4.5 + .08356x with respect to L0 .
that in assembling the matrix, each column corresponds to an unknown internal element force, or an external
reaction. Each row corresponds to an equation of equilibrium. To facilitate the construction of the matrix, equations of
equilibrium at each joint are lumped into a row containing two lines. The rst line corresponds to Fx , and the second
u
one to Fy . Thus, the rst line contains u
j , and the second j where the subscript corresponds to the joint (or row
number). The superscript corresponds to the column number or unknown quantity (member force or reaction). u
j and
ju are taken from the table above.
5 Note
Victor Saouma
Structural Engineering
917
Draft
or
# 1
# 2
# 3
# 4
# 5
# 6
[BL ] =
# 7
# 8
# 9
# 10
# 11
# 12
# 1
# 2
# 3
# 4
# 5
# 6
[BR ] =
# 7
# 8
# 9
# 10
# 11
# 12
Fx
Fy
Fx
Fy
Fx
Fy
Fx
Fy
Fx
Fy
Fx
Fy
Fx
Fy
Fx
Fy
Fx
Fy
Fx
Fy
Fx
Fy
Fx
Fy
Fx
Fy
Fx
Fy
Fx
Fy
Fx
Fy
Fx
Fy
Fx
Fy
Fx
Fy
Fx
Fy
Fx
Fy
Fx
Fy
Fx
Fy
Fx
Fy
1.
0.
0.
1.
0.
1.
1.
0.
.82
.57
.82
.57
1.
.08
1.
.08
0.
1.
0.
1.
1.
0.
.77
.64
.77
.64
1.
0.
1.
.08
0.
1.
0.
1.
1.
.08
1.
0.
.73
.68
.73
.68
1.
0.
1.
.08
1.
0.
1.
0.
1.
1.
0.
.71
.71
.71
.71
1.
0.
1.
.08
0.
1.
0.
1.
1.
.08
1.
0.
1.
0.
.68
.74
.68
.74
1.0
.08
1.
.08
1x
0.
P1y
0.
0.
P2x
P2y
0.9 k
0.
P3x
0.
P
3y
0.
P4x
1.74 k
4y
0.
P5x
0.
P5y
0.
P6x
1.68 k
=
+
P6y
1
2
0.
0.
P7x
0.
P7y
1.68
k
P8x
0.
P8y
0.
P9x
0.
P9y
1.68 k
P10x
0.
P10y
0.
P
0.
12x
P12y
1.
.08
0.84
Roof
0.
0.
0.
2.57
0.
0.
0.
4.97
0.
0.
0.
4.8
0.
0.
0.
4.8
0.
0.
0.
4.8
0.
0.
0.
2.4
0.
1.
0.
1.
+3
1.
1.
0.
0.
0.
0.
0.
0.
0.
0.
0.
6.4
0.
0.
0.
0.
0.
0.
0.
0.
0.
0.
0.
6.15
0.
0.
F1
F2
F3
F4
F5
F6
F7
F8
F9
F10
F11
F12
F13
F14
F15
F16
F17
F18
F19
F20
F21
R1y
R11x
R12x
Snow
9. There are many tools available to solve this problem. We will use Mathematica. Below is a
listing of our input le.
(* define the statics matrix
*)
b={
{ 1., 0. , 0., 0., 0., 0., 0., 0., 0., 0., 0., 0.,
0., 0., 0., 0., 0., 0., 0., 0., 0., 0., 0., 0.},
{ 0., 1. , 0., 0., 0., 0., 0., 0., 0., 0., 0., 0.,
0., 0., 0., 0., 0., 0., 0., 0., 0., 1. , 0., 0.},
{ 0., 0. , .82, 1. , 0., 0., 0., 0., 0., 0., 0., 0.,
0., 0., 0., 0., 0., 0., 0., 0., 0., 0., 0., 0.},
{ 0., -1.,-.57, .08, 0., 0., 0., 0., 0., 0., 0., 0.,
0., 0., 0., 0., 0., 0., 0., 0., 0., 0., 0., 0.},
{-1., 0.,-.82, 0., 0. , 1. , 0., 0., 0., 0., 0., 0.,
0., 0., 0., 0., 0., 0., 0., 0., 0., 0., 0., 0.},
{ 0., 0., .57, 0., 1. , 0. , 0., 0., 0., 0., 0., 0.,
0., 0., 0., 0., 0., 0., 0., 0., 0., 0., 0., 0.},
Victor Saouma
Structural Engineering
918
Draft
Victor Saouma
Structural Engineering
919
Draft
R1y
8.5
24
13.
R11x
19.
53.
38
R12x
-19.
-53.
-38
We observe that Fx = 0 , we check for Fy = 0 for the roof load (Never ever trust any
computer analysis unless you check at least equilibrium, and the order of magnitude
of the
deections). The external joint load is 0.9 + 1.74 + 1.68 + 1.68 + 1.68 + 0.84 = 8.52 .
Design:
L0 L1
U0 L 0
U0 L 1
U0 U1
U1 L 1
L1 L2
U1 L 2
U1 U2
U2 L 2
L2 L3
U2 L 3
U2 U3
U3 L 3
L3 L4
U3 L 4
U3 U4
U4 L 4
L4 L5
U4 L 5
U4 U5
U5 L 5
Roof
0.
-8.5
12.
-9.8
-6.8
9.8
7.3
-15.
-4.6
15.
4.
-18.
-2.7
18.
1.4
-19.
-0.97
19.
-0.89
-19.
0.66
Load
Snow
0.
-24.
34.
-28.
-20.
28.
21.
-44.
-13.
44.
11.
-52.
-7.8
52.
3.9
-55.
-2.8
55.
-2.5
-53.
1.9
Live
0.
-13.
20.
-16.
-11.
16.
16.
-29.
-3.9
29.
5.2
-32.
-3.6
32.
4.6
-36.
-3.3
36.
4.2
-38.
3.1
Load Cases
1
2
3
0.
0.
0.
-12. -35. -55.
17.
52.
79.
-14. -43. -65.
-9.6 -30. -45.
14.
43.
65.
10.
38.
50.
-22. -72. -100.
-6.5 -14. -29.
22.
72.
100.
5.6
15.
26.
-26. -83. -120.
-3.8 -10. -18.
26.
83.
120.
1.9
9.8
10.
-27. -90. -130.
-1.4 -6.9 -7.3
27.
90.
130.
-1.2 5.1
-3.1
-26. -93. -130.
0.92
6.
5.3
Design Load
Compr. Tens.
0
0
-55.
0
0
79.
-65.
0
-45.
0
0.
65.
0.
50.
-100.
0
-29.
0
0
100.
0
26.
-120.
0
-18.
0
0
120.
0
10.
-130.
0
-7.3
0
0
130.
-3.1
5.1
-130.
0
0
6.
2. We now focus on the design of members with tensile forces (Note that member U4 L5 ) can
be subjected to both tensile and compressive forces).
Victor Saouma
Structural Engineering
920
Draft
Des. Load
kip
65.
100.
120.
130.
79.
50.
26.
10.
5.1
6.
Reqd. Area
in2
2.01
3.09
3.70
4.01
2.44
1.54
0.80
0.31
0.16
0.19
Section
WT 7x15
WT 7x15
WT 7x15
WT 7x15
WT 7x15
1
2L3x2 2 x 41
2L2x2x 41
3
2L2x2x 16
3
2L2x2x 16
3
2L2x2x 16
3
2L2x2x 16
Area
in2
4.42
4.42
4.42
4.42
4.42
2.63
1.88
1.43
1.43
1.43
1.43
L
in.
77.
72.
72.
72
72
94.
94.
98.
102.
107
84
rmin
in.
1.49
1.49
1.49
1.49
1.49
0.75
0.61
0.62
0.62
0.62
0.62
L
rmin
52
48
48
48
48
125
154
158
165
172
135
Comments:
1. We designed only the members under tension (Note that U4 L5 ) would also have to be
designed for compression.
2. The same size section was used for the entire lower chord. A smaller section could have been
used for L0 L2 , however the cost saving in steel would probably be oset by the additional
labor cost.
3. Similarly, additional savings would result in using dierent sections for the inclined members.
3
4. Again we could have used angles smaller than 2L2x2x 16
, for instance 2L2x2x 81 , however it is
3
preferable to avoid thicknesses smaller than 16 in. because of welding.
5. Angles with legs smaller than 2 in. could have been used, however those may not always be
available, and they may result in a slenderness ratio exceeding 300.
6. The joint details of a truss of this kind are usually worked out by the fabricator. How to
review them and approve them, the Engineer must know how to design them.
7. Design of steel connections will be covered in subsequent courses (note that however we have
seen above how to review some aspects of this design).
9.4
In more advanced Structural Analysis courses (CVEN4525), you will be exposed to the computer aided
analysis of structures.
Using such a program (which will be made available later to you), following is the input data le:
*TITLE
Design of Welded truss
*CONTROL
12 21
1 0 6 2
*COORD
1
0.0
0.0
2
0.0
4.5
3
6.42
0.0
4
6.42
5.04
5 12.42
0.0
6 12.42
5.54
7 18.42
0.0
8 18.42
6.04
9 24.42
0.0
10 24.42
6.54
11 30.42
0.0
12 30.42
7.04
*BOUND
1 0 1
11 1 0
12 1 0
*ELEM
1 1 3 1
2 1 2 1
Victor Saouma
Structural Engineering
921
Draft
3 2 3 1
4 2 4 1
5 3 4 1
6 3 5 1
7 4 5 1
8 4 6 1
9 5 6 1
10 5 7 1
11 6 7 1
12 6 8 1
13 7 8 1
14 7 9 1
15 8 9 1
16 8 10 1
17 9 10 1
18 9 11 1
19 10 11 1
20 10 12 1
21 11 12 1
*PROP
1 30000. 1.
*LOAD
3
3
Roof Load
6
0
0
2
0. -0.9
4
0. -1.74
6
0. -1.68
8
0. -1.68
10
0. -1.68
12
0. -0.84
Snow Load
6
0
0
2
0. -2.57
4
0. -4.97
6
0. -4.8
8
0. -4.8
10
0. -4.8
12
0. -2.4
Crane load
2
0
0
5
0. -6.4
11
0. -6.15
*COMB
LC 1
1
1 1.4
LC 2
3
1 1.2
2 0.5
3 1.6
LC 3
3
1 1.2
2 1.6
3 0.5
The output of such an analysis would be as follow. Compare those results with the one obtained by
inverting the statics matrix.
***********************************
I S D S
INTEGRATED STRUCTURAL DESIGN SYSTEM
***********************************
DEPT. OF CIVIL ENGINEERING, UNIV. OF COLORADO, BOULDER, CO
Version 0.2
July 1991
NUMBER
OF
JOINTS
-----12
NUMBER
OF
MEMBERS
------21
NUMBER OF
PROPERTY
GROUPS
--------1
NUMBER OF
ELASTIC
SPRINGS
--------0
NUMBER OF
LOADING
CASES
--------6
Victor Saouma
STRUCTURE
TYPE CODE
NUMBER
--------2
LOAD CASE:
DISPLACEMENTS
------------DEFLECTIONS
JOINT ----------------------NUMBER
DELTA-X
DELTA-Y
------ ----------- ----------1
-6.8194E-02 0.0000E+00
2
4.6579E-02 -6.3711E-03
3
-6.8194E-02 -1.9852E-01
4
5.2197E-02 -2.0454E-01
5
-5.7975E-02 -3.5366E-01
6
4.7734E-02 -3.5703E-01
7
-4.0982E-02 -4.6059E-01
8
3.6636E-02 -4.6314E-01
9
-2.1247E-02 -5.2493E-01
10
2.0455E-02 -5.2659E-01
11
0.0000E+00 -5.4697E-01
12
0.0000E+00 -5.4536E-01
REACTIONS
--------JOINT FORCE IN X FORCE IN Y
NUMBER DIRECTION DIRECTION
------ ---------- ---------1
0.000E+00 4.247E+01
11
1.090E+02 0.000E+00
12
-1.090E+02 0.000E+00
Structural Engineering
922
Draft
10
11
12
18
0
0
19
20
21
24.4
30.4
30.4
6.5
0.0
7.0
LOAD CASE:
REACTIONS
--------JOINT FORCE IN X FORCE IN Y
NUMBER DIRECTION DIRECTION
------ ---------- ---------1
0.000E+00 5.544E+01
11
1.251E+02 0.000E+00
12
-1.251E+02 0.000E+00
MEMBER LOADS
-----------MEMBER LOAD JOINT
AXIAL
NUMBER CASE NUMBER
LOAD
------ ---- ------ ---------
1
2
NUMBER OF
APPLIED
LOAD CASES
---------3
NUMBER OF
COMBINED
LOAD CASES
---------3
3
4
5
6
load case:
Roof Load
1
2
1
2
3
4
5
6
3
load case:
Snow Load
1
2
3
4
5
6
1
2
3
load case:
Crane load
4
5
1
2
3
R E S U L T
OF
M E S H
O P T I M I Z A T I O N
4
BANDWIDTH
PROFILE
INITIAL MESH
2
21
OPTIMIZED MESH
2
21
5
6
OLD NODES :
NEW NODES :
1
1
2
2
3
3
4
4
5
5
6
6
7
7
8
8
9
9
10
10
11
11
12
12
1
2
Victor Saouma
DISPLACEMENTS
------------DEFLECTIONS
JOINT ----------------------NUMBER
DELTA-X
DELTA-Y
------ ----------- ----------1
-8.2746E-02 0.0000E+00
2
5.5835E-02 -8.3164E-03
3
-8.2746E-02 -2.4162E-01
4
6.2249E-02 -2.4915E-01
5
-6.9944E-02 -4.2656E-01
6
5.6902E-02 -4.3183E-01
7
-4.9587E-02 -5.5737E-01
8
4.3305E-02 -5.6085E-01
9
-2.5489E-02 -6.3314E-01
10
2.3701E-02 -6.3466E-01
11
0.0000E+00 -6.5504E-01
12
0.0000E+00 -6.5373E-01
3
4
21
101
101
4
5
1
3
1
3
1
3
1
3
1
3
1
3
0.000E+00
0.000E+00
0.000E+00
0.000E+00
0.000E+00
0.000E+00
0.000E+00
0.000E+00
0.000E+00
0.000E+00
0.000E+00
0.000E+00
1
2
1
2
1
2
1
2
1
2
1
2
8.520E+00
-8.520E+00
2.434E+01
-2.434E+01
1.255E+01
-1.255E+01
1.193E+01
-1.193E+01
4.247E+01
-4.247E+01
5.544E+01
-5.544E+01
2
3
2
3
2
3
2
3
2
3
2
3
-1.185E+01
1.185E+01
-3.386E+01
3.386E+01
-1.952E+01
1.952E+01
-1.659E+01
1.659E+01
-6.239E+01
6.239E+01
-7.817E+01
7.817E+01
2
4
2
4
2
4
2
4
2
4
2
4
9.741E+00
-9.741E+00
2.783E+01
-2.783E+01
1.604E+01
-1.604E+01
1.364E+01
-1.364E+01
5.127E+01
-5.127E+01
6.424E+01
-6.424E+01
3
4
3
4
3
4
3
4
3
4
3
4
6.804E+00
-6.804E+00
1.944E+01
-1.944E+01
1.121E+01
-1.121E+01
9.525E+00
-9.525E+00
3.581E+01
-3.581E+01
4.487E+01
-4.487E+01
3
5
3
5
3
5
3
5
3
5
-9.706E+00
9.706E+00
-2.773E+01
2.773E+01
-1.599E+01
1.599E+01
-1.359E+01
1.359E+01
-5.109E+01
5.109E+01
Structural Engineering
Draft
NUMBER OF BLOCK(S)..............................
MAXIM. CAPACITY FOR CONTROL INFORMATION.........
ESTIMATE OF UNUSED STORAGE FOR EACH BLOCK.......
1
21
11
101
49106
0
923
3
5
-6.401E+01
6.401E+01
4
5
4
5
4
5
4
5
4
5
4
5
-7.173E+00
7.173E+00
-2.049E+01
2.049E+01
-1.587E+01
1.587E+01
-1.004E+01
1.004E+01
-4.424E+01
4.424E+01
-4.933E+01
4.933E+01
4
6
4
6
4
6
4
6
4
6
4
6
1.525E+01
-1.525E+01
4.357E+01
-4.357E+01
2.823E+01
-2.823E+01
2.135E+01
-2.135E+01
8.526E+01
-8.526E+01
1.021E+02
-1.021E+02
5
6
5
6
5
6
5
6
5
6
5
6
4.613E+00
-4.613E+00
1.318E+01
-1.318E+01
3.805E+00
-3.805E+00
6.459E+00
-6.459E+00
1.822E+01
-1.822E+01
2.853E+01
-2.853E+01
5
7
5
7
5
7
5
7
5
7
5
7
-1.520E+01
1.520E+01
-4.342E+01
4.342E+01
-2.814E+01
2.814E+01
-2.128E+01
2.128E+01
-8.497E+01
8.497E+01
-1.018E+02
1.018E+02
6
7
6
7
6
7
6
7
6
7
6
7
-3.966E+00
3.966E+00
-1.133E+01
1.133E+01
-5.145E+00
5.145E+00
-5.553E+00
5.553E+00
-1.866E+01
1.866E+01
-2.546E+01
2.546E+01
6
8
6
8
6
8
6
8
6
8
6
8
1.818E+01
-1.818E+01
5.193E+01
-5.193E+01
3.203E+01
-3.203E+01
2.545E+01
-2.545E+01
9.902E+01
-9.902E+01
1.209E+02
-1.209E+02
7
8
7
8
7
8
7
8
7
8
7
8
2.691E+00
-2.691E+00
7.688E+00
-7.688E+00
3.490E+00
-3.490E+00
3.767E+00
-3.767E+00
1.266E+01
-1.266E+01
1.727E+01
-1.727E+01
7
9
7
9
7
9
7
9
7
9
7
9
-1.811E+01
1.811E+01
-5.175E+01
5.175E+01
-3.192E+01
3.192E+01
-2.536E+01
2.536E+01
-9.867E+01
9.867E+01
-1.205E+02
1.205E+02
8
9
8
9
8
9
-1.316E+00
1.316E+00
-3.759E+00
3.759E+00
-4.544E+00
4.544E+00
2
3
4
load case:
LC 1
4
5
6
NUMBER OF
LOAD CASES
COMBINED
---------1
1
2
3
4
5
6
load case:
LC 2
5
9
NUMBER OF
LOAD CASES
COMBINED
---------3
1
2
3
4
5
6
10
1
2
load case:
LC 3
3
4
NUMBER OF
LOAD CASES
COMBINED
---------3
5
6
11
LOAD CASE COMBINATION
ID NUMBER
FACTOR
--------- ----------1
1.200
2
1.600
3
0.500
1
2
3
4
5
LOAD CASE:
DISPLACEMENTS
------------DEFLECTIONS
JOINT ----------------------NUMBER
DELTA-X
DELTA-Y
------ ----------- ----------1
-1.2412E-02 0.0000E+00
2
8.3395E-03 -1.2780E-03
3
-1.2412E-02 -3.6280E-02
4
9.2804E-03 -3.7423E-02
5
-1.0470E-02 -6.3848E-02
6
8.4821E-03 -6.4700E-02
7
-7.4305E-03 -8.3526E-02
8
6.4357E-03 -8.4067E-02
9
-3.8080E-03 -9.4769E-02
10
3.4968E-03 -9.4973E-02
11
0.0000E+00 -9.7803E-02
12
0.0000E+00 -9.7640E-02
12
1
2
3
4
5
6
13
1
2
3
REACTIONS
--------JOINT FORCE IN X FORCE IN Y
NUMBER DIRECTION DIRECTION
------ ---------- ---------1
0.000E+00 8.520E+00
11
1.840E+01 0.000E+00
12
-1.840E+01 0.000E+00
4
5
6
14
1
2
LOAD CASE:
2
3
DISPLACEMENTS
------------DEFLECTIONS
JOINT ----------------------NUMBER
DELTA-X
DELTA-Y
------ ----------- ----------1
-3.5460E-02 0.0000E+00
2
2.3826E-02 -3.6510E-03
3
-3.5460E-02 -1.0365E-01
4
2.6515E-02 -1.0692E-01
5
-2.9914E-02 -1.8242E-01
6
2.4234E-02 -1.8485E-01
7
-2.1229E-02 -2.3864E-01
8
1.8387E-02 -2.4018E-01
Victor Saouma
4
5
6
15
1
2
3
Structural Engineering
924
Draft
9
10
11
12
-1.0880E-02
9.9907E-03
0.0000E+00
0.0000E+00
-2.7076E-01
-2.7134E-01
-2.7943E-01
-2.7896E-01
4
5
6
REACTIONS
--------JOINT FORCE IN X FORCE IN Y
NUMBER DIRECTION DIRECTION
------ ---------- ---------1
0.000E+00 2.434E+01
11
5.258E+01 0.000E+00
12
-5.258E+01 0.000E+00
16
1
2
3
4
5
LOAD CASE:
3
6
DISPLACEMENTS
------------DEFLECTIONS
JOINT ----------------------NUMBER
DELTA-X
DELTA-Y
------ ----------- ----------1
-2.2231E-02 0.0000E+00
2
1.5411E-02 -1.8825E-03
3
-2.2231E-02 -6.4475E-02
4
1.7377E-02 -6.6357E-02
5
-1.9034E-02 -1.1615E-01
6
1.5899E-02 -1.1685E-01
7
-1.3407E-02 -1.5065E-01
8
1.2325E-02 -1.5136E-01
9
-7.0236E-03 -1.7239E-01
10
7.0396E-03 -1.7310E-01
11
0.0000E+00 -1.8119E-01
12
0.0000E+00 -1.8045E-01
17
3
4
5
6
18
3
4
5
6
19
4
DISPLACEMENTS
------------DEFLECTIONS
JOINT ----------------------NUMBER
DELTA-X
DELTA-Y
------ ----------- ----------1
-1.7376E-02 0.0000E+00
2
1.1675E-02 -1.7892E-03
3
-1.7376E-02 -5.0792E-02
4
1.2993E-02 -5.2392E-02
5
-1.4658E-02 -8.9387E-02
6
1.1875E-02 -9.0580E-02
7
-1.0403E-02 -1.1694E-01
8
9.0100E-03 -1.1769E-01
9
-5.3311E-03 -1.3268E-01
10
4.8956E-03 -1.3296E-01
11
0.0000E+00 -1.3692E-01
12
0.0000E+00 -1.3670E-01
REACTIONS
--------JOINT FORCE IN X FORCE IN Y
NUMBER DIRECTION DIRECTION
------ ---------- ---------1
0.000E+00 1.193E+01
11
2.576E+01 0.000E+00
12
-2.576E+01 0.000E+00
Victor Saouma
1
2
REACTIONS
--------JOINT FORCE IN X FORCE IN Y
NUMBER DIRECTION DIRECTION
------ ---------- ---------1
0.000E+00 1.255E+01
11
3.787E+01 0.000E+00
12
-3.787E+01 0.000E+00
LOAD CASE:
1
2
1
2
3
4
5
6
20
1
2
3
4
5
6
21
1
2
8
9
8
9
8
9
-1.842E+00
1.842E+00
-1.073E+01
1.073E+01
-9.865E+00
9.865E+00
8
10
8
10
8
10
8
10
8
10
8
10
1.911E+01
-1.911E+01
5.459E+01
-5.459E+01
3.524E+01
-3.524E+01
2.675E+01
-2.675E+01
1.066E+02
-1.066E+02
1.279E+02
-1.279E+02
9
10
9
10
9
10
9
10
9
10
9
10
9.333E-01
-9.333E-01
2.667E+00
-2.667E+00
3.224E+00
-3.224E+00
1.307E+00
-1.307E+00
7.611E+00
-7.611E+00
6.999E+00
-6.999E+00
9
11
9
11
9
11
9
11
9
11
9
11
-1.904E+01
1.904E+01
-5.440E+01
5.440E+01
-3.512E+01
3.512E+01
-2.666E+01
2.666E+01
-1.062E+02
1.062E+02
-1.274E+02
1.274E+02
10
11
10
11
10
11
10
11
10
11
10
11
9.413E-01
-9.413E-01
2.689E+00
-2.689E+00
-4.064E+00
4.064E+00
1.318E+00
-1.318E+00
-4.028E+00
4.028E+00
3.400E+00
-3.400E+00
10
12
10
12
10
12
10
12
10
12
10
12
1.847E+01
-1.847E+01
5.276E+01
-5.276E+01
3.800E+01
-3.800E+01
2.585E+01
-2.585E+01
1.093E+02
-1.093E+02
1.256E+02
-1.256E+02
11
12
11
12
-6.936E-01
6.936E-01
-1.982E+00
1.982E+00
Structural Engineering
Draft
Chapter 10
INTERNAL FORCES IN
STRUCTURES
1 This chapter will start as a review of shear and moment diagrams which you have studied in both
Statics and Strength of Materials, and will proceed with the analysis of statically determinate frames,
arches and grids.
2 By the end of this lecture, you should be able to draw the shear, moment and torsion (when applicable)
diagrams for each member of a structure.
3 Those diagrams will subsequently be used for member design. For instance, for exural design, we will
consider the section subjected to the highest moment, and make sure that the internal moment is equal
and opposite to the external one. For the ASD method, the basic beam equation (derived in Strength of
Materials) = MC
I , (where M would be the design moment obtained from the moment diagram) would
have to be satised.
4 Some of the examples rst analyzed in chapter 4 (Reactions), will be revisited here. Later on, we will
determine the deections of those same problems.
10.1
Before we (re)derive the Shear-Moment relations, let us arbitrarily dene a sign convention.
The sign convention adopted here, is the one commonly used for design purposes1 .
2D:
Load Positive along the beams local y axis (assuming a right hand side convention), that is
positive upward.
Axial: tension positive.
Flexure A positive moment is one which causes tension in the lower bers, and compression in
the upper ones. Alternatively, moments are drawn on the compression side (useful to keep in
mind for frames).
Shear A positive shear force is one which is up on a negative face, or down on a positive one.
Alternatively, a pair of positive shear forces will cause clockwise rotation.
Torsion Counterclockwise positive
3D: Use double arrow vectors (and NOT curved arrows). Forces and moments (including torsions) are
dened with respect to a right hand side coordinate system, Fig. ??.
1 Later
102
Draft
+ Axial Force
+ve Load
+
+ve Shear
+ve Moment
My
Tx
Mz
My
Mz
Tx
Figure 10.2: Sign Conventions for 3D Frame Elements
Victor Saouma
Structural Engineering
103
Draft
10.2
8 Let us (re)derive the basic relations between load, shear and moment. Considering an innitesimal
length dx of a beam subjected to a positive load2 w(x), Fig. 10.3. The innitesimal section must also
Since dx is innitesimally small, the small variation in load along it can be neglected, therefore we
assume w(x) to be constant along dx.
10
To denote that a small change in shear and moment occurs over the length dx of the element, we add
the dierential quantities dVx and dMx to Vx and Mx on the right face.
11
12
or
dV
= w(x)
dx
(10.1)
The slope of the shear curve at any point along the axis of a member is given by the load
curve at that point.
13
Similarly
(+ )
MO = 0 Mx + Vx dx wx dx
dx
(Mx + dMx ) = 0
2
(10.2)
The slope of the moment curve at any point along the axis of a member is given by the shear
at that point.
14
(10.3)
V21
Vx2 Vx1 =
x2
w(x)dx
(10.4)
x1
2 In
this derivation, as in all other ones we should assume all quantities to be positive.
Victor Saouma
Structural Engineering
104
Draft
The change in shear between 1 and 2, V12 , is equal to the area under the load between
x1 and x2 .
and
M
V (x)dx
(10.5)
M21
= M2 M1 =
x2
V (x)dx
(10.6)
x1
The change in moment between 1 and 2, M21 , is equal to the area under the shear curve
between x1 and x2 .
15
16
M
EI
Fig. 10.4 and 10.5 further illustrates the variation in internal shear and moment under uniform and
concentrated forces/moment.
17
Figure 10.4: Shear and Moment Forces at Dierent Sections of a Loaded Beam
10.3
18
Moment Envelope
For each load combination, we should draw the shear, moment diagrams. and then we should use the
Moment envelope for design purposes.
19
10.4
Examples
10.4.1
Beams
Structural Engineering
10.4 Examples
Draft
105
Positive Constant
Negative Constant
Positive Constant
Negative Constant
Load
Shear
Shear
Moment
Figure 10.5: Slope Relations Between Load Intensity and Shear, or Between Shear and Moment
Draw the shear and moment diagram for the beam shown below
Solution:
The free body diagram is drawn below
Victor Saouma
Structural Engineering
106
Draft
Structural Engineering
10.4 Examples
Draft
107
For each of the following examples, sketch the shear and moment diagrams.
10.4.2
Frames
Inclined loads on inclined members are often mishandled. With reference to Fig. 10.6 we would have
the following relations
20
Victor Saouma
Structural Engineering
108
Draft
L
w1
ly
lx
LX
w4
w2
LY
w3
l
l
lx
lx
l
ly
l
ly
lx
ly
lx
+ w2 + w3 + w4
l
l
l
l
ly
lx
ly
lx
w1 L + w2 L + w3 LY + w4 LX
l
l
l
l
w1
(10.7)
(10.8)
cos
(10.9)
sin
(10.10)
Solution:
Victor Saouma
Structural Engineering
10.4 Examples
109
Draft
(+
CDY
CDX
RDy = 52.96 k
) Fy = 0; RAy (3)(30) 35 (3)(15) + 52.96 = 0
(+
RAy = 64.06 k
Victor Saouma
Structural Engineering
1010
Draft
Shear:
1. For A B, the shear is constant, equal to the horizontal reaction at A and negative according
to our previously dened sign convention, VA = 36 k
2. For member B C at B, the shear must be equal to the vertical force which was transmitted
along A B, and which is equal to the vertical reaction at A, VB = 64.06.
3. Since B C is subjected to a uniform negative load, the shear along B C will have a slope
equal to 3 and in terms of x (measured from B to C) is equal to
VBC (x) = 64.06 3x
4. The shear along C D is obtained by decomposing the vertical reaction at D into axial and
shear components. Thus at D the shear is equal to 35 52.96 = 31.78 k and is negative. Based
on our sign convention for the load, the slope of the shear must be equal to 3 along C D.
Thus the shear at point C is such that Vc 53 9(3) = 31.78 or Vc = 13.22. The equation for
the shear is given by (for x going from C to D)
V = 13.22 3x
5. We check our calculations by verifying equilibrium of node C
(+
(+
)Fx = 0
) Fy = 0
3
5 (42.37) +
4
5 (42.37)
4
5 (13.22)
3
5 (13.22)
= 25.42 + 10.58 = 36
= 33.90 7.93 = 25.97
Moment:
1. Along A B, the moment is zero at A (since we have a hinge), and its slope is equal to the
shear, thus at B the moment is equal to (36)(12) = 432 k.ft
2. Along B C, the moment is equal to
x
x
MBC = MB +
VBC (x)dx = 432 +
(64.06 3x)dx
0
432 + 64.06x 3 x2
max
= 432 + 64.06(25.0) 3 (25.0)
= 432 + 1, 601.5 937.5 = 232 k.ft
Thus MBC
2
4. Finally along C D, the moment varies quadratically (since we had a linear shear), the
moment rst increases (positive shear), and then decreases (negative shear). The moment
along C D is given by
(x
(x
MCD = MC + 0 VCD (x)dx = 139.8 + 0 (13.22 3x)dx
2
= 139.8 + 13.22x 3 x2
which is a parabola.
2
Substituting for x= 15, we obtain at node C MC = 139.8 + 13.22(15) 3 152 = 139.8 +
198.3 337.5 = 0
Structural Engineering
10.4 Examples
1011
Draft
The frame shown below is the structural support of a ume. Assuming that the frames are spaced 2
ft apart along the length of the ume,
1. Determine all internal member end actions
2. Draw the shear and moment diagrams
3. Locate and compute maximum internal bending moments
4. If this is a reinforced concrete frame, show the location of the reinforcement.
Solution:
The hydrostatic pressure causes lateral forces on the vertical members which can be treated as
cantilevers xed at the lower end.
The pressure is linear and is given by p = h. Since each frame supports a 2 ft wide slice of the
ume, the equation for w (pounds/foot) is
w
=
=
(2)(62.4)(h)
124.8h lbs/ft
At the base w = (124.8)(6) = 749 lbs/ft = .749 k/ft Note that this is both the lateral pressure on the
end walls as well as the uniform load on the horizontal members.
Victor Saouma
Structural Engineering
1012
Draft
End Actions
1. Base force at B is FBx = (.749) 26 = 2.246 k
2. Base moment at B is MB = (2.246) 36 = 4.493 k.ft
3. End force at B for member B E are equal and opposite.
4. Reaction at C is RCy = (.749) 16
2 = 5.99 k
Shear forces
1. Base at B the shear force was determined earlier and was equal to 2.246 k. Based on the
orientation of the x y axis, this is a negative shear.
2. The vertical shear at B is zero (neglecting the weight of A B)
3. The shear to the left of C is V = 0 + (.749)(3) = 2.246 k.
4. The shear to the right of C is V = 2.246 + 5.99 = 3.744 k
Moment diagrams
1. At the base: B M = 4.493 k.ft as determined above.
2. At the support C, Mc = 4.493 + (.749)(3)( 23 ) = 7.864 k.ft
3. The maximum moment is equal to Mmax = 7.864 + (.749)(5)( 52 ) = 1.50 k.ft
Victor Saouma
Structural Engineering
10.4 Examples
Draft
1013
Design: Reinforcement should be placed along the bers which are under tension, that is on the side
of the negative moment3 . The gure below schematically illustrates the location of the exural4
reinforcement.
Victor Saouma
Structural Engineering
1014
Draft
12
10
2k/ft
30k
5k/ft
Vba
C
Hbd
M ba
Vbc
10k
5
20k
VA
Vbd
52.5k
M bc
M bd
30k
15
0
0
0
650k
450k
HD
4k/ft
200k
82.5k
VD
CHECK
30k
2k/ft 10k
5k/ft
B
A
17.5k
Hba
M ba
Vba
Hbc
M bc
C
Vbc
(10)+(2)(10) 30k
17.5-5x=0
-22.5k
3.5
-22.5+(-30)
10k
Vbc
17.5k
M bc
-200k
17.5-(5)(8)
(10)(10)+(2)(10)(10)/2
Vba
-52.5k
30.6k
(17.5)(3.5)/2
-20k
(17.5)(3.5)/2+(-22.5)(8-3.5)/2
(-52.5)(12)+(-20)
-650k
M ba
Vbd
M bd
50k
20k
450k
(50)(15)-[(4)(5)/2][(2)(15)/3)]
(50)-(4)(15)/2
450k
Hbd
20k
4k/ft
50k
82.5k
Structural Engineering
10.4 Examples
1015
Draft
26k
26k
10
13
10
13
13
20k
C
13
5
12
15
B
2k/ft
20
Ha
36
20
Ve
48.8k
2k/ft
60k
Fx
800k
0k
60k
2
7.69k
1k
20k
(20)(15)/13=7.7
0k
0k
39.1k
CD
7
29.3k
48.9k
777k
k
1130
800k
9 B-C
13
-16 k
7k
1,130-(.58)(13)
k
800+(25.4)(13)
1122
3.1
8 B-C
77
-2
.1k
-2 39.
1,122-(26.6)(13)
k 26.6k
-0.58 6 - -0.6-26
25.42
11 C-D
(39.1)(12.5)
488k
12 C-D
14
-23
.1
k 6.6k k
8
5
.
-0
-2
-39
.
0k
113
1k
2k
112
(20)(12)/(13)=18.46
(19.2)(5)/(13)=7.38
(19.2)(12)/(13)=17.72
(26)(12)/(13)=24
(26.6)(13)/(12)=28.8
(26.6)(5)/(12)=11.1
(28.8)(4)/(5)=23.1
(28.8)(3)/(5)=17.28
(20)(4)/(5)=16
(20)(3)/(5)=12
(39.1)(5)/(4)=48.9
(39.1)(3)/(4)=29.3
777k
48
800k
+60k
+20k
+25.4
10
-23
488+(23.1)(12.5)
+25
8k
12k
778k
BC
19.2k
7.7
17.7+ .4k
16k
11.1k
28.8k
20k
18.46k
7.38k
17.2
23.
0k
26.6k
800k
48.8k
28.8k
778k
10k
24k
24k
20-10-10
26k
26k
10k
17.72k
F/Fy=z/x
F/Fx=z/y
Fx/Fy=y/x
ED
1
y
x
AB
19.2k
Fy
20k
60-(2)(20)
20k
(20)(20)+(60-20)(20)/2
19.2k
800k
(60)(20)-(2)(20)(20)/2
Va
10.4.3
3D Frame
Victor Saouma
Structural Engineering
1016
Draft
1. The frame has a total of 6 reactions (3 forces and 3 moments) at the support, and we have a total
of 6 equations of equilibrium, thus it is statically determinate.
2. Each member has the following internal forces (dened in terms of the local coordinate system of
each member x y z )
Member
Member
Axial
Nx
C D
BC
AB
Internal Forces
Shear
Moment
Vy Vz My Mz
Torsion
T x
3. The numerical calculations for the analysis of this three dimensional frame are quite simple, however
the main complexity stems from the diculty in visualizing the inter-relationships between internal
forces of adjacent members.
4. In this particular problem, rather than starting by determining the reactions, it is easier to determine the internal forces at the end of each member starting with member C D. Note that
temporarily we adopt a sign convention which is compatible with the local coordinate systems.
C-D
Fy
Fz
My
Mz
=0
=0
=0
=0
VyC = (20)(2)
VzC
MyC
MzC
Fx
Fy
My
Mz
Tx
=0
=0
=0
=0
=0
NxB
VyB
MyB
MzB
TxB
B-C
Victor Saouma
= +40kN
= +60kN
= (60)(2) = 120kN.m
= (20)(2) 22 = +40kN.m
= VzC
= VyC
= MyC
C
= V y (4) = (40)(4)
= MzC
= 60kN
= +40kN
= 120kN.m
= +160kN.m
= 40kN.m
Structural Engineering
10.4 Examples
1017
Draft
A-B
Fx
Fy
My
Mz
Tx
=0
=0
=0
=0
=0
NxA
VyA
MyA
MzA
TxA
= VyB
= NxB
= TxB
= MzB + NxB (4) = 160 + (60)(4)
= MyB
= +40kN
= +60kN
= +40kN.m
= +400kN.m
= 120kN.m
The interaction between axial forces N and shear V as well as between moments M and torsion
T is clearly highlighted by this example.
120 kN-m
60
C
B
40 kN
160
kN
m
-m
40 kN
N- kN
k
40 60
120 kN-m
40 kN N
120 kN-m
k
60
-m
kN
40
160
kN
m
160 -m
kN
0
4
kN
-m
N
40
kN
k
60
120 kN-m
120 kN-m
120 kN-m -m
kN
40
kN
60
-m
N
0k
kN
60
kN
40
120 kN-m 40 kN
40 kN
60
kN
40
20 kN/m
kN
-m
60
kN
kN
120 kN-m
40 kN kN
60
-m
40
kN
160
kN
-m
-m
N
0k
Victor Saouma
400
kN
N 120 kN-m-m
k
60
40 kN
Structural Engineering
1018
Draft
y
C
40
z
40
160
120
60
D
M
x
V
40
40
z
120
D
x
60
40
A
y
A
z
V
10.5
21
x
B
160
120
A
400
z
M
Arches
Victor Saouma
Structural Engineering
Draft
Chapter 11
2 The concepts used are identical to the ones previously seen, however the major (and only) dierence
is that equations will be written in polar coordinates.
3 Like cables, arches can be used to reduce the bending moment in long span structures. Essentially,
an arch can be considered as an inverted cable, and is transmits the load primarily through axial
compression, but can also resist exure through its exural rigidity.
5 A semi-circular arch unirmly loaded will have some exural stresses in addition to the compressive
ones.
11.1
Arches
6 In order to optimize dead-load eciency, long span structures should have their shapes approximate the
coresponding moment diagram, hence an arch, suspended cable, or tendon conguration in a prestressed
concrete beam all are nearly parabolic, Fig. 20.1.
7 Long span structures can be built using at construction such as girders or trusses. However, for spans
in excess of 100 ft, it is often more economical to build a curved structure such as an arch, suspended
cable or thin shells.
8 Since the dawn of history, mankind has tried to span distances using arch construction. Essentially
this was because an arch required materials to resist compression only (such as stone, masonary, bricks),
and labour was not an issue.
9 The basic issues of static in arch design are illustrated in Fig. 20.2 where the vertical load is per unit
horizontal projection (such as an external load but not a self-weight). Due to symmetry, the vertical
reaction is simply V = wL
2 , and there is no shear across the midspan of the arch (nor a moment). Taking
moment about the crown,
wL L L
M = Hh
=0
(11.1)
2
2
4
Solving for H
H=
wL2
8h
(11.2)
We recall that a similar equation was derived for arches., and H is analogous to the C T forces in a
beam, and h is the overall height of the arch, Since h is much larger than d, H will be much smaller
112
Draft
2
M = w L /8
L
w=W/L
IDEALISTIC ARCH
SHAPE GIVEN BY
MOMENT DIAGRAM
C
RISE = h
-C
BEAM
+T
W/2
M-ARM small
C C-T large
BEAM
T
-C
+T
SAG = h
W/2
IDEALISTIC SUSPENSION
SHAPE GIVEN BY
MOMENT DIAGRAM
Figure 11.1: Moment Resisting Forces in an Arch or Suspension System as Compared to a Beam, (Lin
and Stotesbury 1981)
wL/2
H
h
H = wL2 /8h
L/2
R
R
V = wL/2
R = V 2+ H
V = wL/2
2
MCROWN = VL/2 - wL /8 - H h = 0
M BASE
= wL2 /8 - H h = 0
Victor Saouma
Structural Engineering
11.1 Arches
113
Draft
than C T in a beam.
Since equilibrium requires H to remain constant across thee arch, a parabolic curve would theoretically
result in no moment on the arch section.
10
Three-hinged arches are statically determinate structures which shape can acomodate support settlements and thermal expansion without secondary internal stresses. They are also easy to analyse through
statics.
11
An arch carries the vertical load across the span through a combination of axial forces and exural
ones. A well dimensioned arch will have a small to negligible moment, and relatively high normal
compressive stresses.
12
An arch is far more ecient than a beam, and possibly more economical and aesthetic than a truss
in carrying loads over long spans.
13
If the arch has only two hinges, Fig. 20.3, or if it has no hinges, then bending moments may exist
either at the crown or at the supports or at both places.
14
h
M base
H=wl /8h<
2
wl /8h
APPARENT LINE OF
PRESSURE WITH
ARCH BENDING
INCLUDING BASE
APPARENT LINE
OF PRESSURE WITH
ARCH BENDING
EXCEPT AT THE BASE
H<H H<H
M crown
M base
h
H
L
V
15
In a parabolic arch subjected to a uniform horizontal load there is no moment. However, in practice
an arch is not subjected to uniform horizontal load. First, the depth (and thus the weight) of an arch
is not usually constant, then due to the inclination of the arch the actual self weight is not constant.
Finally, live loads may act on portion of the arch, thus the line of action will not necessarily follow the
arch centroid. This last eect can be neglected if the live load is small in comparison with the dead load.
h
M base
H=wl /8h<
2
wl /8h
APPARENT LINE OF
PRESSURE WITH
ARCH BENDING
INCLUDING BASE
APPARENT LINE
OF PRESSURE WITH
ARCH BENDING
EXCEPT AT THE BASE
H<H H<H
V
M crown
M base
L
V
Figure 11.4: Arch Rib Stiened with Girder or Truss, (Lin and Stotesbury 1981)
Victor Saouma
Structural Engineering
114
Draft
11.1.1
Statically Determinate
Figure 11.5:
Solution:
Four unknowns, three equations of equilibrium, one equation of condition statically determinate.
(+ )
MzC
(+ ) Fx
(+ ) Fy
(+ )
MzB
=
=
=
140 26.25 0 0
RAy
2, 900
80
R
1
0
1
Ax
=
1
R
0
1 0
Cy
50
3, 000
RCx
80
60
0 0
RAy
RAx
RCy
RCx
15.1 k
29.8 k
=
34.9 k
50.2 k
=
=
=
=
=
=
0
2.900
0
0
0
3, 000
(11.3)
We can check our results by considering the summation with respect to b from the right:
(11.4)
(11.5)
Structural Engineering
11.1 Arches
115
Draft
dP=wRd
R cos
0; (Cy )(2R) +
wRd
R(1 +
cos ) = 0
dP
moment arm
=
wR
wR
=
[ sin ] |=0
(1 + cos )d =
2
2
=0
wR
[( sin ) (0 sin 0)]
2
2 wR
(11.6-a)
=0
Cy
=
=
=
(+ ) MB
=
2
=0
Cx
=
=
wR
wR
2
2
2 1 wR
=
2
cos d =
=0
(11.6-b)
wRd
R cos
dP
moment arm
=0
(11.7-a)
=
wR wR[sin ] |=02 = wR wR( 0)
2
2
2
(11.7-b)
wRd sin + V = 0
(11.8)
( 1)wR cos + wR sin
=0
2
2
Cx
Cy
V = wR ( 2 1) cos + ( 2 ) sin
(11.9)
2. Axial Forces: Similarly, if we consider the summation of forces in the axial direction (FN =
0):
( 2 1)wR sin + 2 wR cos
wRd cos + N = 0
(11.10)
=0
$
%
N = wR ( 2 ) cos ( 2 1) sin
(11.11)
3. Moment: Now we can consider the third equation of equilibrium (Mz = 0):
(+ )
M
M = wR2
Victor Saouma
2 (1
sin ) + ( 2 ) cos
(11.12)
%
(11.13)
Structural Engineering
116
Draft
dP=wRd
R sin
R cos
C x=( /2-1)wR
R(1-cos )
R cos
C = /2 wR
R cos( )
M
=
(1 sin ) + ( ) cos
EI
EI 2
2
(11.14)
1. The virtual force P will be a unit vertical point in the direction of the desired deection,
causing a virtual internal moment
M =
R
[1 cos sin ]
2
(11.15)
p
2. Hence, application of the virtual work equation yields:
1
= 2
dx
11.1.2
' R
wR2 &
(1 sin ) + ( ) cos [1 cos sin ]
Rd
2
2
=0 EI
2
M
EI
%
wR4 $ 2
7 18 12
16EI
.0337 wR
EI
(11.16-a)
Statically Indeterminate
Structural Engineering
11.1 Arches
117
Draft
Determine the value of the horizontal reaction component of the indicated two-hinged solid rib arch,
Fig. 20.8 as caused by a concentrated vertical load of 10 k at the center line of the span. Consider
shearing, axial, and exural strains. Assume that the rib is a W24x130 with a total area of 38.21 in2 ,
that it has a web area of 13.70 in2 , a moment of inertia equal to 4,000 in4 , E of 30,000 k/in2 , and a
shearing modulus G of 13,000 k/in2 .
1. Consider that end C is placed on rollers, as shown in Fig. ?? A unit ctitious horizontal force is
applied at C. The axial and shearing components of this ctitious force and of the vertical reaction
at C, acting on any section in the right half of the rib, are shown at the right end of the rib in
Fig. 13-7.
2. The expression for the horizontal displacement of C is
1 Ch = 2
M
C
M
ds + 2
EI
V
C
V
ds + 2
Aw G
N
C
N
ds
AE
(11.17)
Victor Saouma
P
(100 R cos )
2
1(R sin 125.36)
P
sin
2
cos
P
cos
2
(11.18-a)
(11.18-b)
(11.18-c)
(11.18-d)
(11.18-e)
Structural Engineering
118
Draft
=
=
sin
Rd
(11.18-f)
(11.18-g)
4. If the above values are substituted in Eq. 20.17 and integrated between the limits of 0.898 and
/2, the result will be
Ch = 22.55 + 0.023 0.003 = 22.57
(11.19)
5. The load P is now assumed to be removed from the rib, and a real horizontal force of 1 k is assumed
to act toward the right at C in conjunction with the ctitious horizontal force of 1 k acting to the
right at the same point. The horizontal displacement of C will be given by
B
B
B
M
V
N
ChCh = 2
ds + 2
ds + 2
ds
(11.20-a)
M
V
N
EI
A
G
AE
w
C
C
C
= 2.309 + 0.002 + 0.002 = 2.313 in
(11.20-b)
6. The value of the horizontal reaction component will be
HC =
Ch
22.57
= 9.75 k
=
ChCh
2.313
(11.21)
22.55
= 9.76 k
2.309
(11.22)
Comments
1. For the given rib and the single concentrated load at the center of the span it is obvious that the
eects of shearing and axial strains are insignicant and can be disregarded.
2. Erroneous conclusions as to the relative importance of shearing and axial strains in the usual solid
rib may be drawn, however, from the values shown in Eq. 20.19. These indicate that the eects of
the shearing strains are much more signicant than those of the axial strains. This is actually the
case for the single concentrated load chosen for the demonstration, but only because the rib does
not approximate the funicular polygon for the single load. As a result, the shearing components
on most sections of the rib are more important than would otherwise be the case.
Victor Saouma
Structural Engineering
119
Draft
3. The usual arch encountered in practice, however, is subjected to a series of loads, and the axis of
the rib will approximate the funicular polygon for these loads. In other words, the line of pressure
is nearly perpendicular to the right section at all points along the rib. Consequently, the shearing
components are so small that the shearing strains are insignicant and are neglected.
4. Axial strains, resulting in rib shortening, become increasingly important as the rise-to-span ratio
of the arch decreases. It is advisable to determine the eects of rib shortening in the design of
arches. The usual procedure is to rst design the rib by considering exural strains only, and then
to check for the eects of rib shortening.
11.2
x
wRd
d
O
R
V
r
C
A
A
y
FzA = wR
(11.23-a)
(wRd)(R sin ) = 0
MxA = 2wR2
(11.23-b)
(wRd)R(1 cos ) = 0
MyA = wR2
(11.23-c)
=0
=
MxA
wRd = 0
FzA
=0
=
MyA
=0
(+ ) Fz = 0 V
Victor Saouma
wRd = 0 V = wr
(11.24)
Structural Engineering
1110
Draft
2. Bending Moment:
MR = 0 M
(11.25)
(11.26)
3. Torsion:
MT = 0 +
0
III Deection are determined last we assume a rectangular cross-section of width b and height d = 2b
and a Poissons ratio = 0.3.
1. Noting that the member will be subjected to both exural and torsional deformations, we
seek to determine the two stinesses.
3
b(2b)
=
2. The exural stiness EI is given by EI = E bd
12 = E 12
2Eb4
3
= .667Eb4 .
3. The torsional stiness of solid rectangular sections J = kb d where b is the shorter side of the
E
E
= 2(1+.3)
=
section, d the longer, and k a factor equal to .229 for db = 2. Hence G = 2(1+)
4
4
.385E, and GJ = (.385E)(.229b ) = .176Eb .
4. Considering both exural and torsional deformations, and replacing dx by rd:
M
T
P
Rd
=
M
Rd
T
+
EI
GJ
z
0
0
W
Torsion
Flexure
U
(11.27)
= R sin
(11.28-a)
= R(1 cos )
(11.28-b)
=
(R
sin
)
(1
cos
)
Rd
+
1
EI
GJ
0
P
4
=
=
11.2.1
1
( cos sin + sin cos ) d
(sin sin cos ) +
.265
wR
EI
0
wR4
(
2. + 18.56
)
EI
Flexure Torsion
4
20.56 wR
EI
(11.29-a)
Theory
18
19
In general we have six internal forces (forces and moments) acting at any section.
1 To
which you have already been exposed at an early stage, yet have very seldom used it so far in mechanics!
Victor Saouma
Structural Engineering
1111
Draft
11.2.1.1
Geometry
In general, the geometry of the structure is most conveniently described by a parameteric set of
equations
y = f2 ();
z = f3 ()
(11.30)
x = f1 ();
20
as shown in Fig. 20.11. the global coordinate system is denoted by X Y Z, and its unit vectors are
21
22
(11.31)
The principal bending axes must be dened, that is if the strong bending axis is parallel to the XY
plane, or horizontal (as is generally the case for gravity load), then this axis is normal to both the N
and Z axes, and its unit vector is
nk
(11.32)
s=
|nk|
23
24
The weak bending axis is normal to both N and S, and thus its unit vector is determined from
w = ns
11.2.1.2
25
(11.33)
Equilibrium
For the equilibrium equations, we consider the free body diagram of Fig. 20.12 an applied load P
2 All
Victor Saouma
Structural Engineering
1112
Draft
P + F = 0;
F = P
(11.34-a)
M = 0; LP + M = 0; M = LP
B
(11.34-b)
26
N
Vs
=
=
Fn
Fs
(11.35-a)
(11.35-b)
Vw
Fw
(11.35-c)
Similarly the torsional and bending moments T, Ms and Mw are also components of the moment
vector M and are determined from
27
Mn
(11.36-a)
Ms
Mw
=
=
Ms
Mw
(11.36-b)
(11.36-c)
Hence, we do have a mean to determine the internal forces. In case of applied loads we summ, and
for distributed load we integrate.
28
y = R sin ;
z=
(11.37)
Structural Engineering
Draft
1113
Victor Saouma
Structural Engineering
1114
Draft
dy = R cos d;
dz =
H
d
(11.38)
(11.39-a)
(11.39-b)
1
K,
and thus
s = cos i + sin j
(11.41)
4. The unit vector along the weak axis is determined from Eq. 20.33
"
"
"
i
j
k ""
1 ""
cos sin
0 ""
w = sn =
K ""
H "
sin cos R
1
H
H
=
sin i
cos j + k
K R
R
(11.42-a)
(11.42-b)
5. With the geometry denition completed, we now examine the equilibrium equations. Eq. 20.34-a
and 20.34-b.
F = 0; F
Mb = 0; M
where
= P
= LP
(11.43-a)
(11.43-b)
L = (R R cos )i + (0 R sin )j + 0 H k
and
LP =
"
"
i
"
R "" (1 cos )
"
0
j
sin
0
k
H
R
P
"
"
"
"
"
"
(11.44)
(11.45-a)
(11.45-b)
(11.46)
=
and
Victor Saouma
Structural Engineering
1115
Draft
6. Finally, the components of the force F = P k and the moment M are obtained by appropriate
dot products with the unit vectors
Victor Saouma
1
H
P R
Fn = K
(11.47-a)
Vs
Fs = 0
(11.47-b)
Vw
1
Fw = K
P
(11.47-c)
Mn = PKR (1 cos )
(11.47-d)
Ms
Ms = P R sin
(11.47-e)
Mw
Mw =
PH
K (1
cos )
(11.47-f)
Structural Engineering
1116
Draft
Victor Saouma
Structural Engineering
Draft
Chapter 12
DEFLECTION of STRUCTRES;
Geometric Methods
1 Deections of structures must be determined in order to satisfy serviceability requirements i.e. limit
deections under service loads to acceptable values (such as
L 360).
2 Later on, we will see that deection calculations play an important role in the analysis of statically
indeterminate structures.
3 We shall focus on exural deformation, however the end of this chapter will review axial and torsional
deformations as well.
5 This chapter will examine deections of structures based on geometric considerations. Later on, we
will present a more pwerful method based on energy considerations.
12.1
Flexural Deformation
12.1.1
Curvature Equation
6 Let us consider a segment (between point 1 and point 2), Fig. 12.1 of a beam subjected to exural
loading.
The slope is denoted by , the change in slope per unit length is the curvature , the radius of
curvature is .
10
(12.1)
11
d
1
=
ds
dy
dx
1
d
d2 y
=
= 2
dx
dx
(12.2)
Next, we shall (re)derive the exact expression for the curvature. From Fig. 12.1, we have
tan =
dy
dx
(12.3)
122
Draft
12
d
ds
ds
13
(12.5)
we have
d dt
dt ds
2 + dy 2
!dx
=
t
(12.4)
= tan1 t
=
ds can be rewritten as
dy
dx
1+
dy
dx
dy
dx
dx ds =
(12.6)
1 + t2 dx
(12.7)
d
dt
=
=
=
d dt
dt 1+t2 dx
1
tan
1
1+t2
dt
dx
1 1
dt
1+t2 1+t2 dx
2
d y
dx2
d2 y
dx2
=
2 32
dy
1 + dx
(12.8)
Thus the slope , curvature , radius of curvature are related to the y displacement at a point x
along a exural member by
14
d2 y
dx2
=
2 32
dy
1 + dx
Victor Saouma
(12.9)
Structural Engineering
123
Draft
15
12.1.2
dy
dx
d2 y
1
=
dx2
(12.10)
Again with reference to Figure 12.1 a positive d at a positive y (upper bers) will cause a shortening
of the upper bers
u = y
(12.11)
16
17
s0
= y lim
s0 s
s
(12.12)
du
d
= y
dx
dx
(12.13)
and since s x
1
==
(12.14)
This is the fundamental relationship between curvature (), elastic curve (y), and linear strain ().
18
Note that so far we made no assumptions about material properties, i.e. it can be elastic or inelastic.
19
=
=
My
I
=
My
EI
(12.15)
dx
dx
EI
(12.16)
Combining this equation with the moment-shear-force relations determined in the previous chapter
2
dV
d M
= w(x)
dx
(12.17-a)
dM
=
V
(x)
dx2
dx
we obtain
d4 y
w(x)
= 4
EI
dx
12.1.3
21
(12.18)
Victor Saouma
TT dx Top
(12.19-a)
TB dx Bottom
(12.19-b)
Structural Engineering
124
Draft
22
Next, considering
d2 y
M
=
=
2
dx
EI
y
h
2
(12.20)
or = (TT TB ) at y = h thus
d2 y
(TT TB )
d
M
= 2 =
=
dx
dx
EI
h
12.2
Flexural Deformations
12.2.1
(12.21)
Equation 12.18 lends itself naturally to the method of double integration which was presented in
Strength of Materials
23
Solution:
At: 0 x
2L
3
1. Moment Equation
EI
5
wL
d2 y
x wL2
= Mx =
dx2
3
18
(12.22)
EI
dy
wL 2
5
=
x wL2 x + C1
dx
6
18
(12.23)
2. Integrate once
However we have at x = 0,
dy
dx
= 0, C1 = 0
3. Integrate twice
wL 3 5wL2 2
x
x + C2
18
36
Again we have at x = 0, y = 0, C2 = 0
EIy =
Victor Saouma
(12.24)
Structural Engineering
125
Draft
At:
xL
2L
3
1. Moment equation
EI
5
d2 y
wL
2L x 2L
2
3
x
wL
)(
)
=
M
=
w(x
x
dx2
3
18
3
2
(12.25)
dy
wL 2
2L 3
5
w
=
x wL2 x (x
) + C3
dx
6
18
6
3
(12.26)
2. Integrate once
EI
2L
3 ,
we must have
dy
dx
3. Integrating twice
2L 4
wL 3
5
w
x wL2 x2 (x
) + C4
18
36
24
3
Again following the same argument as above, C4 = 0
EIy =
(12.27)
163 wL4
1944 EI
(12.28)
12.2.2
12.2.2.1
24
dV
dx
(12.29)
= w(x)).
21 = 2 1 =
x2
x2
d =
x1
x1
M
dx
EI
(12.30)
Similarly, with reference to Fig. 12.2, we dene by t21 the distance between point 2 and the tangent
at point 1. For an innitesimal distance ds = d and for small displacements
M
dt = d(x2 x)
(x2 x)dx
(12.31)
dt =
d
M
=
EI
dx
EI
25
To evaluate t21
x2
t21 =
dt =
x1
x2
M
(x2 x)dx
EI
x1
(12.32)
or
Second Moment Area Theorem: The tangent distance t21 between a point, 2, on the
beam and the tangent of another point, 1, is equal to the moment of the M/EI diagram
between points 1 and 2, with respect to point 2.
Victor Saouma
Structural Engineering
126
Draft
Victor Saouma
Structural Engineering
127
Draft
Victor Saouma
Structural Engineering
128
Draft
26
27
Solution:
EItA/C =
Thus, A =
1
2
2 5L
9L
2wL2
5L
1 wL2
29wL4
+
=
(L)
5
2
3 2
3
2
4
24
area
area
Moment wrt A
Moment wrt A
(12.33)
29wL4
24EI
Victor Saouma
Structural Engineering
129
Draft
Solution:
Deection C is determined from C = c c = c c cc, cc = tC/B , and c c =
tA/B
Victor Saouma
tA/B
2
5P a3
3P
a
2a
3P
a
a
3a
1
3a
=
+
=
a+
EI
4
2
3
4
2
3
2EI
A1
A2 +A3
Moment
Moment
from geometry
(12.34)
Structural Engineering
1210
Draft
(12.35)
P a3
11 P a3
5P a3
=
4EI
3EI
12 EI
(12.36)
Rotation C is
BC
BC
B
12.2.2.3
=
=
=
B C C = B BC
5P a3
Pa
2a
P a2
A3
C =
2EI(4a)
2
2
8EI
tA/B
(12.37)
Maximum Deection
A joint along the beam will have the maximum (or minimum) relative deection if
So we can determine max if x is known, Fig. 12.5.
To determine x:
28
dy
dx
= 0 or = 0
1. Compute tC/A
2. A =
tC/A
L
Victor Saouma
Structural Engineering
1211
Draft
Solution:
Deection at D:
9
= tD/A tC/A
5
L
1 4P L
=
(L)
2
5
3
3
2P L
=
15EI
1 4P L
17L
1 4P L
4L
8L
=
(L)
+
2
5
15
2
5
5
15
3
234 P L
=
375 EI
D
EItC/A
tC/A
EItD/A
tD/A
(12.38-a)
(12.38-b)
(12.38-c)
(12.38-d)
(12.38-e)
Substituting we obtain
D =
48 P L3
125 EI
(12.39)
Maximum deection at B:
tC/A
AB
max
max
2P L3
15EI
(12.40-a)
tC/A
2P L2
=
L 15EI
1 1 4P x
2 P x2
(x) =
EI 2
5
5 EI
2
2 P x2
L
2 PL
=
x=
AB
15 EI
5 EI
3
4P x x 2
L
x at x =
5EI
2
3
3
3
4P L
45 3EI
(12.40-b)
(12.40-c)
(12.40-d)
(12.40-e)
(12.40-f)
Structural Engineering
1212
Draft
Solution:
xxxx
Solution:
Structural Engineering
1213
Draft
2. BC exes B = C = 0
3. Rigid hinges at B and C with no load on AB and CD
4. Deection at A
A
AA
=
=
(12.41-a)
(12.41-b)
A A
|B |h1
(12.41-c)
tC/B
L
CB + B or C =
(12.42-a)
tB/C
L
(12.42-b)
6. In order to apply the curvature are theorem, we need a curvature (or moment diagram).
1
TB TT
M
= (
)=
h
EI
7.
tC/B = A
(12.43)
L
L
1
A
A
or B =
(-ve)
|B | = A
=
2
2
L
2
2
8.
CB
C
=
=
A
CB + B
C = A
A
A
=
(+ve)
2
2
(12.44)
(12.45)
9. From above,
A
=
=
A =
|C |h2 + |B |h1 =
A
2 (h2 + h1 )
(TB TT )
L
h
A
2 h2
A
2 h1
L
A = (TB TT )
1
(h2 + h1 )
2
(12.46)
10. Substitute
= (6.5 106 )(200 60)
(20)(12) 1
( )(10 + 25)(12)
(16)
2
= 2.87 in
(12.47-a)
(12.47-b)
=
=
=
1 (TB TT )
A
=
L
2
2
h
1
(200 60)
(6.5 106 )
(20)(12)
2
(16)
dy
<< 1
.00683rad. (.39 degrees) =
dx
C =
(12.48-a)
(12.48-b)
(12.48-c)
=
=
Victor Saouma
1
(TB TT )
=
h
(200 60)
(6.5 106 )
= 5.6875 105
16
1
= 1.758 104 in = 1, 465 ft
5.6875 105
(12.49-a)
(12.49-b)
(12.49-c)
Structural Engineering
1214
Draft
12. In order to get M , we need E & I. Note the dierence with other statically determinate structures;
the stier the beam, the higher the moment; the higher the moment, the higher the stress? NO!!
13. =
My
I
EI y
I
Ey
M
EI
d2 y
dx2
d2 y
dx2
M
EI
= C y =
3
M
dy
d2 y
1
2
=
= dx 1 + ( )2 ) 2 2
EI
(
dx
dx
29
(12.50)
Let us get curvature from the parabola slope and compare it with
y
dy
dx
d2 y
dx2
cx2
+ dx + e
2
(12.51-a)
cx + d
(12.51-b)
(12.51-c)
at x = 0, y = 0, thus e = 0
at x = 0, dy
x = B = .00683 thus d = .00683
dy
at x = 20 ft, dx
= C = .00683 thus c(20) .00683 = .00683 thus c = 6.83 104 thus
y
dy
dx
d2 y
dx2
= 6.83 104
x2
10x
2
(12.52-a)
(12.52-b)
= 6.83 104
(12.52-c)
= 6.83 104
1
= 1, 464f t as expected!
=
6.83 10 4
(12.52-d)
(12.52-e)
d2 y
3
dx2
)2
dy 2
+ ( dx )
(12.53-a)
[1 + (.00683)2] 2
12.2.3
6.83 104
6.829522 104
(12.53-b)
(12.53-c)
x2
V and M
wdx
V = wdx + C1
12 =
V dx
t21 =
xx12
M12 =
x1
Victor Saouma
M=
V dx + C2
and y
1
1
dx =
dx + C1
x1
x2
x2
dx
y=
dx + C2
x1
Structural Engineering
1215
Draft
29
M
1
==
EI
Load q
curvature
Shear V
slope
(12.55)
deection y
(12.56)
(12.54)
30 Since V & M can be conjugated from statics, by analogy & y can be thought of as the V & M of
M
elastic weight.
a ctitious beam (or conjugate beam) loaded by EI
31
y
y
y
y
y
=0
=0
= 0
= 0
=0
V
V
V
V
V
= 0
=0
= 0
= 0
= 0
Conjugate Beam
M = 0 Hinge
M = 0 Free end
M = 0 Fixed end
M = 0 Interior support
M = 0 Interior hinge
32
Alternatively, the moment area method was derived from the moment area method, and is a far
simpler method to remember and use in practice when simple back of the envelope calculations are
required.
33
Note that we can only have distributed load, and that the load the load is positive for a positive
moment, and negative for a negative moment. Shear and Moment diagrams should be drawn
accordingly.
34
Units of the distributed load w are FEIL (force time length divided by EI). Thus the Shear would
L2
L3
and the moment would have units of (w L) L or FEI
. Recalling
have units of w L or FEI
that EI has units of F L2 L4 = F L2 , we observe that indeed the shear corresponds to a rotation in
radians and the moment to a displacement.
35
Victor Saouma
Structural Engineering
1216
Draft
Solution:
3 equations of equilibrium and 1 equation of condition = 4 = number of reactions.
Deection at D = Shear at D of the corresponding conjugate beam (Reaction at D)
Take AC and M with respect to C
4P L
L
L
RA (L)
= 0
5EI
2
3
2P L2
RA =
15EI
(Slope in real beam at A) As computed before!
Let us draw the Moment Diagram for the conjugate beam
x
4
2 2
x
P
L x
x
M =
EI 15
5
2
3
2 2
2
P
L x x3
=
EI 15
15
2P 2
L x x3
=
15EI
Point of Maximum Moment (max ) occurs when
dM
dx
(12.57-b)
(12.58-a)
(12.58-b)
(12.58-c)
=0
2P
L
dM
=
(L2 3x2 ) = 0 3x2 = L2 x =
dx
15EI
3
Victor Saouma
(12.57-a)
(12.59)
Structural Engineering
1217
Draft
=
=
3
2
2P
L L
L3
15EI
3
3 3
4P L3
45 3EI
(12.60-a)
(12.60-b)
(12.60-c)
as before.
12.3
Axial Deformations
Statics: =
P
A
Material: = E
Kinematics: =
12.4
PL
AE
(12.61)
Torsional Deformations
Since torsional eects are seldom covered in basic structural analysis, and students may have forgotten
the derivation of the basic equations from the Strength of Material course, we shall briey review the
basic equations.
36
Assuming a linear elastic material, and a linear strain (and thus stress) distribution along the radius
of a circular cross section subjected to torsional load, Fig. 12.7 we have:
max
dA
(12.62)
T =
A c
area arm
stress
F orce
37
max
c
torque
2 dA
(12.63)
max
Victor Saouma
Tc
J
(12.64)
Structural Engineering
1218
Draft
J
2 (2d)
dA =
A
4
d4
c
=
2
32
(12.65)
Having developed a relation between torsion and shear stress, we now seek a relation between torsion
and torsional rotation. Considering Fig. 12.7-b, we look at the arc length BD
d
max
d
T
max dx = dc dx = c
max
d
=
(12.66)
=
max
dx
Gc
max = G
dx
GJ
max = TJC
39
40
T dx =
T =
Victor Saouma
GJ
L
Structural Engineering
Draft
Chapter 13
Introduction
Energy methods are powerful techniques for both formulation (of the stiness matrix of an element1 )
and for the analysis (i.e. deection) of structural problems.
13.2
3
Real Work
+ U ) = We + H
(13.1)
where K is the kinetic energy, U the internal strain energy, We the external work, and H the heat input
to the system.
4 For an adiabatic system (no heat exchange) and if loads are applied in a quasi static manner (no
kinetic energy), the above relation simplies to:
We = U
(13.2)
5 Simply stated, the rst law stipulates that the external work must be equal to the internal strain
energy due to the external load.
13.2.1
6
External Work
0
f
P d
(13.3)
M d
132
Draft
P
M
1
1
1
0
0
1
0
1
0
1
0
1
0
1
0
1
0
1
0
1
0
1
0
1
0
1
0
1
0
1
0
1
0
1
0
1
0
1
0
1
dW
11
00
00
11
00
11
00
11
00
11
00
11
00
11
00
11
00
11
00
11
00
11
00
11
00
11
00
11
00
11
00
11
00
11
00
11
00
11
dW
P = K
f
We = K
P d
We =
d =
0
1
K2f
2
(13.4)
We =
1
Pf f
2
(13.5)
We =
1
M f f
2
(13.6)
13.2.2
Internal Work
9 Considering an innitesimal element from an arbitrary structure subjected to uniaxial state of stress,
the strain energy can be determined with reference to Fig. 13.2. The net force acting on the element
while deformation is taking place is P = x dydz. The element will undergo a displacement u = x dx.
Thus, for a linear elastic system, the strain energy density is dU = 12 . And the total strain energy
will thus be
1
(13.7)
U=
E dVol
2 Vol
10
Victor Saouma
Structural Engineering
133
Draft
Axial Members:
U
dV
=
=
=
Torsional Members:
dVol
Vol 2
P
A
P
AE
Adx
U=
0
P2
dx
2AE
(13.8)
Vol
G
d
Vol
xy
xy
2
Vol
1
2
E dVol
xy
xy
xy
dVol
J
= TJr
xy
= G
= rddrdx
r 2
=
r2 d dr
o
U=
0
T2
dx
2GJ
(13.9)
Flexural Members:
U
=
=
dVol =
Iz
E
Vol
Mz y
I
1
2
Mz y
EIz
dA dx
y 2 dA
U=
0
M2
dx
2EIz
(13.10)
We
Victor Saouma
1
P f
2
(13.11-a)
Structural Engineering
134
Draft
1
0
0
1
0
1
1111111111111111111111111
0000000000000000000000000
x
M=PL
Figure 13.3: Deection of Cantilever Beam
13.3
1
P f
2
M2
dx
0 2EI
P x
P2 L 2
P 2 L3
x dx =
2EI 0
6EI
2 3
P L
6EI
P L3
3EI
(13.11-b)
(13.11-c)
(13.11-d)
(13.11-e)
(13.11-f)
Virtual Work
A severe limitation of the method of real work is that only deection along the externally applied
load can be determined.
11
12
The principle of Virtual Force (VF) relates force systems which satisfy the requirements of equilibrium,
and deformation systems which satisfy the requirement of compatibility
13
In any application the force system could either be the actual set of external loads dp or some
virtual force system which happens to satisfy the condition of equilibrium p. This set of external
forces will induce internal actual forces d or internal virtual forces compatible with the externally
applied load.
14
15 Similarly the deformation could consist of either the actual joint deections du and compatible internal
deformations d of the structure, or some virtual external and internal deformation u and which
satisfy the conditions of compatibility.
16
Thus we may have 4 possible combinations, Table 13.1: where: d corresponds to the actual, and
(with an overbar) to the hypothetical values.
This table calls for the following observations
17
1. The second approach is the same one on which the method of virtual or unit load is based. It is
simpler to use than the third as a internal force distribution compatible with the assumed virtual
Victor Saouma
Structural Engineering
Draft
1
2
3
4
135
Force
External Internal
dp
d
p
dp
d
p
Deformation
External Internal
du
d
du
d
u
IVW
Formulation
U
U
Flexibility
Stiness
18
P1
1
0
0
1
11
00
00
11
00
11
111
000
000
111
000
111
000
111
000
111
1111
0000
0000
1111
0000
1111
0000
1111
0000
1111
0000
1111
1
0
0
1
11
00
00
11
00
11
111
000
000
111
000
111
000
111
000
111
111
000
000
111
000
111
000
111
000
111
1111
0000
0000
1111
0000
1111
0000
1111
0000
1111
0000
1111
Virtual System
11111
00000
00000
11111
00000
11111
00000
11111
00000
11111
00000
11111
11111
00000
00000
11111
00000
11111
00000
11111
00000
11111
Real Load
11111
00000
00000
11111
00000
11111
00000
11111
00000
11111
00000
11111
11111
00000
00000
11111
00000
11111
00000
11111
00000
11111
1111
0000
0000
1111
0000
1111
0000
1111
0000
1111
0000
1111
0000
1111
0000
1111
0000
1111
P1
1
11111
00000
00000
11111
00000
11111
00000
11111
00000
11111
00000
11111
00000
11111
P
P
1
0
0
1
11
00
00
11
00
11
P
P
1111
0000
0000
1111
0000
1111
0000
1111
0000
1111
0000
1111
0000
1111
0000
1111
0000
1111
1111
0000
0000
1111
0000
1111
0000
1111
0000
1111
0000
1111
0000
1111
Inter.
Ext.
= P
Virtual
Real
dVol
(13.12)
dVol
Structural Engineering
136
Draft
2. Load with the real (applied) load, since the external work must be equal to the internal strain
energy over the entire volume, then:
1
1
P1 1 =
IdVol
(13.13)
2
2 dVol
3. We now immagine that the virtual load was rst applied, and we then apply the real (actual) load
on top of it, then the total work done is
1
1
1
1
P + P1 1 + P
(13.14)
= 2 Vol dVol + 2 Vol dVol + Vol dVol
2
2
4. Since the strain energy and work done must be the same whether the loads are applied together
or separately, we obtain, from substracting the sum of Eqs. 13.13 and 13.12 from 13.14 and
generalizing, we obtain
( + ) dVol = P
(13.15)
W
U
This last equation is the key to the method of virtual forces. The left hand side is the internal virtual
strain energy U 2 . Similarly the right hand side is the external virtual work.
19
13.3.1
20
W =
)n
i=1
(i )P i +
)n
i=1
(13.16)
(i )M i
Recall that all overbar quantities are virtual and the other ones are the real.
13.3.2
22
( + ) dVol = P
W
U
(13.17)
23
General :
Axial Members:
U
dVol
0
dVol =
Victor Saouma
Adx
U = A
dx
(13.18)
Structural Engineering
137
Draft
U
=
xy xy dVol
Vol
L
T =
xy rdA
U =
(
xy rdA) dx
(13.19)
A
0
A
d
xy = r dx
T
dVol = dAdx
L
d
U =
T dx
dx
0
Shear Members:
xy xy dVol
Vol
U =
V =
xy dA
dVol = dAdx
U
L
0
(
xy dA) xy dx
V
L
U =
(13.20)
V xy dx
0
Flexural Members:
U
=
x x dVol
x ydA
=
y =
M
=
y
A
x dA
L
dVol =
dAdx
0
U =
M dx
(13.21)
= E
(13.22)
use the * to distinguish it from the internal virtual strain energy obtained from the virtual displacement method
U .
Victor Saouma
Structural Engineering
138
Draft
Axial Members:
U
dV
dVol
Vol
P
A
P
AE
=
=
=
Adx
U =
P
dx
AE
P
0
(13.23)
Note that for a truss where we have n members, the above expression becomes
U = n1 P i
Shear Members:
U
xy
xy
dVol
Pi Li
Ai Ei
(13.24)
=
=
=
=
def
xy xy dVol
Vol
kA
xy
G
Adx
k 2 dydz
U =
V
0
V
dx
GA
(13.25)
xy
24
VQ
Ib
(13.26)
where Q is the moment of the area from the external bers to y with respect to the neutral
axis; For a rectangular section, this yields
=
=
=
VQ
Ib
V
Ib
6V
bh3
(13.27-a)
h/2
by dy =
h2
4
4
V
2I
h2
y2
4
(13.27-b)
(13.27-c)
and we observe that the shear stress is zero for y = h/2 and maximum at the neutral axis
V
where it is equal to 1.5 bh
.
25
2
= VIbQ
A
h
2
k
=
2I 4
= k VA
2
h/2
k 2 dydz
bh =
b h
y2
Q =
by dy =
A
A
2 4
y
= 1.2
(13.28)
26
Thus, the form factor may be taken as 1.2 for rectangular beams of ordinary proportions.
27
For I beams, k can be also approximated by 1.2, provided A is the area of the web.
Torsional Members:
U
=
xy
Vol
xy
dVol
G
xy
xy =
xy =
dVol =
Victor Saouma
Tr
J
xy
rddrdx
r 2
r2 d dr
o
U =
0
T
T
dx
GJ
(13.29)
Structural Engineering
139
Draft
28
Note the similarity with the corresponding equation for shear deformation.
29
30
d4
32 .
J = kb3 d
(13.30)
where b is the shorter side of the section, d the longer, and k a factor given by Table 13.2.
d/b
k
1.0
0.141
1.5
0.196
2.0
0.229
2.5
0.249
3.0
0.263
4.0
0.281
5.0
0.291
10
0.312
0.333
31
G=
Flexural Members:
U
E
2(1 + )
(13.31)
E dV ol
Vol
Mz y
x =
=
dVol =
Iz
Mz y
EIz
dA dx
y 2 dA
U =
M
0
M
dx
EIz
(13.32)
13.3.3
Examples
x=0
A
C
M
15x x2
x2
M
0.5x
x
M
M
dx
EI
0
z
(1)C
(0.5x)
0
Victor Saouma
20
(13.33-a)
(15x x2 )
dx +
EI
10
(x)
0
x2
dx
EI
(13.33-b)
Structural Engineering
1310
Draft
Figure 13.6:
15x -x 2
-0.5x
-x
Figure 13.7:
Victor Saouma
Structural Engineering
1311
Draft
=
C
=
=
2, 500
EI
(2, 500) k2 ft3 (1, 728) in3 / ft3
(29, 000) ksi(100) in4
1.49 in
(13.33-c)
(13.33-d)
(13.33-e)
Figure 13.8:
.
Solution:
To analyse this frame we must determine analytical expressions for the moments along each member
for the real load and the two virtual ones. One virtual load is a unit horizontal load at A, and the other
a unit vertical one at A also, Fig. 13.9.
Element
AB
BC
CD
x=0
A
B
C
M
0
50x
100
M v
x
2+x
4
M h
0
0
x
Note that moments are considered positive when they produce compression on the inside of the frame.
Victor Saouma
Structural Engineering
1312
Draft
50 kN
1 kN
50x
+100
+
+4
1 kN
x
+
-x
1 kN
100 kN-m
4 kN-m
50 kN
5 kN-m
1 kN
Figure 13.9:
Substitution yields:
v P =
W
=
=
=
M
M
dx
EIz
(13.34-a)
2
5
(0)
50x
100
dx +
dx +
dx
(x)
(2 + x)
(4)
EI
EI
EI
0
0
0
2, 333 kN m3
EI
(2, 333) kN m3 (103 )4 mm4 / m4
(200 106 ) kN/ m2 (200 106 ) mm4
(1)v
= 0.058 m = 5.8 cm
(1)h
=
=
=
(13.34-c)
(13.34-d)
(13.34-e)
W
(13.35-a)
2
5
(0)
50x
100
dx +
dx +
dx
(0)
(0)
(x)
EI
EI
EI
0
0
0
1, 250 kN m3
EI
(1, 250) kN m3 (103 )4 mm4 / m4
(200 106 ) kN/ m2 (200 106 ) mm4
(13.34-b)
= 0.031 m = 3.1 cm
(13.35-b)
(13.35-c)
(13.35-d)
(13.35-e)
Structural Engineering
1313
Draft
Figure 13.10:
Element
AB
BC
CD
x=0
A
B
D
M
0
30x 1.5x2
0
M
0
0.05x
0
Note that moments are considered positive when they produce compression on the outside of the frame.
Substitution yields:
C M e
W
M
M
dx
EIz
0
=
(1)C
=
=
(13.36-a)
(30x 1.5x2 )
dx k2 ft3
EI
0
(1, 000)(144)
(29, 000)(240)
20
(0.05x)
(13.36-b)
(13.36-c)
0.021 radians
(13.36-d)
A
in
1&4
10 & 13
11 & 12
5&9
6&8
2& 3
7
Total
Victor Saouma
2
2
2
1
1
2
1
ft
25
20
20
15
25
20
15
-50
40
40
20
16.7
-53.3
0
-0.083
0.67
0.67
0
0.83
-1.33
0
P P L
A
nP P L
A
518.75
268.0
268.0
0
346.5
708.9
0
2
2
2
2
2
2
1
1,037.5
536.0
536.0
0
693.0
1,417.8
0
4,220.3
Structural Engineering
1314
Draft
Figure 13.11:
Thus from Eq. 13.24 we have:
P
=
W
P
dx
P
AE
0
U
=
1 =
=
(13.37-a)
PL
AE
(4, 220.3)(12)
30, 000
(13.37-b)
(13.37-c)
1.69 in
(13.37-d)
P A =
M
T
dx + T
dx
M
EI
GJ
Torsion
exure
Structural Engineering
1315
Draft
Figure 13.12:
Element
AB
BC
4. Substituting,
x=0
A
B
M
10x
15x
M
x
x
T
0
50
T
0
5
M
T
dx + T
dx
5 GJ
5
5 EI
10x
15x
50
dx +
dx +
dx
x
x
(5)
GJ
0 EI
0 EI
0
(1,042)(1,728)
(1,250)(1,728)
(30,000)(144) + (12,000)(288)
0.417 + 0.625
1.04 in
P A
1A
=
=
=
Example 13-7: Flexural and Shear Deformations in a Beam (White et al. 1976)
Determine the delection of a cantilevered beam, of length L subjected to an end force P due to both
exural and shear deformations. Assume G = 0.4E, and a square solid beam cross section.
Solution:
1. The virtual work equation is
P =
1
M d +
0
=
V xy dx
(13.38-a)
M
dx +
M
EI
0
L
V
0
V
dx
GA
(13.38-b)
Victor Saouma
M
dx =
M
EI
0
=
L
P
x2 dx
EI 0
P L3 /3EI
(13.39-a)
(13.39-b)
Structural Engineering
1316
Draft
3. The second integral represents the contribution of the shearing action to the total internal virtual
work and hence to the total displacement.
4. Both the real shear V and virtual shear V are constant along the length of the member, hence
V
0
V
dx =
GA
GA
1(P )dx =
0
P L
GA
(13.40)
P L3
1.2P L
+
3EI
GA
P L L2
3.6
+
=
3E I
0.4A
(13.41-a)
PL
3E
&
L2
I
9
A
'
(13.41-b)
h4
12
and A = h2
(13.42)
P L 12L2
9
3P L 1.33L2
=
+ 2 =
+1
3E
h4
h
Eh2
h2
(13.43)
20
1.5
2
+ 1] =
3P L
Eh2 (237
+ 1)
(13.44)
Thus the exural deformation is 237 times the shear displacement. This comparison reveals why we
normally neglect shearing deformation in beams.
As the beam gets shorter or deeper, or as L/h decreases, the exural deformation decreases relative
to the shear displacement. At L/h = 5, the exural deformation has reduced to 1.33(5)2 = 33 times the
shear displacement.
Structural Engineering
1317
Draft
Figure 13.13:
5. We determine the value of d by considering the extreme ber thermal strain as shown above. The
angular rotation in the length dx is the extreme ber thermal strain divided by half the beam depth, or
d =
T dx
(11.7 106 )(80)dx
936 106
=
=
=
= (9.36 106 )dx
h/2
h/2
100
100
(13.45)
0
2,000
M d
(13.46-a)
(13.46-b)
=
=
+0.01872
0.01872 radians
(13.46-c)
(13.46-d)
Victor Saouma
Structural Engineering
1318
Draft
60 k
120 k
7
4
3
1
5
5
12
12
12
Figure 13.14:
Determine the deection at node 2 for the truss shown in Fig. 13.14.
Solution:
Member
1
2
3
4
5
6
7
P
kips
+0.25
+0.25
-0.56
+0.56
+0.56
-0.56
-0.50
P,
kips
+37.5
+52.5
-83.8
+16.8
-16.8
-117.3
-45.0
L,
ft
12
12
13.42
13.42
13.42
13.42
12
A,
in2
5.0
5.0
5.0
5.0
5.0
5.0
5.0
E,
ksi
10 103
10 103
10 103
10 103
10 103
10 103
10 103
PL
P AE
+22.5 104
+31.5 104
+125.9 104
+25.3 104
25.3 104
+176.6 104
+54.0 104
+410.5 104
7
)
1
PL
AE
(13.47-a)
(13.47-b)
Victor Saouma
Structural Engineering
1319
Draft
The truss in example 13-9 the preceding example is built such that the lower chords are shielded from
the rays of the sun. On a hot summer day the lower chords are 30 F cooler than the rest of the truss
members. What is the magnitude of the vertical displacement at joint 2 as a result of this temperature
dierence?
Solution:
1. The virtual force system remains identical to that in the previous example because the desired displacement component is the same.
2. The real internal displacements are made up of the shortening of those members of the truss that are
shielded from the sun.
3. Both bottom chord members 1 and 2 thus shorten by
l = (T )(L) = (0.0000128) in/ in/oF (30)o (12) ft(12) in/ft = 0.0553 in
(13.48)
4. Then,
1 =
0.0276 in
(13.49-a)
(13.49-b)
5. The negative sign on the displacement indicates that it is in opposite sense to the assumed direction
of the displacement; the assumed direction is always identical to the direction of the applied virtual
force.
6. Note that the same result would be obtained if we had considered the internal displacements to be
made up of the lengthening of all truss members above the bottom chord.
Figure 13.15:
the bottom chords are shaded. What will be the vertical deection component of the bottom chord at
the center of the bridge when the temperature of the bottom chord is 40 F (T ) below that of the top
chord, endposts, and webs? (coecient of steel thermal expansion is =0.0000065 per degree F.)
Solution:
1. The deection is given by
=
P
W
P
PL
dx = P
= P L = P T L
P
AE
AE
0
Victor Saouma
(13.50)
Structural Engineering
1320
Draft
where L is the temperature change in the length of each member, and P are the member virtual
internal forces.
2. Taking advantage of symmetry:
Member
4
5
6
7
8
9
10
11
L (ft)
35
21
21
0
35
28
35
0
(0.0000065)(40)L
T L
+0.00910
+0.00546
+0.00546
0
+0.00910
+0.00728
+0.00910
0
P (k)
+ 0.625
+ 0.75
+1.13
0
-0.625
+0.5
-0.625
0
P L
+0.00568
+0.00409
+0.00616
0
-0.00568
+0.00364
-0.00568
0
+0.00821
(13.51)
4. A more ecient solution would have consisted in considering members 1,2, and 3 only and apply a
T = 40, we would obtain the same displacement.
5. Note that the forces in members 1, 2, and 3 (-0.75, -0.375, and -0.375 respectively) were not included
in the table because the corresponding T = 0.
6. A simpler solution would have T = 40 in members 1, 2, and 3 thus,
Member
1
2
3
L (ft)
21
21
21
(0.0000065)(40)L
T L
-0.00546
-0.00546
-0.00546
P (k)
-0.75
-0.375
-0.375
P L
+0.004095
+0.0020475
+0.0020475
+0.00819
(13.52)
by fabricating the endposts and top chord members additionally long. How much should the length of
each endpost and each panel of the top chord be increased?
Solution:
1. Assume that each endpost and each section of top chord is increased 0.1 in.
Victor Saouma
Structural Engineering
1321
Draft
Member
1
2
3
P int
+0.625
+0.750
+1.125
L
+0.1
+0.1
+0.1
P int L
+0.0625
+0.0750
+0.1125
+0.2500
Thus,
(13.53)
(2)(0.250) = 0.50 in
2. Since the structure is linear and elastic, the required increase of length for each section will be
3.0
(13.54)
(0.1) = 0.60 in
0.50
3. If we use the practical value of 0.625 in., the theoretical camber will be
(6.25)(0.50)
= 3.125 in
0.1
(13.55)
Example 13-13: Prestressed Concrete Beam with Continously Variable I (White et al. 1976)
A prestressed concrete beam is made of variable depth for proper location of the straight pretensioning
tendon, Fig. 13.16. Determine the midspan displacement (point c) produced by dead weight of the girder.
The concrete weights 23.6 kN/m3 and has E = 25, 000 MPa (N/mm2 ). The beam is 0.25 m wide.
Solution:
1. We seek an expression for the real moment M , this is accomplished by rst determining the reactions,
and then considering the free body diagram.
2. We have the intermediary resultant forces
R1
R2
(13.56-a)
(13.56-b)
Hence,
M (x)
= 47.2x 3.54x
x
0.118x2
2
2
= 47.2x 1.76x 0.0393x3
x
3
(13.57-a)
(13.57-b)
3. The moment of inertia of the rectangular beam varies continously and is given, for the left half of the
beam, by
1 3
1
I(x) =
bh =
(0.25)(0.6 + 0.04x)3
(13.58)
12
12
1
48
4. Thus, the real angle changes produced by dead load bending are
d =
M
47.2x 1.76x2 0.0393x3
1
dx =
dx
EI
(0.6 + 0.04x)3
E 48
(13.59)
5. The virtual force system corresponding to the desired displacement is shown above with M = (1/2)x
for the left half of the span. Since the beam is symmetrical, the virtual work equations can be evaluated
for only one half of the beam and the nal answer is then obtained by multiplying the half-beam result
by two.
Victor Saouma
Structural Engineering
1322
Draft
Victor Saouma
Structural Engineering
1323
Draft
x
0.5
1.5
2.5
3.5
4.5
5.5
6.5
7.5
8.5
9.5
h3
0.238
0.288
0.343
0.405
0.475
0.551
0.636
0.729
0.831
0.941
h
0.62
0.66
0.70
0.74
0.78
0.82
0.86
0.90
0.94
0.98
M
23.2
66.7
106.4
150
173
200
222
238
250
256
M
0.25
0.75
1.25
1.75
2.25
2.75
3.25
3.75
4.25
4.75
M M
h3
24
174
388
648
820
998
1,134
1,224
1,279
1,292
7,981
10. The SI units should be checked for consistency. Letting the virtual force carry the units of kN, the
virtual moment M has the units of mkN, and the units of the equation
c =
are
1
1 kN
) M M
EI
1 ( m kN)( m kN)
m
= mm
m=
( MN/ m2 ) m4
1, 000
(13.62)
48
M M
dx
2
(7, 981)(1) = 30.6mm
EI
25, 000
(13.63)
kN
11. Then
L
0
(13.61)
(13.64)
Victor Saouma
Structural Engineering
1324
Draft
13.4
24
25
fBA
M A
MB
dx
EI
(13.66-a)
M B
MA
dx
EI
(13.66-b)
0
L
=
0
But since the both the real and the virtual internal moments are caused by a unit load, both moments
are numerically equal
M A
M B
=
=
MA
MB
(13.67-a)
(13.67-b)
(13.68)
or The displacement at a point B on a structure due to a unit load acting at point A is equal to the
displacement of point A when the unit load is acting at point B.
26 Similarly The rotation at a point B on a structure due to a unit couple moment acting at point A is
equal to the rotation at point A when a unit couple moment is acting at point B.
27 And The rotation in radians at point B on a structure due to a unit load acting at point A is equal
to the displacement of point A when a unit couple moment is acting at point B.
These theorems will be used later on in justifying the symmetry of the stiness matrix, and in
construction of inuence lines using the M
uller-Breslau principle.
28
13.5
Summary of Equations
Victor Saouma
Structural Engineering
1325
Draft
U
Axial
0
P2
dx
2AE
Shear
...
Flexure
0
Torsion
0
P
M
M
dx
2EIz
T2
dx
2GJ
W
i 21 Pi i
i 21 Mi i
w(x)v(x)dx
0
Virtual Force U
General
Linear
L
L
P
dx
P
dx
AE
0
0
V xy dx
0L
M dx
...
L
0
T dx
0
M
M
dx
EIz
T
T
dx
GJ
Virtual Force W
i P i i
M i i
L i
w(x)v(x)dx
0
Table 13.3: Summary of Expressions for the Internal Strain Energy and External Work
Victor Saouma
Structural Engineering
1326
Draft
Victor Saouma
Structural Engineering
Draft
Chapter 14
If a beam is not laterally supported, we will have a failure mode governed by lateral torsional buckling.
3 By the end of this lecture you should be able to select the most ecient section (light weight with
adequate strength) for a given bending moment and also be able to determine the exural strength of a
given beam.
14.1
14.1.1
Flexure
Fig.14.1 shows portion of an originally straight beam which has been bent to the radius by end
couples M , thus the segment is subjected to pure bending. It is assumed that plane cross-sections
normal to the length of the unbent beam remain plane after the beam is bent. Therefore, considering
the cross-sections AB and CD a unit distance apart, the similar sectors Oab and bcd give
(14.1)
where y is measured from the axis of rotation (neutral axis). Thus strains are proportional to the
distance from the neutral axis.
5 The corresponding variation in stress over the cross-section is given by the stress-strain diagram of
the material rotated 90o from the conventional orientation, provided the strain axis is scaled with the
distance y (Fig.14.1). The bending moment M is given by
M = ydA
(14.2)
where dA is an dierential area a distance y (Fig.14.1) from the neutral axis. Thus the moment M can
be determined if the stress-strain relation is known.
6
I
= EI
y = y
= S
where
S=
I
y
(14.3)
142
Draft
C
c d y
b
A
M
a
B
Mn = My = Sx Fy
(14.4)
Victor Saouma
Structural Engineering
Draft
Elastic Region
143
Plastic Region
Stress
Strain
(14.5)
ydA = Fy Z
A
Z=
(14.6)
ydA
Mp
Z
=
My
S
(14.7)
The shape factors of some regular cross-sectional shapes bending about their major axis are:
1. Rectangular section = 1.50
2. I section = 1.11
3. Circular section = 1.70
14.1.2
Shear
Examining the stress distribution in FIg. 14.4, if there is a variation of moment along the innitesimal
segment dx (thus a shear force is present), we determine the total force acting over the shaded area on
the left of the section dx, on the right, and then take the dierence which must be equal to the shear
force along the top surface of the shaded zone
11
x dA =
Victor Saouma
F1
F2
bdx
My
dA
I
My
dA
I
A
(M + dM )y
dA
I
A
F2 F1
(14.8-a)
(14.8-b)
(14.8-c)
(14.8-d)
Structural Engineering
144
Draft
h/2
M+dM
h
h/2
y1
00000
11111
11111
00000
00000
11111
00000
11111
00000
11111
00000
11111
11111
00000
y
00000000
11111111
11111111
00000000
00000000
11111111
00000000
11111111
00000000
11111111
11111111
00000000
11111111
00000000
dx
dA
max
dM y
dA
I
A
dM 1
ydA
dx Ib
A
(14.8-e)
(14.8-f)
(14.8-g)
VQ
Ib
Q =
(14.9)
ydA (14.10)
A
this is the shear formula, and Q is the rst moment of the area.
12
For a W section, it can be easily shown that about 95% of the shear force is carried by the web, and
that the average shear stress is within 10% of the actual maximum shear stress.
13
14.2
Nominal Strength
The strength requirement for beams in load and resistance factor design is stated as
b Mn Mu
where:
b
Mn
Mu
(14.11)
The equations given in this chapter are valid for exural members with the following kinds of cross
section and loading:
14
Victor Saouma
Structural Engineering
145
Draft
14.3
Flexural Design
14.3.1
15
Figure 14.5: Local (ange) Buckling; Flexural and Torsional Buckling Modes in a Rolled Section, (Lulea
University)
16
Compact sections: No local buckling can occur. Strength is based on the plastic moment.
Partially compact sections: Where local buckling may occur
Slender sections: where lateral torsional buckling may occur.
We will cover only the rst two cases.
14.3.1.1
Compact Sections
For compact sections, the mode of failure is the formation of a plastic hinge that is the section is
fully plastied. Hence we shall rst examine the bending behavior of beams under limit load. Then we
will relate this plastic moment to the design of compact sections.
17
18
bf
2tf
Victor Saouma
and
hc
tw
bf
2tf
hc
tw
p
p
p = 65
Fy
640
p =
(14.12)
Fy
Structural Engineering
146
Draft
19
The nominal strength Mn for laterally stable compact sections according to LRFD is
(14.13)
Mn = Mp
where:
Mp
Z
Fy
20
Note that section properties, including Z values are tabulated in Section 3.6.
14.3.1.2
If the width to thickness ratios of the compression elements exceed the p values mentioned in Eq.
14.12 but do not exceed the following r , the section is partially compact and we can have local buckling.
21
Flange: p <
Web:
p <
bf
2tf
hc
tw
p = 65
r = 141
p =
970
r =
Fy
640
Fy
Fy Fr
(14.14)
Fy
The nominal strength of partially compact sections according to LRFD is, Fig. 14.7
Mn = Mp (Mp Mr )(
where:
Mr
p
) Mp
r p
(14.15)
Victor Saouma
Structural Engineering
Draft
147
Mn
Compact
Partially Compact
Slender
Mp
Mr
p
Flanges
bf
65
141
2tf
Fy
Fy - Fr
640
Fy
970
Fy
Web
tw
Figure 14.7: Nominal Moments for Compact and Partially Compact Sections
All other quantities are as dened earlier. Note that we use the associated with the one being
violated (or the lower of the two if both are).
23
14.3.1.3
Slender Section
If the width to thickness ratio exceeds r values of ange and web, the element is referred to as slender
compression element. Since the slender sections involve a dierent treatment, it will not be dealt here.
24
A laterally stable beam is one which is braced laterally in the direction perpendicular to the plane
of the web. Thus overall buckling of the compression ange as a column cannot occur prior to its full
participation to develop the moment strength of the section.
25
26
Lp
Lp
300
rmin
Fy
(14.16)
(14.17)
where Lb is the maximum unbraced length of the compression ange, and rmin is the radius of gyration
with respect to the weak axis. This is an emperical equation, thus units are in inches, ksi, and ft.
14.3.2
Examples
Victor Saouma
Structural Engineering
148
Draft
Solution:
From Eq. 14.7 the shape factor is given by =
My
f
=
=
f ydA
A
y
Fy d/2
Mp
My
= Fy 2y
d
d/2
My = 2
0
2Fy 2
bd2
y bdy = Fy
d
6
Mp =
d/2
f ydA = 2
A
Fy bydy = Fy
0
bd2
4
Fy bd4
Mp
=
=
2 = 1.5
My
Fy bd6
Solution:
Victor Saouma
(10)(1)(9.5) + (9)(1)(4.5)
= 7.13 cm
(10)(1) + (9)(1)
Structural Engineering
149
Draft
I
180.0
= 25.25Fy
= Fy
ymax
7.13
=
=
=
=
0.2 k/ft
0.8 k/ft
1.2wD + 1.6wL
1.2(0.2) + 1.6(0.8) = 1.52 k/ft
2. Compute the factored load moment Mu . For a simply supported beam carrying uniformly
distributed load,
Mu = wu L2 /8 = (1.52)(20)2 /8 = 76 k.ft
Assuming compact section, since a vast majority of rolled sections satisfy p for both the
ange and the web. The design strength b Mn is
b Mn = b Mp = b Zx Fy
The design requirement is
b Mn = Mu
or, combing those two equations we have:
b Zx Fy = Mu
Victor Saouma
Structural Engineering
1410
Draft
3. Required Zx is
Mu
76(12)
=
= 28.1 in3
b Fy
0.90(36)
Zx =
From the notes on Structural Materials, we select a W12X22 section which has a Zx = 29.3 in3
(22)(12)
Note that Zx is approximated by wd
= 29.3.
9 =
9
4. Check compact section limits p for the anges from the table
=
bf
2tf
= 4.7
= 65 =
p
and for the web:
=
Fy
hc
tw
=
=
65
36
41.8
640
=
Fy
= 10.8 >
640
36
= 107
5. Check the Strength by correcting the factored moment Mu to include the self weight. Self
weight of the beam W12X22 is 22 lb./ft. or 0.022 kip/ft
wD
wu
Mu
=
=
=
Mn
Mp = Zx Fy =
b Mn
ksi
= 87.9 k.ft
(14.18-a)
(14.18-b)
(14.18-c)
3. Required Zx =
approximated
=
=
76(12)
0.90(65) = 15.6
(14)(12)
= 18.7.
9
hc
tw = 54.3
640
640
=
65
Fy
bf
2tf = 8.82
65 = 65
65
Fy
= 79.4
In this case the controlling limit state is local buckling of the ange.
Since p < < r , as above, the section is classied as non-compact.
Victor Saouma
Structural Engineering
1411
Draft
141
Mn
Mp (Mp Mr )( r pp ) Mp
Mp
Zx Fy =
Mr
Mn
b Mn
=
=
Fy 10
141
6510
= 19.0
14.4
Shear Design
Except for very short span beams, shear seldom govern. Thus sections should rst be selected on the
basis of exural reauirements, and shear should be checked next.
27
28
as for beams
Vd = v Vn ;
29
(14.19)
v = 0.9
Web yielding
Inelastic web buckling
Elastic web buckling
30
h
tw
418
Vn = 0.6Fyw Aw
Fyw
418
Fyw
<
h
tw
418
523
Fyw
523
Fyw
Vn = 0.6Fyw Aw
<
h
tw
Vn =
132,000Aw
Fyw
h
tw
( thw )2
(14.20)
14.5
Deections
Deections of beams, under live load, are often curtailed in order not to impair serviceability (plaster
cracking, excessive vibration).
31
The AISC code states in Sect. L3.1 that deformations of structural members and systems due to
service loads shall not impair the serviceability of the structure. However no specic limits are given, as
those would depend on the type of structire.
32
Victor Saouma
Structural Engineering
1412
Draft
40.0
Fy=36 ksi
Fy=54 ksi
35.0
Vn/Aw [ksi]
30.0
25.0
20.0
15.0
10.0
50.0
60.0
70.0
80.0
90.0
100.0
h/tw
33
In lieu of practical design experience, it is customary to limit the live-load central span deection to
L
360
(14.21)
It should be recalled that the midspan deection of a simply supported, uniformly loaded beam is
equal to
5 wL4
(14.22)
=
384 EIx
34
14.6
A simply supported beam with a span of 20 ft supports a dead load of 1.0 k/ft, and a live load of 1.5
k/ft in addition to its own weight (estimate dead load to 40 lbs/ft). Select the most economical W shape
using A-36, determine the maximum distance for lateral bracing of the compression anges, and check
for deection which should not exceed L/360.
WD
(14.23-a)
WL
Wu1
= 1.5 k/ft
= 1.4wd = 1.4(1.04) = 1.456 k/ft
(14.23-b)
(14.23-c)
Wu2
Mu
Vu
Zx
bf
2tf
h
tw
h
tw
v Vn
65
= 6.9 < = 10.8
36
640
= 46.6 < = 106.7
36
418
= 46.6 < = 69.7
36
(14.23-d)
(14.23-e)
(14.23-f)
(14.23-g)
(14.23-h)
(14.23-i)
(14.23-j)
(14.23-k)
Aw
Victor Saouma
Structural Engineering
Draft
5 wL L4
5 (1.5/12) k/ in(20)4 (12)4 in4
=
= 0.36 in
384 EIx
384
(29, 000) ksi(518) in4
(20)(12)
=
= 0.67 in > 0.36 in
360
= 1.57 in
300rmin
(300)(1.57)
=
=
= 78.5 in
Fy
36
L
360
rmin
Lp
Victor Saouma
1413
(14.23-l)
(14.23-m)
(14.23-n)
(14.23-o)
Structural Engineering
1414
Draft
Victor Saouma
Structural Engineering
Draft
Chapter 15
COLUMN STABILITY
15.1
15.1.1
1 Let us begin by considering a rigid bar connected to the support by a spring and axially loaded at the
other end, Fig. 15.1. Taking moments about point A:
1
0
0
1
0
1
0
1
0
1
0
1
0
1
0
1
0
1
0
1
0
1
0
1
0
1
0
1
0
1
0
1
L1
0
0
1
0
1
0
1
0
1
0
1
0
1
0
1
0
1
0
1
0
1
0
1
0
1
0
1
0
1
0
1
0
1
11111
00000
00000
11111
00000
11111
00000
11111
0P
1
1
0
0
1
0
1
0
1
0
1
0
0
1
1
0
1
00000
11111
B
0
1
00000
11111
0
1
00000
11111
0
1
00000
11111
0
1
00000
11111
0
1
00000
11111
0
1
00000
11111
0
1
00000
11111
0
1
00000
11111
0
1
00000
11111
0
1
00000
11111
0
1
00000
11111
0
1
00000
11111
0
1
00000
11111
0
1
00000
11111
0
1
00000
11111
0
1
00000
11111
0
1
00000
11111
0
1
00000
11111
0
1
00000
11111
0
1
00000
11111
0
1
00000
11111
0
1
00000
11111
0
1
00000
11111
0
1
00000
11111
0
1
00000
11111
0
1
00000
11111
0
1
00000
11111
0
1
00000
11111
0
1
00000
11111
0
1
00000
11111
0
1
00000
11111
0
1
00000
11111
A
0
1
00000
11111
0
1
00000
11111
P
Unstable Equilibrium
k
L
(stable)
sin
Neutral Equilibrium
Stable Equilibrium
k
L
11111
00000
00000
11111
00000
11111
00000
11111
1111
0000
0000
1111
0000
1111
0000
1111
111
000
000
111
000
111
000
111
Stable
Neutral
111
000
000
111
000
111
Unstable
P k = 0
L for small rotation
(15.1-a)
(15.1-b)
(15.1-c)
(15.1-d)
152
COLUMN STABILITY
Draft
k
L
(15.2)
P k = 0
L sin()P L k = 0
k
L sin()
(15.3-a)
(15.3-b)
(15.3-c)
Because there is more than one possible path () when P = Pcr , we call this point a biurcation
point.
MA
Pcr
P L k( 0 ) = 0
0
k
(1 )
L
(15.4-a)
(15.4-b)
P
P
11111
00000
00000
11111
00000
11111
00000
11111
00000
11111
00000
11111
00000
11111
00000
11111
00000
11111
00000
11111
00000
11111
00000
11111
00000
11111
00000
11111
00000
11111
00000
11111
00000
11111
00000
11111
00000
11111
00000
11111
00000
11111
00000
11111
00000
11111
00000
11111
00000
11111
00000
11111
00000
11111
00000
11111
00000
11111
00000
11111
00000
11111
00000
11111
00000
11111
A
00000
11111
Perfect System
k
L
k (1L
00000
11111
11111
00000
00000
11111
00000
11111
15.1.2
6
Next we consider the two rigid bar problem illustrated in Fig. 15.3.
Victor Saouma
MB
1 + 2
MA
21 2
P L2 k(2 1 ) = 0
PL
2
k
P L1 + k(2 1 ) k1 = 0
PL
1
k
(15.5-a)
(15.5-b)
(15.5-c)
(15.5-d)
Structural Engineering
Draft
P
P
C
L
B
k
A
k
153
1
0
0
1
0
1
0
1
0
1
0
1
0
1
0
0000000
1111111
C 1
0000000
1111111
0000000
1111111
0000000
1111111
0000000
1111111
0000000
1111111
0000000
1111111
0000000
1111111
L
0000000
1111111
0000000
1111111
0000000
1111111
0000000
1111111
0000000
1111111
0000000
1111111
2
0000000
1111111
P
0
1
0000000
1111111
0
1
0000000
1111111
0
1
0000000
1111111
0
1
0000000
1111111
0
1
0000000
1111111
0
1
0000000
1111111
0
1
0000000
1111111
0
1
0000000
1111111
B
0000
1111
0000B
1111
0000
1111
0000
k(2 - )1 1111
0000k(2 1111
0000
1111
0000
1111
0000
1111
0000
1111
P
0000
1111
0000
1111
0000
1111
0000
1111
0000
1111
0000
1111
0000
1111
0000
1111
0000
1111
0000
1111
0000
1111
0000
1111
0000
A 1111
k
0000
1111
0 1
1
0
1
0
1
0
1
0
1
0
1
P
0
1
0
1
0
1
0
P1
0
1
0
1
0000000
1111111
0000 C
1111
1111111
0000000
0000
1111
1
0000000
1111111
0000
1111
0000000
1111111
0000
1111
0000000
1111111
0000
1111
0000000
1111111
0000
1111
0000000
1111111
0000
1111
0000000
1111111
0000
1111
0000000
1111111
0000
1111
0000000
1111111
0000
1111
2
0000000
1111111
0000
1111
0000000
1111111
0000
1111
0000000
1111111
0000
1111
0000000
1111111
0000
1111
0000000
1111111
0000
1111
0000000
1111111
0000
1111
0000000
1111111
0000
1111
0000000
1111111
0000
1111
0000000
1111111
0000
1111
0000000
1111111
0000
1111
0000000
1111111
0000
1111
B
0000000
1111111
0000
1111
L
0000
1111
0000
1111
0000
1111
0000
1111
0000
1111
0000
1111
1
0000
1111
0000
1111
0000
1111
0000
1111
0000
1111
0000
1111
0000
1111
0000
1111
0000
1111
0000
1111
0000
1111
0000
1111
0000
1111
0000
1111
0000
1111
0000
1111
0000
1111
1
0
0
1
0
1
0
1
0
1
0
1
0
1
0
1
0
1
0
1
0
1
0
1
0
1
0
1
0
1
0
1
0
1
0
1
0
1
0
1
0
1
0
1
0
1
)1
1
0
0
1
0
1
0
1
0
1
0000000
1111111
0000000
1111111
0000000
1111111
0000000
1111111
0000000
1111111
0000000
1111111
0000000
1111111
0000000
1111111
0000000
1111111
0000000
1111111
1.618
0000000
1111111
0000000
1111111
0000000
1111111
0000000
1111111
0000000
1111111
0000000
1111111
0000000
1111111
0000000
1111111
0000000
1111111
0000000
1111111
0000000
1111111
0000000
1111111
0000
1111
0000
1111
0000
1111
0000
1111
0000
1111
1
0000
1111
0000
1111
0000
1111
0000
1111
0000
1111
0000
1111
0000
1111
0000
1111
0000
1111
0000
1111
0000
1111
0000
1111
0000
1111
0000
1111
0000
1111
0000
1111
0000
1111
0000
1111
0 P
1
1
0
0
1
0
1
0
1
0
1
0
1
0
1
000
111
000
111
000
111
000
111
000
111
000
111
000
111
.618
000
111
000
111
000
111
000
111
000
111
000
111
000
111
000
111
000
111
000
111
000
111
000
111
000
111
000
111
000
111
0000
1111
0000
1111
0000
1111
0000
1111
0000
1111
1
0000
1111
0000
1111
0000
1111
0000
1111
0000
1111
0000
1111
0000
1111
0000
1111
0000
1111
0000
1111
0000
1111
0000
1111
0000
1111
0000
1111
0000
1111
0000
1111
0000
1111
0000
1111
(15.6)
(15.7)
This is a homogeneous system of equation, and it can have a non-zero solution only if its determinant is
equal to zero
"
"
" 2
1 ""
"
= 0
(15.8-a)
" 1
1 "
2 2 + 2 1
= 0
(15.8-b)
3 + 1
= 0
(15.8-c)
(15.8-d)
1,2
3 5
3 94
=
2
2
Pcr2
k
3 5 k
= 0.382
2 L
L
k
3+ 5 k
= 2.618
2
L
L
(15.9)
(15.10)
9 We now seek to determine the deformed shape for each of the rst critical loads. It should be noted
that since the column will be failing at the critical buckling load, we can not determine the absolute
values of the deformations, but rather the shape of the buckling column.
3 5
(15.11-a)
1 =
2
+
,
2 32 5
1
0
1
=
(15.11-b)
2
0
1
1 3 5
Victor Saouma
Structural Engineering
154
COLUMN STABILITY
Draft
1+ 5
2
1
,
1
1
1+ 5
2
1.618 1
1 0.618
1
2
=
1
2
=
0
0
0
0
(15.11-c)
(15.11-d)
we now arbitrarily set 1 = 1, then 2 = 1/0.618 = 1.618, thus the rst eigenmode is
1
2
=
1
1.618
(15.12)
10
Note that we can determine the deformed shape upon buckling but not the geometry.
11
2 3+2
1
+
1 5
2
,
1
1 3+2 5
,
1
1
1 5
2
0.618
1
1
1.618
1
2
1
2
1
2
2
=
=
=
3+ 5
2
0
0
0
0
0
0
(15.13-a)
(15.13-b)
(15.13-c)
(15.13-d)
we now arbitrarily set 1 = 1, then 2 = 1/1.618 = 0.618, thus the second eigenmode is
15.1.3
1
2
=
1
0.618
(15.14)
The problem just considered bears great ressemblence with the vibration of a two degree of freedom
mass spring system, Fig. 15.4.
12
u1
k =k
k =k
m=m
1
m2= 2m
k 3= k
u2
1
1
0
0
1
0
1
0
1
0
1
0
1
0
1
0
1
0
1
0
1
0
1
0
1
0
1
0
1
0
1
0
1
0
1
0
1
k u1
..
mu
1
0
0
1
0
1
0
1
0
1
0
1
0
1
0
1
0
1
0
1
0
1
0
1
0
1
0
1
0
1
0
1
0
1
0
1
u2
k(u -u )
2
..
2m u
ku
13
2m
u2 + ku2 + k(u2 u1 ) =
Victor Saouma
(15.15-a)
Structural Engineering
Draft
or in matrix form
m
u1 + ku1 + k9u2 u1 0 =
14
155
m
0
(15.15-b)
1
u
0
2k k
u1
+
2
u
2m
k 2k
u2
M
(15.16)
(15.17)
(15.18)
0.796 k/m
1.538 k/m
(15.19-a)
Solving, = (3 3)h/2 or
1
(15.19-b)
To nd the mode shapes 1 and 2 (relative magnitudes of the DOF) we substitute in the characteristic
equation and set the rst element equal to 1:
1.000
1.000
and 1 =
(15.20)
1 =
1.3660
0.3660
15
15.2
16
17
An initially straight member is concentrically loaded, and all bers remain elastic until buckling occur.
For buckling to occur, it must be assumed that the column is slightly bent as shown in Fig. 15.5.
Note, in reality no column is either perfectly straight, and in all cases a minor imperfection is present.
18
x and y are
principal axes
y, v
19
Victor Saouma
Structural Engineering
156
COLUMN STABILITY
Draft
15.2.1
20 At any location x along the column, the imperfection in the column compounded by the concentric
load P , gives rise to a moment
(15.21)
Mz = P v
Recalling that
d2 v
Mz
=
dx2
EI
upon substitution, we obtain the following dierential equation
(15.22)
d2 v
P
v=0
dx2
EI
22
Letting k 2 =
P
EI ,
(15.23)
23
(15.24)
(15.25)
This last equation can be satised if: 1) A = 0, that is there is no deection; 2) kL = 0, that is no
applied load; or 3)
kL = n
(15.26)
2
cr
= n
or
Thus buckling will occur if PEI
L
24
Pcr =
n2 2 EI
L2
25 The fundamental buckling mode, i.e. a single curvature deection, will occur for n = 1; Thus Euler
critical load for a pinned column is
Pcr =
26
2 EI
L2
(15.27)
2 E
2
(15.28)
rmin
where I =
27
2
.
Armin
Note that buckling will take place with respect to the weakest of the two axis.
15.2.2
15.2.2.1
Derivation
In the preceding approach, the buckling loads were obtained for a column with specied boundary
conditons. A second order dierential equation, valid specically for the member being analyzed was
used.
28
Victor Saouma
Structural Engineering
157
Draft
In the next approach, we derive a single fourth order equation which will be applicable to any column
regardelss of the boundary conditions.
29
Considering a beam-column subjected to axial and shear forces as well as a moment, Fig. 15.6 (note
analogy with cable structure, Fig. 6.1), taking the moment about i for the beam segment and assuming
30
w
w(x)
1111
0000
0000
1111
1111
0000
0000
1111
y, u
P
v
x
dx
V+ V dx
x
P
dx
P
M+ M dx
x
i
j
Figure 15.6: Simply Supported Beam Column; Dierential Segment; Eect of Axial Force P
the angle
dv
dx
between the axis of the beam and the horizontal axis is small, leads to
dv
(dx)2
dV
dM
dx + w
+ V +
dx P
M M+
dx = 0
dx
2
dx
dx
(15.29)
Note that the rst underbraced term is identical to the one used in earlier derivation of the beams
dierential equation.
neglecting the terms in dx2 which are small, and then dierentiating each term with respect to x, we
obtain
d2 v
d2 M
dV
P 2 =0
(15.30)
2
dx
dx
dx
31
32
33
34
(15.31)
d2 v
dx2
(15.32)
Substituting Eq. 15.31 and 15.32 into 15.30, and assuming a beam of uniform cross section, we obtain
EI
#
substituting =
P
EI ,
d4 v
d2 v
P
=w
dx4
dx2
(15.33)
=0
dx4
dx2
(15.34)
Again, we note that by considering equilibrium in the deformed state we have introduced the second
term to what would otherwise be the governing dierential equation for exural members (beams).
Finally, we note the analogy between this equation, and the governing dierential equation for a cable
structure, Eq. 6.12.
35
36
The general solution of this fourth order dierential equation to any set of boundary conditions is
v = C1 + C2 x + C3 sin x + C4 cos x
Victor Saouma
(15.35)
Structural Engineering
158
COLUMN STABILITY
Draft
Essential
(Dirichlet)
v
dv
dx
Natural
(Neumann)
d3 v
(V )
3
dx
2
d v
(M )
dx2
37
We note that at each node, we should have two boundary conditions, all combinations are possible
except pairs from the same raw (i.e. we can not have known displacement and shear, or known slope
and moment).
38
15.2.2.2
Hinged-Hinged Column
If we consider again the stability of a hinged-hinged column, the boundary conditions are displacement
2
(v) and moment ( ddxv2 EI) equal to zero at both ends1 , or
39
v
v
=
=
0,
0,
d2 v
2
dx
d2 v
dx2
= 0
= 0
at x =
at x =
0
L
(15.36)
= 0
= 0
(15.37-a)
(15.37-b)
these relations are satised either if C2 = C3 = 0 or if sin L = C2 = 0. The rst alternative leads to
the trivial solution of equilibrium at all loads, and the second to L = n for n = 1, 2, 3 . The critical
load is
Pcr =
n2 2 EI
L2
(15.38)
which was derived earlier using the lower order dierential equation.
40
nx
(15.39)
L
and only the shape (but not the geometry) can be determined. In general, we will assume C3 = 1 and
plot y.
y = C3 sin
15.2.2.3
Fixed-Fixed Column
We now consider a column which is restrained against rotation at both ends, the boundary conditions
are given by:
41
v(0)
= 0 = C1 + C4
1 It
(15.40-a)
v (0) = 0 = C2 + C3
v(L) = 0 = C1 + C2 L + C3 sin L + C4 cos L
(15.40-b)
(15.40-c)
(15.40-d)
will be shown in subsequent courses, that the former BC is an essential B.C., and the later a natural B.C.
Victor Saouma
Structural Engineering
Draft
1
1
1
0
159
in matrix form
0
1
L
1
0
1
C1
C2
C3
sin L
cos L
C4
cos L sin L
"
"
"
" 1 0
0
1
"
"
"
" 1 1
0
"
"
" 1 L sin L
cos L ""
"
" 0 1 cos L sin L "
0
=
= 0
(15.41-b)
"
" sin L
"
" cos L
(15.41-a)
"
"
"
"
"
"
"
"
"
"
0 (15.42-a)
0 (15.42-b)
2 + 2 L sin L + 2 cos L
0 (15.42-c)
" "
"
" " 1
" 1
0
" "
"
" L sin L
cos L "" "" 1
"
" 1 cos L sin L " " 0
"
"
" "
" L
cos L ""
cos L "" "" 1 sin L
"
"
+
sin L "
1 sin L " " 0 cos L
L sin L
1 cos L
"
"
"
"
" " 1 L
"
" 0 1
= 0
= 2(1 cos L)
(15.43-a)
(15.43-b)
2n
(15.44-a)
2n
L
(15.44-b)
P
EI
thus the critical load and stresses are given by
42
Pcr
cr
4n2 2 EI
L2
2 2
4n E
(L/r)2
(15.45)
(15.46)
The deected shape (or eigenmodes) can be obtained by substituting the value of into the c s.
15.2.2.4
Fixed-Hinged Column
Next we consider a column with one end xed (at x = L), and one end hinged (at x = 0). The
boundary conditions are
d2 v
v = 0, dx
= 0 at x = 0
2
(15.47)
dv
= 0 at x = L
v = 0,
dx
The rst two B.C. yield C1 = C4 = 0, and the other two
43
sin L L cos L = 0
(15.48)
But since cos L can not possibly be equal to zero, the preceding equation can be reduced to
tan L = L
(15.49)
which is a transcendental algebraic equation and can only be solved numerically. We are essentially
looking at the intersection of y = x and y = tan x, Fig. 15.7 and the smallest positive root is L = 4.4934,
P
since k 2 = EI
, the smallest critical load is
Pcr =
(4.4934)2
2
EI
=
EI
L2
(0.699L)2
(15.50)
Note that if we were to solve for x such that v,xx = 0 (i.e. an inection point), then x = 0.699L.
Victor Saouma
Structural Engineering
1510
COLUMN STABILITY
Draft
10.0
8.0
6.0
4.0
2.0
0.0
2.0
4.0
6.0
8.0
10.0
0.0
1.0
2.0
3.0
4.0
5.0
6.0
7.0
8.0
9.0
10.0
Figure 15.7: Solution of the Tanscendental Equation for the Buckling Load of a Fixed-Hinged Column
15.2.3
Recall that the Euler buckling load was derived for a pinned column. In many cases, a column will
have dierent boundary conditions. It can be shown that in all cases, the buckling load would be given
by
44
Pcr =
2 EI
(15.51)
(KL)2
where K is called eective length factor, and KL is the eective length. and
cr =
2 E
2
(15.52)
KL
rmin
45
The most widely used charts for the eective length determination are those produced by the Structural Stability Research Council. The alignment chart, for an individual column, Fig. 15.10 is shown in
Fig. 15.11. It should be noted that this chart assumes that all members are still in the elastic range.
46
The use of the alignment chart involces computing G at each end of the column using the following
formula
* Ic
(15.53)
Ga = * LI c
47
Lg
where Ga is the stiness at end a of the column, Ic , Ig are the moment of inertias of the columns and
girders respectively. The summation must include only those members which are rigidly connected to
that joint and lying in the plane for which buckling is being considered.
Victor Saouma
Structural Engineering
1511
Draft
P
P
KL = 0.7L
KL = L
KL =
1
L L
2
KL < L
P
P
P
(a) End rotations
unrestrained
KL
2
L
L
0.7L<KL<L
KL>2L
0.5L<KL<0.7L
L
L<KL<2L
Victor Saouma
Structural Engineering
1512
COLUMN STABILITY
Draft
48
49
Alternatively :-)
GA + GB
GA GB 2
/K
2 tan /2K
=1
+
1
+
4
K
2
tan /K
/K
(15.54)
15.3
50
Inelastic Columns
2 EI
,
(KL)2
Those two expression are asymptotic values for actual column buckling. Intermediary failure loads
are caused by the presence of residual stresses which in turn give rise to inelastic buckling.
51
Inelastic buckling buckling occurs when the stresses (average) have not yet reached the yield stress,
and is based on the tangent modulus Et which is lower than the initial modulus E.
52
53
Residual stresses (caused by uneven cooling) will initiate inelastic buckling, Fig. 15.12.
The inelastic buckling curve has to be asymptotic to both the Euler elastic buckling (for slender
columns), and to the yield stress (for sti columns).
54
The Structural Stability Research Council (SSRC) has proposed a parabolic curve which provides a
transition between elastic buckling and yielding, thus accounting for the presence of residual stresses
55
Victor Saouma
Structural Engineering
1513
Draft
Sidesway Inhibited
50.
10.
Ga
Sidesway Uninhibited
Gb
50.
10.
1.0
5.
5.
0.9
3.
3.
2.
100.
50.
Ga
Gb
100.
50.
20.
10.
30.
20.
5.
10.
9.
8.
7.
6.
3.
30.
20.
4.
2.
0.8
1.
1.
0.8
0.7
0.6
0.8
0.7
0.6
0.7
0.5
0.5
0.4
0.4
0.3
0.3
0.6
0.2
10.
9.
8.
7.
6.
5.
5.
2.
4.
4.
3.
3.
2.
2.
1.5
0.2
1.
0.1
1.
0.1
0.
0.5
0.
1.
=E
( kLr )
yd
yd
ET < E
Inelastic
Buckling
Gross Yielding
Proportional Limit
Proportional Limit
kL
r
Victor Saouma
Structural Engineering
1514
COLUMN STABILITY
Draft
y
1 2
4 E
KL
rmin
2 ,
(15.55)
Stress [ksi]
40
30
20
10
20
40
60
80
100
120
140
Slenderness Ratio KL/rmin
160
180
200
Victor Saouma
Structural Engineering
Draft
Chapter 16
STEEL COMPRESSION
MEMBERS
1 This chapter will cover the elementary analysis and design of steel column according to the LRFD
provisions.
16.1
AISC Equations
By introducing a slenderness parameter c (not to be confused with the slenderness ratio) dened
as
2c
Fy
Fy
= 2 E
Euler
Fcr
KL 2
KL
rmin
(16.1-a)
rmin
Fy
2 E
(16.1-b)
Hence, this parameter accounts for both the slenderness ratio as well as steel material properties.
This new parameter is a more suitable one than the slenderness ratio (which was a delimeter for elastic
buckling) for the inelastic buckling.
3
When c >
for c
(16.2)
for c
(16.3)
Hence the rst equation is based on inelastic buckling (with gross yielding as a limiting case), and the
second one on elastic buckling. The two curves are tangent to each other.
5
6 The previous two equations, were modied to account for an initial out-of-straightness of about 1/1500.
This will result in, Fig. 16.1:
Fcr
Fcr
(16.4)
(16.5)
162
Draft
where
KL
c =
r
Fy
E
(16.6)
Stress [ksi]
40
Elastic Buckling
30
Inelastic Buckling
20
10
20
40
60
>1.5
<1.5
80
100
120
140
Slenderness Ratio KL/rmin
160
180
200
8 The AISC code introduces a reduction factor Q into Eq. 16.7-a and 16.7-b when certan width/thickness
limitations (LRFD Table B5.1) are not satised, and local buckling may occur prior to overall buckling.
Fcr
Fcr
2
0.658Qc Fy for c Q 1.5
0.877
F
for
Q > 1.5
y
c
2c
(16.7-a)
(16.7-b)
since Q = 1 for all rolled H sections (standard W, S, and M shapes) it will be neglected in this course.
9 Finally, the AISC introduces a stiness reduction factor (SRF) for columns when the nomographs are
used. Such a reduction would account for the discrepancy between elastic buckling (assumed in the
nomographs) and inelastic buckling which occur for relatively high Pu /A values, Table 16.3.
16.2
10
LRFD Equations
The strength requirement for columns in load and resistance factor design is stated as
c Pn Pu
where:
c strength reduction factor, 0.85
Pn nominal strength=Ag Fcr
Fcr Eq. 16.7-a and 16.7-b
Pu factored service load.
Victor Saouma
(16.8)
Structural Engineering
163
Draft
Kl
rmin
1
2
3
4
5
6
7
8
9
10
11
12
13
14
15
16
17
18
19
20
21
22
23
24
25
26
27
28
29
30
31
32
33
34
35
36
37
38
39
40
c
0.01
0.02
0.03
0.04
0.06
0.07
0.08
0.09
0.10
0.11
0.12
0.13
0.15
0.16
0.17
0.18
0.19
0.20
0.21
0.22
0.24
0.25
0.26
0.27
0.28
0.29
0.30
0.31
0.33
0.34
0.35
0.36
0.37
0.38
0.39
0.40
0.41
0.43
0.44
0.45
c Fcr
30.60
30.59
30.59
30.57
30.56
30.54
30.52
30.50
30.47
30.44
30.41
30.37
30.33
30.29
30.24
30.19
30.14
30.08
30.02
29.96
29.90
29.83
29.76
29.69
29.61
29.53
29.45
29.36
29.27
29.18
29.09
28.99
28.90
28.79
28.69
28.58
28.47
28.36
28.25
28.13
Kl
rmin
41
42
43
44
45
46
47
48
49
50
51
52
53
54
55
56
57
58
59
60
61
62
63
64
65
66
67
68
69
70
71
72
73
74
75
76
77
78
79
80
c
0.46
0.47
0.48
0.49
0.50
0.52
0.53
0.54
0.55
0.56
0.57
0.58
0.59
0.61
0.62
0.63
0.64
0.65
0.66
0.67
0.68
0.70
0.71
0.72
0.73
0.74
0.75
0.76
0.77
0.79
0.80
0.81
0.82
0.83
0.84
0.85
0.86
0.87
0.89
0.90
c Fcr
28.01
27.89
27.76
27.63
27.51
27.37
27.24
27.10
26.97
26.83
26.68
26.54
26.39
26.25
26.10
25.94
25.79
25.63
25.48
25.32
25.16
24.99
24.83
24.66
24.50
24.33
24.16
23.99
23.82
23.64
23.47
23.29
23.11
22.94
22.76
22.58
22.40
22.21
22.03
21.85
Kl
rmin
81
82
83
84
85
86
87
88
89
90
91
92
93
94
95
96
97
98
99
100
101
102
103
104
105
106
107
108
109
110
111
112
113
114
115
116
117
118
119
120
c
0.91
0.92
0.93
0.94
0.95
0.96
0.98
0.99
1.00
1.01
1.02
1.03
1.04
1.05
1.07
1.08
1.09
1.10
1.11
1.12
1.13
1.14
1.16
1.17
1.18
1.19
1.20
1.21
1.22
1.23
1.24
1.26
1.27
1.28
1.29
1.30
1.31
1.32
1.33
1.35
c Fcr
21.66
21.48
21.29
21.11
20.92
20.73
20.54
20.35
20.17
19.98
19.79
19.60
19.41
19.22
19.03
18.84
18.65
18.46
18.27
18.08
17.89
17.70
17.51
17.32
17.13
16.94
16.75
16.56
16.37
16.18
16.00
15.81
15.62
15.44
15.25
15.07
14.88
14.70
14.52
14.34
Kl
rmin
121
122
123
124
125
126
127
128
129
130
131
132
133
134
135
136
137
138
139
140
141
142
143
144
145
146
147
148
149
150
151
152
153
154
155
156
157
158
159
160
c
1.36
1.37
1.38
1.39
1.40
1.41
1.42
1.44
1.45
1.46
1.47
1.48
1.49
1.50
1.51
1.53
1.54
1.55
1.56
1.57
1.58
1.59
1.60
1.61
1.63
1.64
1.65
1.66
1.67
1.68
1.69
1.70
1.72
1.73
1.74
1.75
1.76
1.77
1.78
1.79
Victor Saouma
c Fcr
14.16
13.98
13.80
13.62
13.44
13.27
13.09
12.92
12.74
12.57
12.40
12.23
12.06
11.88
11.71
11.54
11.37
11.20
11.04
10.89
10.73
10.58
10.43
10.29
10.15
10.01
9.87
9.74
9.61
9.48
9.36
9.23
9.11
9.00
8.88
8.77
8.66
8.55
8.44
8.33
Kl
rmin
161
162
163
164
165
166
167
168
169
170
171
172
173
174
175
176
177
178
179
180
181
182
183
184
185
186
187
188
189
190
191
192
193
194
195
196
197
198
199
200
c
1.81
1.82
1.83
1.84
1.85
1.86
1.87
1.88
1.90
1.91
1.92
1.93
1.94
1.95
1.96
1.97
1.99
2.00
2.01
2.02
2.03
2.04
2.05
2.06
2.07
2.09
2.10
2.11
2.12
2.13
2.14
2.15
2.16
2.18
2.19
2.20
2.21
2.22
2.23
2.24
c Fcr
8.23
8.13
8.03
7.93
7.84
7.74
7.65
7.56
7.47
7.38
7.30
7.21
7.13
7.05
6.97
6.89
6.81
6.73
6.66
6.59
6.51
6.44
6.37
6.30
6.23
6.17
6.10
6.04
5.97
5.91
5.85
5.79
5.73
5.67
5.61
5.55
5.50
5.44
5.39
5.33
KL
rmin
Structural Engineering
164
Draft
Kl
rmin
1
2
3
4
5
6
7
8
9
10
11
12
13
14
15
16
17
18
19
20
21
22
23
24
25
26
27
28
29
30
31
32
33
34
35
36
37
38
39
40
c
0.01
0.03
0.04
0.05
0.07
0.08
0.09
0.11
0.12
0.13
0.15
0.16
0.17
0.19
0.20
0.21
0.22
0.24
0.25
0.26
0.28
0.29
0.30
0.32
0.33
0.34
0.36
0.37
0.38
0.40
0.41
0.42
0.44
0.45
0.46
0.48
0.49
0.50
0.52
0.53
c Fcr
42.50
42.49
42.47
42.45
42.42
42.39
42.35
42.30
42.25
42.19
42.13
42.05
41.98
41.90
41.81
41.71
41.61
41.51
41.39
41.28
41.15
41.02
40.89
40.75
40.60
40.45
40.29
40.13
39.97
39.79
39.62
39.43
39.25
39.06
38.86
38.66
38.45
38.24
38.03
37.81
Kl
rmin
41
42
43
44
45
46
47
48
49
50
51
52
53
54
55
56
57
58
59
60
61
62
63
64
65
66
67
68
69
70
71
72
73
74
75
76
77
78
79
80
c
0.54
0.56
0.57
0.58
0.59
0.61
0.62
0.63
0.65
0.66
0.67
0.69
0.70
0.71
0.73
0.74
0.75
0.77
0.78
0.79
0.81
0.82
0.83
0.85
0.86
0.87
0.89
0.90
0.91
0.93
0.94
0.95
0.96
0.98
0.99
1.00
1.02
1.03
1.04
1.06
c Fcr
37.58
37.36
37.13
36.89
36.65
36.41
36.16
35.91
35.66
35.40
35.14
34.88
34.61
34.34
34.07
33.79
33.51
33.23
32.95
32.66
32.38
32.09
31.79
31.50
31.21
30.91
30.61
30.31
30.01
29.70
29.40
29.09
28.79
28.48
28.17
27.86
27.55
27.24
26.93
26.62
Kl
rmin
81
82
83
84
85
86
87
88
89
90
91
92
93
94
95
96
97
98
99
100
101
102
103
104
105
106
107
108
109
110
111
112
113
114
115
116
117
118
119
120
c
1.07
1.10
1.11
1.12
1.14
1.15
1.16
1.18
1.19
1.20
1.22
1.23
1.24
1.26
1.27
1.28
1.30
1.31
1.32
1.33
1.35
1.36
1.37
1.39
1.40
1.41
1.43
1.44
1.45
1.47
1.48
1.49
1.51
1.52
1.53
1.55
1.56
1.57
1.59
c Fcr
26.31
25.99
25.68
25.37
25.06
24.75
24.44
24.13
23.82
23.51
23.20
22.89
22.58
22.27
21.97
21.66
21.36
21.06
20.76
20.46
20.16
19.86
19.57
19.27
18.98
18.69
18.40
18.11
17.83
17.55
17.26
16.98
16.71
16.42
16.13
15.86
15.59
15.32
15.07
14.82
Kl
rmin
121
122
123
124
125
126
127
128
129
130
131
132
133
134
135
136
137
138
139
140
141
142
143
144
145
146
147
148
149
150
151
152
153
154
155
156
157
158
159
160
c
1.60
1.61
1.63
1.64
1.65
1.67
1.68
1.69
1.71
1.72
1.73
1.74
1.76
1.77
1.78
1.80
1.81
1.82
1.84
1.85
1.86
1.88
1.89
1.90
1.92
1.93
1.94
1.96
1.97
1.98
2.00
2.01
2.02
2.04
2.05
2.06
2.08
2.09
2.10
2.11
Victor Saouma
c Fcr
14.57
14.33
14.10
13.88
13.66
13.44
13.23
13.02
12.82
12.62
12.43
12.25
12.06
11.88
11.71
11.54
11.37
11.20
11.04
10.89
10.73
10.58
10.43
10.29
10.15
10.01
9.87
9.74
9.61
9.48
9.36
9.23
9.11
9.00
8.88
8.77
8.66
8.55
8.44
8.33
Kl
rmin
161
162
163
164
165
166
167
168
169
170
171
172
173
174
175
176
177
178
179
180
181
182
183
184
185
186
187
188
189
190
191
192
193
194
195
196
197
198
199
200
c
2.13
2.14
2.15
2.17
2.18
2.19
2.21
2.22
2.23
2.25
2.26
2.27
2.29
2.30
2.31
2.33
2.34
2.35
2.37
2.38
2.39
2.41
2.42
2.43
2.45
2.46
2.47
2.48
2.50
2.51
2.52
2.54
2.55
2.56
2.58
2.59
2.60
2.62
2.63
2.64
c Fcr
8.23
8.13
8.03
7.93
7.84
7.74
7.65
7.56
7.47
7.38
7.30
7.21
7.13
7.05
6.97
6.89
6.81
6.73
6.66
6.59
6.51
6.44
6.37
6.30
6.23
6.17
6.10
6.04
5.97
5.91
5.85
5.79
5.73
5.67
5.61
5.55
5.50
5.44
5.39
5.33
KL
rmin
Structural Engineering
165
Draft
80
70
Fy=36 ksi
Fy=50 ksi
Fy=60 ksi
Fy=70 ksi
Fy=100 ksi
Fcr (ksi)
60
50
40
30
20
10
0
20
40
60
80
100
120
140
Slenderness ratio, KL/r
160
180
200
Pu /A
Fy
36 ksi
42
41
40
39
38
37
36
35
34
33
32
31
30
29
28
27
0.05
0.14
0.22
0.30
Pu /A
50 ksi
0.03
0.09
0.16
0.21
0.27
0.33
0.38
0.44
0.49
0.53
0.58
0.63
0.67
0.71
0.75
0.79
26
25
24
23
22
21
20
19
18
17
16
15
14
13
12
11
Fy
36 ksi
0.38
0.45
0.52
0.58
0.65
0.70
0.76
0.81
0.85
0.89
0.92
0.85
0.97
0.99
1.00
1.00
50 ksi
0.82
0.85
0.88
0.90
0.93
0.95
0.97
0.98
0.99
1.00
1.00
1.00
1.00
1.00
1.00
1.00
Victor Saouma
Structural Engineering
166
Draft
16.3
Examples
16.3.1
Evaluation
In this class of problems, we seek to assess the load carrying capacity of a given column. This, in
contrast to design problems, is a straightforward application of the governing equations.
11
125
Fy
=
E
36, 000
= 1.401 < 1.5
29 106
4. Since c = 1.401 < 1.5, inelastic behavior controls and we use Eq. 16.7-a
2
65.98
Fy
=
E
36, 000
= .7399 < 1.5
29 106
3. Since c = 1.401 < 1.5 inelastic behavior controls and we use Eq. 16.7-a
2
Structural Engineering
16.3 Examples
167
Draft
Braced Case:
(0.8)(20) ft(12)
(10.1) in
(0.8)(10) ft(12)
(2.91) in
KL
ry
in/ft
in/ft
= 19.01
= 32.99
32.99
Fy
=
E
36, 000
= .369 < 1.5
29 106
7. Since c = 1.401 < 1.5 inelastic behavior controls and we use Eq. 16.7-a
2
888.4744.4
744.4
= 18.8%
(1.0)(20) ft(12)
(5.34) in
(1.0)(10) ft(12)
(3.05) in
=
=
in/ft
in/ft
= 44.9
= 39.3
44.9
Fy
=
E
36, 000
= .503 < 1.5
29 106
5. Since c = 1.401 < 1.5 inelastic behavior controls and we use Eq. 16.7-a
2
Victor Saouma
Structural Engineering
168
Draft
16.3.2
Design
Design problems are inherently more dicult than verication ones, and a trial and error procedure
must be followed.
12
Pu
c Fcr
Find the most economical W12 section to hold a compressive load of 120 kips. Steel is A36, K = 1.0,
L = 16 feet. Live load to dead load ratio is 1.0 and the column is unbraced.
Solution:
1. Since the dead load and live loads are evenly split, from Sect. 7.3.3
Pu = 1.6(60) + 1.2(60) = 168 k
2. The eective length KL=16 feet, we assume a design stress of c Fcr = 25 ksi and
=
Atrial
g
Pu
168
= 6.72 in2
=
c Fcr
25
=
=
Fcr
c Pn
29106
2
0.658c Fy
1.422
127.1
=
= 0.658
(36) ksi
=
= c Ag Fcr
= (0.85)(7.65) in2 (15.4) ksi =
15.4 ksi
100.1 k
4. Since the design capacity of this section is less than the required one, we need a bigger section, try
W12x40, (A = 11.8 in2 ).
KL
ry
Fcr
c Pn
=
=
=
(1.0)(16) ft(12)
#(1.93) in
36,000
99.5
29106
1.1162
in/ft
99.5
0.658
(36) ksi
=
c Ag Fcr
(0.85)(11.8) in2 (21.37) ksi =
21.37 ksi
214.3 k
5. Since W 12x40 has a design capacity greater than the required one, it is a satisfactory design. Because
there is a sizeable gap between the required strength (168 kips) and the design strength (214 kips), we
could try a smaller section, W12x35. If we did, it will turn out that this section is not satisfactory.
Hence, we select W12x40 .
Victor Saouma
Structural Engineering
16.3 Examples
169
Draft
Example 16-5: Design of Braced Column, (?)
Design an economical W section to hold a factored load Pu of 795 kips. The column is 20 ft. long
and is assumed to have pin-pin end conditions. The column is braced at midheight in the weak direction
and is made of A36 steel.
Solution:
1. Since the column is braced at midheight in the weak direction, the eective length is 10 ft. in the
weak direction, and 20 ft in the strong one.
2. Assuming a design stress c Fcr = 30 ksi and
Atrial
=
g
Pu
795
= 26.5 in2
=
c Fcr
30
=
=
(1.0)(10) ft(12)
(3.7) in
(1.0)(20) ft(12)
(6.14) in
in/ft
in/ft
32.4
39.1
4. Using Table 16.1, for a slenderness ratio of 39.1, the design stress is 28.23 ksi, thus the design capacity
is
c Pn = c Fcr Ag = (28.23) ksi(26.5) in2 = 748.1 k
5. Since this is slightly less than the required capacity (795 kips), we need a bigger section and try
W14x99
(1.0)(10) ft(12) in/ft
KL
=
= 32.34
ry
(3.71) in
KL
rx
(1.0)(20) ft(12)
(6.17) in
in/ft
38.9
6. Using Table 16.1, for a slenderness ratio of 38.9, the design stress is 28.27 ksi, thus the design capacity
is
c Pn = c Fcr Ag = (28.27) ksi(29.1) in2 = 822.6 k
7. Hence, select W14x99 .
Hinged
A 36
Steel
16 0"
Hinged
Victor Saouma
Structural Engineering
1610
Draft
Section
W8 X 48
W10 X 49
W12 X 50
W14 X 53
Area (sq.in.)
14.1
14.4
14.7
15.6
KL/ry
92
76
98
100
Fcr (kksi)
23.0
26.6
21.7
21.3
c Pn (kips)
276
326
271
282
First choice
Second choice
Not good
Third choice
Solution:
1. Compute factored load.
Pu = 1.2D + 1.6L = 1.2(95) + 1.6(100) = 274 k
2. We simply summarize the calculations for this example
P
Assume hinged top and
bottom for x- and y-axis
bending
A 36
Steel
15 0"
15 0"
Bracing
P
(a)
P
(b)
Solution:
1. Compute the factored loads:
Pu = 1.2D + 1.6L = 1.2(50) + 1.6(110) = 236 k
2. Select from LRFD Column Load Tables. The eective length factors K for buckling in either the
strong or the weak direction equal unity; i.e., Kx = Ky = 1.0. Since the AISC Column Load tables are
computed assuming (KL/r)y controls, enter these tables with the eective length (KL)y . Thus enter
with,
Pu = 236 k; (KL)y = 15 ft.
Starting with the shallow W8 sections and working towards the deeper sections, nd
W8 X 40 c Pn = 238 k rx /ry = 1.73
W10 X 45 c Pn = 267 k rx /ry = 2.15
W12 X 45 c Pn = 257 k rx /ry = 2.65
Victor Saouma
Structural Engineering
16.3 Examples
1611
Draft
3. Since the actual support conditions are such that (KL)x = 2(KL)y , if rx /ry 2, weak axis controls
and tabular loads give the correct answer. Thus, W10 X 45 and W12 X 45 are both acceptable.
4. Since rx /ry for W8 X 40 is less than 2, strong axis bending controls. The strength may be obtained
from the tables by entering with the equivalent (KL)y that corresponds to (KL)x = 30f t.
5. For equal strength with respect to the x and y axes,
(KL)x
rx
(KL)y
(KL)y
ry
(KL)x
30
= 17.3 ft
=
rx /ry
1.73
(16.9-a)
(16.9-b)
For (KL)y = 17.3 ft., the W8 X 40 has a design strength c Pn of only 208 kips; therefore it is not
acceptable.
6. Check of section. It is always advisable to make a nal check of the apparent acceptable solution:W10
X 45,
(KL/r)y
c Fcr
c Pn = c Fcr Ag
= 15(12)/(2.10) = 89.6
(16.10-a)
= 20.1 ksi
(16.10-b)
(16.10-c)
Victor Saouma
Structural Engineering
1612
Draft
Victor Saouma
Structural Engineering
Draft
Chapter 17
STEEL CONNECTIONS
17.1
Bolted Connections
1 Bolted connections, Fig. 17.1 are increasingly used instead of rivets (too labor intensive) and more
often than welds (may cause secondary cracks if not properly performed).
17.1.1
Types of Bolts
Most common high strength bolts are the A325 and A490.
A325 is made from heat-treated medium carbon steel, min. Fyb 81 92 ksi, Fub = 120 ksi
A490 is a higher strength manufactured from an alloy of steel, min. Fyb 115 130 ksi, and Fub = 150
ksi
Most common diameters are 3/4, 7/8 for building constructions; 7/8 and 1 for bridges, Table 17.1.
17.1.2
6
Bearing type which transmits the load by a combination of shear and bearing on the bolt, Fig. 17.2.
Slip-critical transmits load by friction, Fig. 17.3. In addition of providing adequate at ultimate load,
it must not slip during service loads.
7 Possible failure modes (or limit states) which may control the strength of a bolted connection are
shown in Fig. 17.4.
172
STEEL CONNECTIONS
Draft
Butt Splice
Lap Splice
Axial Shear
Hanger Connection
Bracket Connection
Tension
Eccentric Shear
11
00
00
11
00
11
00
11
00
11
00
11
00
11
00
11
00
11
00
11
00
11
00
11
00
11
00
11
00
11
00
11
00
11
00
11
00
11
00
11
00
11
00
11
00
11
00
11
00
11
00
11
00
11
00
11
00
11
00
11
00
11
00
11
00
11
11
00
00
11
00
11
00
11
00
11
00
11
00
11
00
11
00
11
00
11
00
11
00
11
00
11
00
11
00
11
00
11
00
11
00
11
00
11
00
11
00
11
00
11
00
11
00
11
00
11
00
11
00
11
00
11
00
11
00
11
00
11
00
11
00
11
00
11
00
11
00
11
00
11
00
11
00
11
00
11
00
11
111
000
000
111
000
111
1
0
0
1
0
1
0
1
1111
0000
0000
1111
0000
1111
0000
1111
0000
1111
1111
0000
0000
1111
0000
1111
111
000
000
111
000
111
11
00
00
11
00
11
00
11
00
11
00
11
00
11
00
11
00
11
00
11
00
11
00
11
00
11
00
11
00
11
00
11
00
11
00
11
00
11
00
11
00
11
00
11
00
11
00
11
00
11
00
11
00
11
00
11
00
11
00
11
00
11
00
11
00
11
1111
0000
0000
1111
0000
1111
0000
1111
0000
1111
1111
0000
0000
1111
0000
1111
0000
1111
0000
1111
11
00
00
11
00
11
00
11
11
00
11
00
00
11
00
11
P
11
00
00
11
00
11
00
11
00
11
11
00
00
11
00
11
Victor Saouma
Structural Engineering
173
Draft
High-strength bolt
P
T
P
T
T
P= T
T
P
T
11
00
00
11
00
11
00
11
00
11
11
00
Shear Failure
11
00
00
11
00
11
00
11
00
11
00
11
00
11
00
11
00
11
00
11
00
11
111
000
000
111
000
111
000
111
000
111
000
111
000
111
000
111
000
111
000
111
11
00
11
00
Bearing Failure
Tensile Failure
00
11
11
00
00
11
00
11
00
11
00
11
00
11
00
11
00
11
00
11
00
11
Bending Failure
Victor Saouma
Structural Engineering
174
STEEL CONNECTIONS
Draft
17.1.3
(17.1)
where Fub is the tensile strength of the bolt, and An the area through the threaded portion, also
known as tensile stress area. The ratio of the tensile stress area to the gross area Ag ranges from
0.75 to 0.79.
Shear Strength is given by
Rn = mAb Fn
(17.2)
where m is the number of shear planes, Fig. 17.5, Ab the gross area of the bolt, and Fn is the
nominal shear strength of bolts
P
11
00
00
11
00
11
000
111
111
000
111
000
11
00
00
11
00
11
00
11
00
11
00
11
00
11
00
11
111
000
111
000
m=1
m=2
thickness t
1
1
P
d
Failure Line
Resisting Shear Stresses
d/2
L
2 u
(17.3)
where:
up is the shear strength of the plate 0.7Fu
Fu is the tensile strength of the plate material
d is the nominal bolt diameter.
Thus this equation transforms into
Rn
=
=
d
2t L
(0.70Fu )
2
L 1
1.40Fu dt
d
2
L
= LtFu
Rn = Fu dt
d
(17.4-a)
(17.4-b)
(17.5)
which applies to the bolt closest to the edge for the design of single bolt connection, or two or
more in line force, when the end distance is less than 1.5d.
Victor Saouma
Structural Engineering
175
Draft
17.1.4
17.1.4.1
AISC Requirements
(17.6)
where is the strength resistance factor, Rn the nominal resistance (strength), i the load magnication
factor, and Qi the actual loads.
9
Shear Strength
No threads in shear plane (LRFD-J3.3)
Rn = (0.6Fub )mAb
(17.7)
where = 0.65, and m the number of shear planes, A b the gross-sectional area across the
unthreaded shank of the bolt.
Threads in shear plane (LRFD-J3.3)
Rn = (0.45Fub )mAb
(17.8)
where = 0.65, and m the number of shear planes, Ab the gross-sectional area across the
unthreaded shank of the bolt.
Tension Strength (LRFD-J3.3)
Rn = Fub (0.75)Ab
(17.9)
where = 0.75.
Bearing Strength (LRFD-J3.6). Note that for Bearing strength, Fu is the one of the plate and not
the bolt.
1. Usual conditions (standard holes or short-slotted holes, end distance not less than 1.5d, bolt
spacing center to center not less than 3d, and with two or more bolts in the line of force:
Rn = (2.4dtFu )
(17.10)
where =0.75, d is the nominal diameter of the bolt (not at threads), t thickness of connected
part.
2. Long-slotted holes perpendicular to the direction of load transmission, end distance not less
than 1.5d, bolt center-to-center spacing not less than 3d and with two or more bolts in line
of force (LRFD J3-1b)
Rn = (2.0dtFu )
(17.11)
where =0.75, d is the nominal diameter of the bolt (not at threads), t thickness of connected
part.
Victor Saouma
Structural Engineering
176
STEEL CONNECTIONS
Draft
3. For the bolt closest to the edge and when Eqs 17.10 and 17.11 are not satised, then (LRFD
J3-1c)
(17.12)
Rn = LtFu
where L is the end distance of force, from the center of a standard hole or oversized hole, or
from the mid-width of a slotted hole, to an edge of a connected part.
Minimum Spacing of bolts in the direction of transmitted forces must be at least 3 diameters when
Eq. 17.10 and 17.11 are used. Under all other conditions Eq. 17.5 applies. Solving for L from the
center of the fastener to the edge of the adjacent hole
L
Rn
Fu t
(17.13)
then adding the radius dh /2, and replacing Rn by P/, gives the minimum center to center spacing
Spacing
dh
P
+
Fu t
2
(17.14)
where = 0.75
Minimum End Distance When Eq. 17.10 and 17.11 are used, then the minimum end distances must
be at least 1 1/2 diameters. If higher bearing strengths are used, then Eq. 17.5 gives
L
Rn
Fu t
(17.15)
P
Fu t
(17.16)
where =0.75
In all cases Fub is the tensile strength of the bolt (120 ksi for A325; 150 ksi for A490).
17.1.4.2
Examples
11
00
00
11
00
11
00
11
00
11
00
11
11
00
00
11
00
11
00
11
00
11
00
11
1 1/2"
1 1/2"
3"
Victor Saouma
Structural Engineering
177
Draft
Solution:
An
Ae
Tn
=
=
Tn
= Fu Ae = (0.75)(65)(2.5) = 122 k
(17.17-a)
(17.17-b)
(17.17-c)
(17.17-d)
(17.17-e)
2. Shear strength
Rn
= (0.60Fub )mAb
(17.18-a)
(17.18-b)
3. Bearing strength for 1.5d end distance and 3d center to center spacing is
Rn
(2.4Fu dt)
(17.19-a)
0.75(2.4)(65)(0.875)(0.625) = 64 k/bolt
(17.19-b)
note that for the bearing strength, Fu is the ultimate strength of the plate.
4. Since bearing strength is larger than shear strength, shear controls and the total design strength
based on the fasteners is
Tn = No. of fasteners Rn = 4(28.1) = 112 k
(17.20)
5. The single shear design strength (112 kip) is smaller than the plate design strength (122 kip) then
Tn =112 kips
6. The end distance L from the center of the hole to the end of the plate should be, Eq. 17.16
L
P
28.1
=
= 0.92 in
Fu t
0.75(65)(0.625)
(17.21)
Tu =
112 =
D =
L =
Tmax
Tu
(17.22-a)
1.2D + 1.6L
1.2D + 1.6(3D) = 6.0D
(17.22-b)
(17.22-c)
18.7 k
3D = 56.1 k
(17.22-d)
(17.22-e)
(17.22-f)
9. If threads are included in the shear plane, the design strength per bolt in single shear is
Rn
Victor Saouma
= (0.45Fub )mAb
= 0.65(0.45)(120)(1)(0.6013) = 21.1 k/bolt
(17.23-a)
(17.23-b)
Structural Engineering
178
STEEL CONNECTIONS
Draft
84.4 =
D =
L =
Tmax
(17.24-a)
(17.24-b)
(17.24-c)
3D = 42.3 k
(17.24-d)
(17.24-e)
T/2
T/2
T
10"
Solution:
1. The center plate controls the tension strength
(10)(0.25) = 2.50 in2
3 1
+
10 2
0.25 = 2.06 in2
4 8
Ag
An
Ae
Tn
=
=
Tn
Tu
=
=
Fu Ae = 0.75(58)(2.06) = 90 k
(17.25-a)
(17.25-b)
(17.25-c)
(17.25-d)
(17.25-e)
(17.25-f)
(17.26)
(17.27)
77
= 3.9
19.6
(17.28)
Structural Engineering
179
Draft
77
= 19.3 k
4
P
19.3
=
= 1.77 in
Fu t
0.75(58)(0.25)
(17.29-a)
(17.29-b)
2"
11111111
00000000
00000000
11111111
00000000
11111111
00000000
11111111
c 11111111
00000000
6"
2"
T
f 11111111
00000000 e
00000000
11111111
00000000
11111111
00000000
11111111
11111111
00000000
2"
3"
7. We must check shear rupture since the plate is a thin one and heavily loaded
Shear Yielding-Tension Fracture Tn
=
=
=
=
(17.30-a)
(17.30-g)
Note that we have used 3/4 + 1/16 for the hole diameter instead of 3/4 + 1/8
8. The design strength Tn gives
Tn = 0.75(102) = 77 k
(17.31)
17.1.5
17.2
Welded Connections
10
b
t
45
t
45
Victor Saouma
Structural Engineering
1710
Draft
STEEL CONNECTIONS
Victor Saouma
Structural Engineering
Draft
Chapter 18
Introduction
18.2
Background
4 Whereas it is beyond the scope of this course to derive the governing dierential equation for exural
torsional buckling (which is covered in either Mechanics of Materials II or in Steel Structures), we shall
review some related topics in order to understand the AISC equations later on
Saint-Venants torsion: or pure torsion (torsion is constant throughout the length) where it is assumed that the cross-sectional plane prior to the application of torsion remains plane, and only
rotation occurs.
Warping torsion: out of plane eects arise when the anges are laterally displaced during twisting.
Compression ange will bend in one direction laterally while its tension ange will bend in another.
In this case part of the torque is resisted by bending and the rest by Saint-Venants torsion.
6
ECw
d2
M02
d4
Gj
=0
dz 4
dz 2
EIy
(18.1)
182
Draft
where:
Cw Torsional warping constant
E
Elastic modulus
G
Shear modulus
J
Saint-Venant Torsional constant
M0 Applied moment in the yz plane
Cw and J are section properties tabulated in the AISC manual.
7
= Cb
L
E
L
2
Cw Iy + EIy GJ
(18.2)
18.3
AISC Equations
18.3.1
Dividing values
We identify three failure modes depending on Lb which is the distance between lateral supports (or
unbraced length)
Failure Mode
Conditions
Lb < Lp
very short Plastic hinge
Lp < Lb < Lr short
Inelastic lateral torsional buckling
long
Elastic lateral torsional buckling
Lr < Lb
and
where:
Lp
Lr
ry
Fyw
Fr
Lp
Lr
300
ry
Fy , ksi
!
#
ry X1
2
1 + 1 + X2 (Fyf Fr )
Fyf Fr
(18.3)
(18.4)
and
X1
X2
EGJA
2
2
Cw Sx
4
Iy GJ
Sx
(18.5-a)
(18.5-b)
are not really physical properties but a combination of cross-sectional ones which simplies the writing
of Eq. 18.4. Those values are tabulated in the AISC manual.
9
The exural eciency of the member increases when X1 decreases and/or X2 increases.
18.3.2
Governing Moments
Victor Saouma
(18.6)
Structural Engineering
183
Draft
Mn = Cb Mp (Mp Mr )
and
Cb = 1.75 + 1.05
M1
M2
Lb Lp
Lr Lp
+ 0.3
M1
M2
Mp
(18.7)
2
2.3
(18.8)
1
where M1 is the smaller and M2 is the larger end moment in the unbraced segment M
M2 is negative
when the moments cause single curvature (i.e. one of them is clockwise, the other counterclockwise),
hence the most severe loading case with constant M gives Cb = 1.75 1.05 + 0.3 = 1.0.
Mr is the moment strength available for service load when extreme ber reach the yield stress Fy ;
Mr = (Fy Fr )Sx
(18.9)
3. Lr < Lb long elastic lateral torsional buckling, and the critical moment is the same as in Eq.18.2
Mcr
= Cb
Lb
E
Lb
2
Cw Iy + EIy GJ Cb Mr and Mp
(18.10)
10
2
Cb Sx X1 2 .
.1 + X1 X2 C M
=
/
2
b r
Lb
ry
2 Lryb
(18.11)
Mn
Mp
Mr
Mp = Zx Fy
Plastic
Lateral Torsional Buckling
Analysis
1
2
s
s
Inelastic &
'
L Lp
Mn = Cb Mp (Mp Mr ) Lrb Lp
3
s
Elastic
!
Mcr =
Cb Sx X1
Lb
ry
1+
Lp =
Lr = !
300
ry
Fy
ry X1
Fyf Fr
1+
1 + X2 Fyf Fr
X12 X2
L 2
b
ry
Lb
2
Victor Saouma
Structural Engineering
184
Draft
18.4
Examples
18.4.1
Verication
Mu
(18.12-a)
(18.12-b)
65
= 10.8
36
(18.13-a)
hc
= 18.9 <
tw
640
= 106.
36
(18.13-b)
Note that those values are taken from the AISC manual.
3. The unbraced length is Lb =15 ft.
4. From AISC manual,
ry
3.07 in
(18.14-a)
X1
X2
=
=
3, 880 ksi
0.000586
(18.14-b)
(18.14-c)
=
=
300
ry
Fy
300
(3.07) = 153.5 in = 12.8 ft
36
(18.15-a)
(18.15-b)
=
=
=
Victor Saouma
#
2
1 + 1 + X2 (Fyf Fr )
!
#
(3.07) in(3, 880) ksi
2
1 + 1 + 0.000586 (36 10)
(36 10) ksi
676.6 in = 56.4 ft
ry X1
Fyf Fr
(18.16-a)
(18.16-b)
(18.16-c)
Structural Engineering
18.4 Examples
185
Draft
7. Hence Lp < Lb < Lr , and failure is caused by inelastic lateral torsional buckling, and we must use
Eq. 18.7
Lb Lp
(18.17-a)
Mp
Mn = Cb Mp (Mp Mr )
Lr Lp
1
= 396 k.ft
(18.17-b)
Mp = Zx Fy = (36) ksi(132) in3
(12) in/ft
1
= 255.7 k.ft
Mr = (Fy Fr )Sx = (36 10)(118)
(18.17-c)
(12)
15 12.8
Mn = 1.0 396 (396 255.7)
(18.17-d)
= 388.9 k.ft 396 k.ft
56.4 12.8
8. The moment capacity will then be
b Mn = (0.9)(388.9) k.ft = 350 k.ft > 121.5 k.ft
(18.18)
(1.2)(25)2
wu L2
=
= 93.75 k.ft
8
8
2. Check if the W10X33 is compact, From Eq. 14.12
Mu =
bf
= 9.1 <
2tf
65
= 9.19
50
(18.19)
(18.20-a)
hc
= 27.1 <
tw
640
= 90.5
50
(18.20-b)
=
=
1.94 in
2, 710 ksi
(18.21-a)
(18.21-b)
X2
0.00251
(18.21-c)
=
=
Victor Saouma
300
ry
Fy
300
(1.94) = 82.3 in = 6.85 ft
50
(18.22-a)
(18.22-b)
Structural Engineering
186
Draft
#
1 + 1 + X2 (Fyf Fr )2
!
#
(1.94)(2, 710)
2
1 + 1 + 0.00251 (50 10)
=
(50 10)
= 236.5 in = 19.7 ft
ry X1
Fyf Fr
(18.23-a)
(18.23-b)
(18.23-c)
7. Since Lb > Lr , failure is caused by elastic lateral torsional buckling, and we must use Eq. 18.8
Mcr
2
Cb Sx X1 2 .
.1 + X1 X2
/
2
Lb
ry
2 Lryb
2
(1.0)(35.0)(2, 710) 2 .
.1 + (2, 710) (0.00251)
2
/
(25)(12)
1.94
2 (25)(12)
1.94
(18.24-a)
(18.24-b)
(18.24-c)
(18.25)
18.4.2
Design
Seeking a design where failure is through a plastic hinge, the objective is to have Lb < Lp . This can
be achieved by setting Lb = Lp , or from Eq. 18.3
11
rymin
Lb Fy
=
300
(18.26)
Mn
Fy
(18.27)
12 If Lb is so large that the previous design objectives can not be met, then the bam will fail by
either inelastic or elastic lateral torsional buckling. Recalling that the limiting cases for the former is
Lp < Lb < Lr , and that the corresponding limiting moments Mp and Mr are given by Eq. 18.6 and 18.9
respectively, then the upper and lower limits would be
Zxreq
<
Sxreq
>
Mn
Fy
Mn
Fy Fr
(18.28-a)
(18.28-b)
Hence, if Lb is close to Lp , then we should select a section using Zxreq , and if Lb is close to Lr , then
we select a section close to Sxreq .
Alternatively, one can use the AISC design charts. In those charts, the design moment b Mn is
plotted in terms of Lb for a given Fy and Cb = 1.0. In those charts, the most economical section by
13
Victor Saouma
Structural Engineering
18.4 Examples
187
Draft
weight are dierentiated from the others (solid versus dashed lines), and limiting Lp and Lr values are
highlighted by closed and open circles.
To use those charts, one would enter Lb and b Mn , where those two values intersect, then any beam
listed to the right or above will satisfy the necessary requirements (assuming that Cb = 1.0).
14
Note that since all of the strength equations are linear in Cb , we can use Lb /Cb as a substitute of Lb
with Cb = 1
15
DL: 6
LL: 20
24
A
LS
LS
460
+
DL 4
LL: 7.5
28
B
LS
21
C
LS
70
101
353
Factored bending moment envelope due to superimposed load
Figure 18.3: Design of Laterally Unsupported Steel Beam
Solution:
1. The moment envelope resulting from the factored load is rst obtained. It contains two loading
scenario; a) DL+LL on the 52-ft span, and no LL on the cantilever; and b) DL+LL on the cantilever
and no LL on the 52 ft span:
Wu1
(18.29-a)
Wu2
(18.29-b)
2. For the rst loading case, the maximum factored moment at the cantilever support and under the
point load
Mu
Mu
Victor Saouma
(18.30-a)
(18.30-b)
Structural Engineering
188
Draft
3. For the second load case, the maximum factored moment at the cantilever support is
Mu = (16.8)(21) = 353 k.ft
(18.31)
4. Three laterally unbraced segments must be considered since each length is dierent and is subjected
to a dierent maximum factored moment Mu . By inspection, segment A controls over segment C; both
the moment and the unbraced length are larger on segment A, and the moment gradient is the same
(i.e. Cb =1.75 for both).
5. Segment B has a larger Cb
2
M1
M1
Cb = 1.75 + 1.05
2.3
(18.32-a)
+ 0.3
M2
M2
2
0
0
A
Cb = 1.75 + 1.05
= 1.75
(18.32-b)
+ 0.3
460
460
2
+101
+101
CbB = 1.75 + 1.05
= 2.0 2.3
(18.32-c)
+ 0.3
+460
+460
which is benecial, but also a larger Lb , hence we should design both segment A and B.
6. For segment A, Mu =460 ft-kips, and Lb = 24 ft. The required Mn is
Mn =
Mu
460
= 511 k.ft
=
b
0.9
(18.33)
7. Aiming for a plastic failure, we use Eq. 18.26 to determine rymin and Zxmin
Lb Fy
(24)(12) 36
=
= 5.76 in
rymin =
300
300
Mn
(511) k.ft(12) in/ft
=
= 170 in3
Zxmin =
Fy
(36) ksi
(18.34-a)
(18.34-b)
ry
3.41
Zx
1,550
Sx
1,290
Lp
Lr
W24x76
W24x68
W24x55
1.92
1.87
1.34
200.
177.
134
176.
154.
114.
8.0
7.8
5.6
23.4
22.4
16.5
Remarks
Largest W24 section,
ry NG and section too sti (very large Zx )
Zx OK but ry NG
Zx OK but ry NG
Smallest W24 section
Hence it is quite clear that failure will have to be through inelastic or elastic torsional buckling.
9. We try W24x76.
10. Is the section compact?
bf
= 6.66 <
2tf
65
= 10.8
36
hc
= 49 <
tw
640
= 106
36
(18.35-a)
(18.35-b)
Victor Saouma
Lp
Lr
300
1 300
ry =
1.92 = 8.0 ft
12
Fy
36
!
#
ry X1
2
1 + 1 + X2 (Fyf Fr )
Fyf Fr
(18.36-a)
(18.36-b)
Structural Engineering
18.4 Examples
189
Draft
!
1 (1.92)(1, 760)
=
12
36 10
= 23.4 ft
1+
#
2
1 + (0.0186) (36 10)
(18.36-c)
(18.36-d)
12. Since Lr < Lb , failure is governed by elastic lateral torsional buckling, and we use Eq. 18.11
1
= 381. k.ft
(12)
Mr
Cb Mr
Mp
Lb
ry
Mcr
Mn
b Mn
(18.37-a)
(18.37-b)
(18.37-c)
(18.37-d)
(18.37-e)
(18.37-f)
(18.37-g)
=
=
Mp = 600 k.ft
(18.37-h)
(18.37-i)
Lb /ry
W24.x76.
W24.x68.
W24.x62.
W24.x55.
W21.x83.
W21.x73.
W21.x68.
W21.x62.
W18.x97.
W18.x86.
W18.x76.
W16.x100.
W16.x89.
W16.x77.
W14.x109.
W14.x99.
W14.x90.
W12.x120.
W12.x106.
W12.x96.
W10.x112.
W10.x100.
W8.x67.
W8.x58.
W6.x25.
W6.x20.
150.00
154.01
208.70
214.93
157.38
159.12
160.00
162.71
108.68
109.51
110.34
114.74
115.66
116.60
77.21
77.63
77.84
92.01
92.60
93.20
107.46
108.68
135.85
137.14
189.47
192.00
Lp
ft.
8.0
7.8
5.8
5.6
7.6
7.5
7.5
7.4
11.0
11.0
10.9
10.5
10.4
10.3
15.5
15.5
15.4
13.0
13.0
12.9
11.2
11.0
8.8
8.8
6.3
6.3
Lr
ft.
23.4
22.4
17.2
16.6
24.9
23.5
22.8
21.7
38.1
35.5
33.3
42.1
38.6
34.9
62.7
58.2
54.1
75.5
67.2
61.4
86.4
77.4
64.0
56.0
31.3
25.6
Mp
ft-kips
600.
531.
459.
402.
588.
516.
480.
432.
633.
558.
489.
594.
525.
450.
576.
519.
471.
558.
492.
441.
441.
390.
211.
179.
57.
45.
Mr
ft-kips
381.
334.
284.
247.
371.
327.
303.
275.
407.
360.
316.
379.
336.
290.
375.
340.
542.
353.
314.
284.
273.
243.
131.
113.
36.
29.
Cb Mr
ft-kips
667.
584.
497.
432.
648.
573.
531.
482.
713.
629.
554.
664.
588.
508.
656.
595.
762.
618.
550.
497.
478.
425.
229.
197.
63.
51.
Eq. 18.7
ft-kips
0.
0.
0.
0.
669.
0.
0.
0.
918.
792.
679.
879.
759.
632.
945.
846.
762.
914.
798.
709.
722.
632.
330.
276.
74.
53.
Mine
ft-kips
0.
0.
0.
0.
588.
0.
0.
0.
633.
558.
489.
594.
525.
450.
576.
519.
471.
558.
492.
441.
441.
390.
211.
179.
57.
45.
Eq. 18.8
ft-kips
643.
523.
298.
239.
0.
555.
491.
414.
0.
0.
0.
0.
0.
0.
0.
0.
0.
0.
0.
0.
0.
0.
0.
0.
0.
0.
Mel.
ft-kips
600.
523.
298.
239.
0.
516.
480.
414.
0.
0.
0.
0.
0.
0.
0.
0.
0.
0.
0.
0.
0.
0.
0.
0.
0.
0.
b M n
ft-kips
540.
471.
268.
215.
529.
464.
432.
372.
570.
502.
440.
535.
473.
405.
518.
467.
424.
502.
443.
397.
397.
351.
190.
161.
51.
40.
Structural Engineering
1810
Draft
15. Next, we must consider segment B, it has a steeper moment gradient than segment A, i.e. Cb > 1.75
2
+101
+101
Cb = 1.75 + 1.05
= 2.0 2.3
(18.38)
+ 0.3
+460
+460
(18.39-b)
1
= 333.7 k.ft
(12)
(18.40-a)
Mr
Cb Mr
Mcr
Lb
ry
=
=
(18.39-a)
(18.39-c)
(18.39-d)
(18.39-e)
(18.40-b)
(18.40-c)
(28)(12)
= 154.
1.87
(18.40-d)
(1, 590)2 (0.0290)
1 (2.0)(154)(1, 590) 2
1+
(12)
154
2(154)2
468 k.ft Cb Mr and > Mp
(18.40-e)
(18.40-f)
17. We observe that Mcr = 468 k.ft for segment B, and 523 k.ft for segment A. Hence, segment B
controls.
18. Checking for the ultimate moment
b Mn = (0.9)(468) = 421 < Mu (460)
(18.41-a)
19. Hence, we must increase the section to W24x76. From above Lr = 23.4 ft. since Lr < Lb , failure is
governed by elastic lateral torsional buckling, and we use Eq. 18.11
=
Cb Mr
Mp
Lb
ry
Mcr
=
=
b Mn
Victor Saouma
1
= 381. k.ft
(12)
Mr
(18.42-a)
(18.42-b)
(18.42-c)
(18.42-d)
(18.42-e)
(18.42-f)
(18.42-g)
(18.42-h)
Structural Engineering
1811
Draft
20. Note that Mc r is 581 for segment B, and was 600 for segment A.
21. Use W24x76
18.5
p
tw
b
p < 2tff r
bf
2tf
Compact
Mn = Mp (Mp Mr )( r pp ) Mp
Partially compact
Plastic Hinge
Inelastic lateral torsional buckling
Elastic lateral torsional buckling
p < thwc r
Unbraced Beams
Lb < Lp
Mn = Mp&= Zx Fy
'
L L
Mp
Lp < Lb < Lr Mn = Cb Mp (Mp Mr ) Lrb Lpp
!
2
X X
Lr < Lb
Mcr = Cb SxLXb 1 2 1 + 1L 22 Cb Mr
2
ry
Elastic Buckling
Inelastic Buckling
b
ry
Columns
2
c 1.5
Fcr = 0.658c Fy
c > 1.5
Fcr = 0.877
2 Fy
c
Victor Saouma
Structural Engineering
1812
Draft
Victor Saouma
Structural Engineering
Draft
Chapter 19
19.1
19.2
AISC Specications
Pu
8
+
c Pn
9
19.3
Examples
19.3.1
Verication
Mux
Muy
+
b Mnx
b Mny
Pu
Mux
+
2c Pn
b Mnx
Pu
.20 (19.1)
c Pn
Pu
1.0 if
.20 (19.2)
c Pn
1.0 if
192
Draft
Solution:
1. Calculate the slenderness ratios in both the weak and strong directions (even though when unbraced
in both directions, the weak axis will of course be critical).
Klx
rx
Kly
ry
=
=
2. Using Table 16.1, we can nd the design axial stress (c Fcr ) as 25.71 ksi. And, multiplying that
with the area of the section, we can nd the design axial capacity (c Pn ) as follows:
c Pn
=
=
c Fcr Ag
(25.71) ksi(35.3) in2 = 907.6 k
Pu
c Pn
is as follows:
(400) k
= .44 > .20
(907.6) k
therefore we must use Eq. as the beam-column analysis.
Pu
Mux
8
Muy
+
+
1.0
c Pn
9 b Mnx
b Mny
4. To start, calculate the design moment capacity (b Mn ) of the W 12 120. The beam is compact
and the unbraced length, lb , is 15 feet. This value of unbraced length is then compared to limits
referred to as Lp and Lr to determine whether plastic behavior can be developed or whether
buckling behavior controls the bending behavior. The values for Lp and Lr can be calculated
using Eq. 6-1 and 6-2 respectively or they can be found in the beam section of the LRFD manual.
In either case these values for a W 12 120 are:
Lp
Lr
Victor Saouma
= 13 ft
= 75.5 ft
Structural Engineering
19.3 Examples
193
Draft
5. Since our unbraced length falls between these two values, the beam will be controlled by inelastic
buckling, and the nominal moment capacity Mn can be calculated from Eq. 6-5. Using this
equation we must rst calculate the plastic and elastic moment capacity values, Mp and Mr .
Mp
Mr
=
=
Mn
=
=
l L
(1513) ft
1.0[558 (558 453.2)] k.ft (75.515)
ft
551.4 k.ft
=
=
Cm
Cm
Pu
Pe
=
=
=
=
1
.60 .4 M
M2
50
.60 .4 50 = 1.0
400 k
2 EAg
(Eulers Buckling Load Equation)
Kl 2
Pe
2 (29,000 ksi)(35.3
32.672
B1 Mnt
Cm
u
1 P
Pe
in2 )
= 9, 456 k
1
1
(400) k
(9,456) k
= 1.044
=
=
B1 Mnt
1.044(50) k.ft = 52.2 k.ft
1.0
=
1 When dealing with unbraced frames, the procedure gets more involved since the calculation of sidesway
eects (sidesway moments and sidesway axial loads) is required to utilize the alternate method that we
perform to estimate the secondary eects. This generally means that a single load case on an unbraced
frame that causes sidesway must be analyzed as if it were two separate load casesone that would
have a negligible sidesway eect (typically the vertical gravity loads) and one that would cause sidesway
(typically the lateral loads). This is illustrated in Figure 19.1
2 As the forces and moments for each of these broken-down load cases are calculated for a member,
the same basic procedure is then followed as it was in the rst example.
Victor Saouma
Structural Engineering
194
Draft
The analysis of frames and frames subject to sidesway is not within the scope of this course.
You should be aware that as unbraced members are encountered, the B2 magnier will become active
as the frame exhibits sidesway behavior. The following example illustrates this situation.
Solution:
1. Typically, we would start this problem by separating the loads into those that cause sidesway
eects (the lateral load) and those that have little inuence on such eects (the vertical loads).
As shown below, the eects on the columns from the lateral load and the vertical load can be
computed separately by various standard techniques of analysis such as moment distribution.
Victor Saouma
Structural Engineering
19.3 Examples
195
Draft
2. From these techniques, we nd that each column is under approximately 20 kips of factored axial
load and a moment of 40 kip-feet in no sidesway case. And, they are under 20 kips of factored
axial load (dierent directions) and a moment of 200 kip-feet (assuming pinned supports) in the
sidesway case.
3. To begin the evaluation, calculate the column sections design axial capacity c Pn . Calculating
the slenderness ratios about both axis (although the weak axis will control in this case):
Kl
ry
Kl
rx
=
=
1.0(240) in
(3.70) in
1.5(240) in
(6.14) in
= 64.8
= 58.6
4. Since the weak axis controls, nd the design axial stress c Fcr that can be taken from Table 16.1.
In this case the design axial stress corresponding to the critical slenderness ratio is 24.54 ksi. This
would make the design axial capacity of this section as follows:
c Pn
c Pn
Pu
5. Since Pc Pun =
section.
40 k
650.3 k
= c Fcr Ag
= (24.54) ksi(26.5) in2 ) = 650.3 k
= (20) k (no sidesway) + (20) k (sidesway) = 40 k
= .061 < .20 Eq. controls and should be used to check the adequacy of the
6. Calculate the design bending capacity of these sections about the strong axis. The unbraced length
of this column is assumed to be 20 feet and the nominal moment capacity depends on what bending
behavior controls in this case. Compare the unbraced length (20 ft.) to the Lp and Lr limits that
were discussed in Chapter 6.
7. These values can be calculated from Equations 6-1 and 6-2 or taken from the LRFD manual. Since
the Lp value for a W 14 90 is 15.4 feet and the Lr , value is 54.1 feet, the sections capacity is
controlled by Case 2 (compact beams exhibiting inelastic lateral torsional buckling).
8. The capacity of this section is found by calculating Eq. 6-5 (see Chapter 6) as follows and notice
that Cb is equal to 1.67 using Mmax = 40, Ma = 10, Mb = 20, and Mc = 30.
9. Before calculating the nominal moment capacity from Eq. 6-5, rst calculate the plastic and elastic
moment capacity Mp and Mr .
Mp
Mr
Victor Saouma
=
=
=
196
Draft
10. However because the nominal moment capacity cannot be greater than the plastic moment capacity,
use 471 ft.-kips which is the plastic moment capacity. The design moment capacity is:
b Mn = 0.90(471) k.ft = 423.9 k.ft
11. After this we can calculate the magnication factors B1 and B2 , remembering that B1 is used for
the nonsway eects and B2 for the sway eects. In this case, the axis of bending has been stated
to be the x-axis and the eective length factor K was given as 1.5. Therefore for B1
B1
Cm
Cm
=
=
Pe
Pu
=
=
Cm
u
(1 P
Pe
M1
.60 .4 M
2
1
.6 since M
M2 = 0
2 EAg
2
( Kl
r )
2206 k
40 k
2 E(26.5)
58.62
in2
12. Therefore,
B1 =
.6
1
(40) k
(2,206) k
1
u
1 P
Pe
Pu
Pe
B2
=
=
=
14. Calculating the nominal moment capacity about the x-axis, Mus , from Equation 8-1 as follows:
Mu
Mux
= B1 Mnt + B2 Mlt
= 1.0(40) k.ft + 1.01(200) k.ft = 242 k.ft
Mux
b Mnx
(40) k
= (2)(650.3)
k+
= .60 < 1.0
(242) k.ft
(423.9) k.ft
16. Therefore the section is good. Notice that the calculation of Pe for the B1 and B2 magniers is
always taken about the axis of bending, in this case the strong axis.
19.3.2
Design
5 The design of beam-columns is truly a trial and error procedure and depends a great deal on the
designers experience. If the designer can select a good trial section at the very beginning, the work
in obtaining a safe and economical member is greatly simplied although, in any case, the process will
ultimately converge on a solution.
The most popular method of selecting a beam-column is the equivalent axial load method. This method
replaces the factored axial load and moment that are applied to the column with a ctitious concentric
Victor Saouma
Structural Engineering
19.3 Examples
197
Draft
axial load. This ctitious concentric axial load will be larger than the factored axial load but will produce
approximately the same maximum eect.
7 The following equation is used to convert the factored bending moment into an estimated axial load,
P . The actual factored axial load Pu , is added to P resulting in a ctitious axial load called the
equivalent factored axial load Puequiv . This idea is shown below:
Pu + P = Puequiv
where
Pu
P
Puequiv
8 Although there are equations that would estimate the equivalent factored axial load based on the
assumptions used by the interaction formulas separately (Eq. and ), it is much faster to use the following
combined approximation developed from these formulas. This approximation is as follows:
(19.3)
In this formula, Pu is again the actual factored load expressed in kips and Mux and Muy are the bending
moments expressed in kip-feet.
9 If bending should occur about one axis only, the corresponding term regarding the other axis will then
drop out. The value of m is taken from Table 19.1.
10
12
14
All
Shapes
2.0
1.9
1.8
W4
W6
W8
W8
W10
W12
W14
3.1
3.2
2.8
2.5
2.1
1.7
1.5
2.3
2.7
2.5
2.3
2.0
1.7
1.5
1.7
2.1
2.1
2.2
1.9
1.6
1.4
1.4
1.7
1.8
2.0
1.8
1.5
1.4
Fy
KL(f t)
Subsequent
1.1 1.0
1.4 1.2
1.5 1.3
1.8 1.6
1.7 1.6
1.5 1.4
1.3 1.3
Approximation
0.8
2.4 1.8
1.0
2.8 2.2
1.1
2.5 2.2
1.4
2.4 2.2
1.4
2.0 1.9
1.3
1.7 1.6
1.2
1.5 1.4
1.4
1.7
1.8
2.0
1.8
1.5
1.4
50 ksi
16 18
20
22 and
over
1.6
1.4
1.3
1.2
1.1
1.4
1.5
1.7
1.7
1.5
1.3
1.0
1.1
1.3
1.5
1.5
1.4
1.3
0.9
1.0
1.2
1.3
1.4
1.3
1.2
0.8
0.9
1.1
1.2
1.3
1.2
1.2
Table 19.1: Values of m for use in Beam-Column Design Equation, (from a paper in AISC Engineering
Journal by Uang, Wattar, and Leet (1990))
.
The value of U , which is the bending moment conversion factor, is taken from the column load tables that
are shown in Appendix C. (A full set of the column load tables can be found in the column section of the LRFD
manual as well).
10
11 The procedure using this approximate formula is an iterative process that begins by assuming the value of m
from Table 8-1 and a typical value of U (usually about 2.0). After a section is selected, the section is checked
against the applicable AISC interactions formulas (Eq. and ). With successive trials the values of m and U can
be rened to a point where their values begin to stabilize.
Victor Saouma
Structural Engineering
198
Draft
Design the most economical W 12 section subjected to the loads and moments shown below. The value of
K = 1.0 in both strong and weak directions and steel is A36. Assume this member to be part of a frame that is
not subjected to sidesway.
Solution:
Using the equivalent load formula and choosing the rst trial values of m = 1.9 as suggested In Table 8-1 and
U = 2.0 (approximate), the equivalent load is as follows:
=
=
=
Puequiv
Puequiv
Pu + Mux m + Muy mU
(300) k + (120) k.ft(1.9) + (80) k.ft(1.9)(2.0)
832 k
From Column Load tables found in Appendix C for Kl =12 ft. try a W 12 x 106 (with an axial design strength
of 853 kips)
Checking this section with the interaction formulas we nd the following:
Pu
Since P
= (300) k = .352 > .20, the Eq. will control.
n
(853) k
Calculating the design moment capacity about each axis we nd the following:
Lp = 13.0 ft
Since this value is greater than 12 ft. which is this W 12 x 106s unbraced length, the section is able to develop
as plastic capacity. Therefore,
b Mnx
b Mny
1
= 442.8 k.ft
in/ft
3
ft
.90(36) ksi(75.1) in 12 in = 202.8 k.ft
12
Calculating the magnier, B1 , similar to what was done previously, we would nd the following:
Cmx
Cmy
Kl
rx
Kl
ry
.6 .4 120
= 1.0
120
1.0( similarly)
26.3(c = .295)
46.3(c = .519)
=
=
=
=
Victor Saouma
Pe
Pex
Pex
=
=
Pey
Pey
B1x
B1y
=
=
=
=
Ag Fy
2
c
(31.2)
in (36)
.2952
ksi
=
1.078
1
4,162
Structural Engineering
19.3 Examples
199
Draft
=
=
=
B1 Mnt
(120) k.ft(1.023) = 122.76 k.ft
(80) k.ft(1.078) = 86.24 k.ft
8
(300) k
+
(853) k
9
(86.24) k.ft
(122.76) k.ft
+
(442.8) k.ft
(202.8) k.ft
Victor Saouma
Structural Engineering
1910
Draft
Victor Saouma
Structural Engineering
Draft
Part II
Draft
Draft
Chapter 20
2 The concepts used are identical to the ones previously seen, however the major (and only) dierence
is that equations will be written in polar coordinates.
3 Like cables, arches can be used to reduce the bending moment in long span structures. Essentially,
an arch can be considered as an inverted cable, and is transmits the load primarily through axial
compression, but can also resist exure through its exural rigidity.
5 A semi-circular arch unirmly loaded will have some exural stresses in addition to the compressive
ones.
20.1
Arches
6 In order to optimize dead-load eciency, long span structures should have their shapes approximate the
coresponding moment diagram, hence an arch, suspended cable, or tendon conguration in a prestressed
concrete beam all are nearly parabolic, Fig. 20.1.
7 Long span structures can be built using at construction such as girders or trusses. However, for spans
in excess of 100 ft, it is often more economical to build a curved structure such as an arch, suspended
cable or thin shells.
8 Since the dawn of history, mankind has tried to span distances using arch construction. Essentially
this was because an arch required materials to resist compression only (such as stone, masonary, bricks),
and labour was not an issue.
9 The basic issues of static in arch design are illustrated in Fig. 20.2 where the vertical load is per unit
horizontal projection (such as an external load but not a self-weight). Due to symmetry, the vertical
reaction is simply V = wL
2 , and there is no shear across the midspan of the arch (nor a moment). Taking
moment about the crown,
wL L L
M = Hh
=0
(20.1)
2
2
4
Solving for H
H=
wL2
8h
(20.2)
We recall that a similar equation was derived for arches., and H is analogous to the C T forces in a
beam, and h is the overall height of the arch, Since h is much larger than d, H will be much smaller
202
Draft
2
M = w L /8
L
w=W/L
IDEALISTIC ARCH
SHAPE GIVEN BY
MOMENT DIAGRAM
C
RISE = h
-C
BEAM
+T
W/2
M-ARM small
C C-T large
BEAM
T
-C
+T
SAG = h
W/2
IDEALISTIC SUSPENSION
SHAPE GIVEN BY
MOMENT DIAGRAM
Figure 20.1: Moment Resisting Forces in an Arch or Suspension System as Compared to a Beam, (Lin
and Stotesbury 1981)
wL/2
H
h
H = wL2 /8h
L/2
R
R
V = wL/2
R = V 2+ H
V = wL/2
2
MCROWN = VL/2 - wL /8 - H h = 0
M BASE
= wL2 /8 - H h = 0
Victor Saouma
Structural Engineering
20.1 Arches
203
Draft
than C T in a beam.
Since equilibrium requires H to remain constant across thee arch, a parabolic curve would theoretically
result in no moment on the arch section.
10
Three-hinged arches are statically determinate structures which shape can acomodate support settlements and thermal expansion without secondary internal stresses. They are also easy to analyse through
statics.
11
An arch carries the vertical load across the span through a combination of axial forces and exural
ones. A well dimensioned arch will have a small to negligible moment, and relatively high normal
compressive stresses.
12
An arch is far more ecient than a beam, and possibly more economical and aesthetic than a truss
in carrying loads over long spans.
13
If the arch has only two hinges, Fig. 20.3, or if it has no hinges, then bending moments may exist
either at the crown or at the supports or at both places.
14
h
M base
H=wl /8h<
2
wl /8h
APPARENT LINE OF
PRESSURE WITH
ARCH BENDING
INCLUDING BASE
APPARENT LINE
OF PRESSURE WITH
ARCH BENDING
EXCEPT AT THE BASE
H<H H<H
M crown
M base
h
H
L
V
15
In a parabolic arch subjected to a uniform horizontal load there is no moment. However, in practice
an arch is not subjected to uniform horizontal load. First, the depth (and thus the weight) of an arch
is not usually constant, then due to the inclination of the arch the actual self weight is not constant.
Finally, live loads may act on portion of the arch, thus the line of action will not necessarily follow the
arch centroid. This last eect can be neglected if the live load is small in comparison with the dead load.
h
M base
H=wl /8h<
2
wl /8h
APPARENT LINE OF
PRESSURE WITH
ARCH BENDING
INCLUDING BASE
APPARENT LINE
OF PRESSURE WITH
ARCH BENDING
EXCEPT AT THE BASE
H<H H<H
V
M crown
M base
L
V
Figure 20.4: Arch Rib Stiened with Girder or Truss, (Lin and Stotesbury 1981)
Victor Saouma
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20.1.1
Statically Determinate
Figure 20.5:
Solution:
Four unknowns, three equations of equilibrium, one equation of condition statically determinate.
(+ )
MzC
(+ ) Fx
(+ ) Fy
(+ )
MzB
=
=
=
140 26.25 0 0
RAy
2, 900
80
R
1
0
1
Ax
=
1
R
0
1 0
Cy
50
3, 000
RCx
80
60
0 0
RAy
RAx
RCy
RCx
15.1 k
29.8 k
=
34.9 k
50.2 k
=
=
=
=
=
=
0
2.900
0
0
0
3, 000
(20.3)
We can check our results by considering the summation with respect to b from the right:
(20.4)
(20.5)
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20.1 Arches
205
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dP=wRd
R cos
0; (Cy )(2R) +
wRd
R(1 +
cos ) = 0
dP
moment arm
=
wR
wR
=
[ sin ] |=0
(1 + cos )d =
2
2
=0
wR
[( sin ) (0 sin 0)]
2
2 wR
(20.6-a)
=0
Cy
=
=
=
(+ ) MB
=
2
=0
Cx
=
=
wR
wR
2
2
2 1 wR
=
2
cos d =
=0
(20.6-b)
wRd
R cos
dP
moment arm
=0
(20.7-a)
=
wR wR[sin ] |=02 = wR wR( 0)
2
2
2
(20.7-b)
wRd sin + V = 0
(20.8)
( 1)wR cos + wR sin
=0
2
2
Cx
Cy
V = wR ( 2 1) cos + ( 2 ) sin
(20.9)
2. Axial Forces: Similarly, if we consider the summation of forces in the axial direction (FN =
0):
( 2 1)wR sin + 2 wR cos
wRd cos + N = 0
(20.10)
=0
$
%
N = wR ( 2 ) cos ( 2 1) sin
(20.11)
3. Moment: Now we can consider the third equation of equilibrium (Mz = 0):
(+ )
M
M = wR2
Victor Saouma
2 (1
sin ) + ( 2 ) cos
(20.12)
%
(20.13)
Structural Engineering
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dP=wRd
R sin
R cos
C x=( /2-1)wR
R(1-cos )
R cos
C = /2 wR
R cos( )
M
=
(1 sin ) + ( ) cos
EI
EI 2
2
(20.14)
1. The virtual force P will be a unit vertical point in the direction of the desired deection,
causing a virtual internal moment
M =
R
[1 cos sin ]
2
(20.15)
p
2. Hence, application of the virtual work equation yields:
1
= 2
dx
20.1.2
' R
wR2 &
(1 sin ) + ( ) cos [1 cos sin ]
Rd
2
2
=0 EI
2
M
EI
%
wR4 $ 2
7 18 12
16EI
.0337 wR
EI
(20.16-a)
Statically Indeterminate
Structural Engineering
20.1 Arches
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Determine the value of the horizontal reaction component of the indicated two-hinged solid rib arch,
Fig. 20.8 as caused by a concentrated vertical load of 10 k at the center line of the span. Consider
shearing, axial, and exural strains. Assume that the rib is a W24x130 with a total area of 38.21 in2 ,
that it has a web area of 13.70 in2 , a moment of inertia equal to 4,000 in4 , E of 30,000 k/in2 , and a
shearing modulus G of 13,000 k/in2 .
1. Consider that end C is placed on rollers, as shown in Fig. ?? A unit ctitious horizontal force is
applied at C. The axial and shearing components of this ctitious force and of the vertical reaction
at C, acting on any section in the right half of the rib, are shown at the right end of the rib in
Fig. 13-7.
2. The expression for the horizontal displacement of C is
1 Ch = 2
M
C
M
ds + 2
EI
V
C
V
ds + 2
Aw G
N
C
N
ds
AE
(20.17)
Victor Saouma
P
(100 R cos )
2
1(R sin 125.36)
P
sin
2
cos
P
cos
2
(20.18-a)
(20.18-b)
(20.18-c)
(20.18-d)
(20.18-e)
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=
=
sin
Rd
(20.18-f)
(20.18-g)
4. If the above values are substituted in Eq. 20.17 and integrated between the limits of 0.898 and
/2, the result will be
Ch = 22.55 + 0.023 0.003 = 22.57
(20.19)
5. The load P is now assumed to be removed from the rib, and a real horizontal force of 1 k is assumed
to act toward the right at C in conjunction with the ctitious horizontal force of 1 k acting to the
right at the same point. The horizontal displacement of C will be given by
B
B
B
M
V
N
ChCh = 2
ds + 2
ds + 2
ds
(20.20-a)
M
V
N
EI
A
G
AE
w
C
C
C
= 2.309 + 0.002 + 0.002 = 2.313 in
(20.20-b)
6. The value of the horizontal reaction component will be
HC =
Ch
22.57
= 9.75 k
=
ChCh
2.313
(20.21)
22.55
= 9.76 k
2.309
(20.22)
Comments
1. For the given rib and the single concentrated load at the center of the span it is obvious that the
eects of shearing and axial strains are insignicant and can be disregarded.
2. Erroneous conclusions as to the relative importance of shearing and axial strains in the usual solid
rib may be drawn, however, from the values shown in Eq. 20.19. These indicate that the eects of
the shearing strains are much more signicant than those of the axial strains. This is actually the
case for the single concentrated load chosen for the demonstration, but only because the rib does
not approximate the funicular polygon for the single load. As a result, the shearing components
on most sections of the rib are more important than would otherwise be the case.
Victor Saouma
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Draft
3. The usual arch encountered in practice, however, is subjected to a series of loads, and the axis of
the rib will approximate the funicular polygon for these loads. In other words, the line of pressure
is nearly perpendicular to the right section at all points along the rib. Consequently, the shearing
components are so small that the shearing strains are insignicant and are neglected.
4. Axial strains, resulting in rib shortening, become increasingly important as the rise-to-span ratio
of the arch decreases. It is advisable to determine the eects of rib shortening in the design of
arches. The usual procedure is to rst design the rib by considering exural strains only, and then
to check for the eects of rib shortening.
20.2
x
wRd
d
O
R
V
r
C
A
A
y
FzA = wR
(20.23-a)
(wRd)(R sin ) = 0
MxA = 2wR2
(20.23-b)
(wRd)R(1 cos ) = 0
MyA = wR2
(20.23-c)
=0
=
MxA
wRd = 0
FzA
=0
=
MyA
=0
(+ ) Fz = 0 V
Victor Saouma
wRd = 0 V = wr
(20.24)
Structural Engineering
2010
Draft
2. Bending Moment:
MR = 0 M
(20.25)
(20.26)
3. Torsion:
MT = 0 +
0
III Deection are determined last we assume a rectangular cross-section of width b and height d = 2b
and a Poissons ratio = 0.3.
1. Noting that the member will be subjected to both exural and torsional deformations, we
seek to determine the two stinesses.
3
b(2b)
=
2. The exural stiness EI is given by EI = E bd
12 = E 12
2Eb4
3
= .667Eb4 .
3. The torsional stiness of solid rectangular sections J = kb d where b is the shorter side of the
E
E
= 2(1+.3)
=
section, d the longer, and k a factor equal to .229 for db = 2. Hence G = 2(1+)
4
4
.385E, and GJ = (.385E)(.229b ) = .176Eb .
4. Considering both exural and torsional deformations, and replacing dx by rd:
M
T
P
Rd
=
M
Rd
T
+
EI
GJ
z
0
0
W
Torsion
Flexure
U
(20.27)
= R sin
(20.28-a)
= R(1 cos )
(20.28-b)
=
(R
sin
)
(1
cos
)
Rd
+
1
EI
GJ
0
P
4
=
=
20.2.1
1
( cos sin + sin cos ) d
(sin sin cos ) +
.265
wR
EI
0
wR4
(
2. + 18.56
)
EI
Flexure Torsion
4
20.56 wR
EI
(20.29-a)
Theory
18
19
In general we have six internal forces (forces and moments) acting at any section.
1 To
which you have already been exposed at an early stage, yet have very seldom used it so far in mechanics!
Victor Saouma
Structural Engineering
2011
Draft
20.2.1.1
Geometry
In general, the geometry of the structure is most conveniently described by a parameteric set of
equations
y = f2 ();
z = f3 ()
(20.30)
x = f1 ();
20
as shown in Fig. 20.11. the global coordinate system is denoted by X Y Z, and its unit vectors are
21
22
(20.31)
The principal bending axes must be dened, that is if the strong bending axis is parallel to the XY
plane, or horizontal (as is generally the case for gravity load), then this axis is normal to both the N
and Z axes, and its unit vector is
nk
(20.32)
s=
|nk|
23
24
The weak bending axis is normal to both N and S, and thus its unit vector is determined from
w = ns
20.2.1.2
25
(20.33)
Equilibrium
For the equilibrium equations, we consider the free body diagram of Fig. 20.12 an applied load P
2 All
Victor Saouma
Structural Engineering
2012
Draft
P + F = 0;
F = P
(20.34-a)
M = 0; LP + M = 0; M = LP
B
(20.34-b)
26
N
Vs
=
=
Fn
Fs
(20.35-a)
(20.35-b)
Vw
Fw
(20.35-c)
Similarly the torsional and bending moments T, Ms and Mw are also components of the moment
vector M and are determined from
27
Mn
(20.36-a)
Ms
Mw
=
=
Ms
Mw
(20.36-b)
(20.36-c)
Hence, we do have a mean to determine the internal forces. In case of applied loads we summ, and
for distributed load we integrate.
28
y = R sin ;
z=
(20.37)
Structural Engineering
Draft
2013
Victor Saouma
Structural Engineering
2014
Draft
dy = R cos d;
dz =
H
d
(20.38)
(20.39-a)
(20.39-b)
1
K,
and thus
s = cos i + sin j
(20.41)
4. The unit vector along the weak axis is determined from Eq. 20.33
"
"
"
i
j
k ""
1 ""
cos sin
0 ""
w = sn =
K ""
H "
sin cos R
1
H
H
=
sin i
cos j + k
K R
R
(20.42-a)
(20.42-b)
5. With the geometry denition completed, we now examine the equilibrium equations. Eq. 20.34-a
and 20.34-b.
F = 0; F
Mb = 0; M
where
= P
= LP
(20.43-a)
(20.43-b)
L = (R R cos )i + (0 R sin )j + 0 H k
and
LP =
"
"
i
"
R "" (1 cos )
"
0
j
sin
0
k
H
R
P
"
"
"
"
"
"
(20.44)
(20.45-a)
(20.45-b)
(20.46)
=
and
Victor Saouma
Structural Engineering
2015
Draft
6. Finally, the components of the force F = P k and the moment M are obtained by appropriate
dot products with the unit vectors
Victor Saouma
1
H
P R
Fn = K
(20.47-a)
Vs
Fs = 0
(20.47-b)
Vw
1
Fw = K
P
(20.47-c)
Mn = PKR (1 cos )
(20.47-d)
Ms
Ms = P R sin
(20.47-e)
Mw
Mw =
PH
K (1
cos )
(20.47-f)
Structural Engineering
2016
Draft
Victor Saouma
Structural Engineering
Draft
Chapter 21
STATIC INDETERMINANCY;
FLEXIBILITY METHOD
All the examples in this chapter are taken verbatim from White, Gergely and Sexmith
21.1
Introduction
1 A statically indeterminate structure has more unknowns than equations of equilibrium (and equations
of conditions if applicable).
Equilibrium
Force-displacement (or stress-strain) relations (linear elastic in this course).
Compatibility of displacements (i.e. no discontinuity)
5
1. We have three unknowns and only two independent equations of equilibrium. Hence the problem
is statically indeterminate to the rst degree.
2. Applying the equations of equilibrium
right
left
Mz = 0; PAl
= PAl
Fy = 0; 2PAl + PSt = P
Thus we eectively have two unknowns and one equation.
(21.1-a)
212
Draft
= PA
PL
L =
= L
L
AE
= E
PAl L
PSt L
PAl
(EA)Al
=
=
EAl AAl
ESt ASt
PSt
(EA)St
DAl
(21.3)
(21.4)
DSt
or
(EA)St PAl + (EA)Al PSt = 0
(21.5)
=
PSt
(EA)
St (EA)Al 0
1
P
(EA)Al 1
=
0
2(EA)Al + (EA)St (EA)St 2
Determinant
6. We observe that the solution of this sproblem, contrarily to statically determinate ones, depends
on the elastic properties.
7
EI
2
0
0
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Structural Engineering
21.1 Introduction
213
Draft
L/2
L/2
x
P
-PL
PL/2
f BB
-(1)L/2
QL/2
+
Bending Moment Diagram
PL/4
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Structural Engineering
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Draft
=
=
=
PL
x + P x2 dx
2
0
"L/2
2
P x3 ""
1 P Lx
+
EI
4
3 "0
1
EI
L/2
(21.6-c)
(21.6-d)
5 P L3
48 EI
(21.6-e)
3. We then apply a unit load at point B and solve for the displacement at B using the virtual force
method
M
1fBB =
dx
(21.7-a)
M
EI
L/2
x
=
(x)
dx
(21.7-b)
EI
0
(1)L3
(21.7-c)
=
24EI
4. Then we argue that the displacement at point B is zero, and hence the displacement fBB should
be multiplied by RB such that
RB fBB = D
(21.8)
to ensure compatibility of displacements, hence
RB =
21.2
D
=
fBB
5
3
48 P L EI
(1)L3
24EI
5
2P
(21.9)
8 Based on the previous two illustrative examples, we now seek to develop a general method for the
linear elastic analysis of statically indeterminate structures.
[f ]
D1
D2
=
Dn
D
D10
D20
Dn0
(21.10)
D0i
and
0
1
[R] = [f ]1 D D0i
(21.11)
Note that D0i is the vector of initial displacements, which is usually zero unless we have an initial
displacement of the support (such as support settlement).
Victor Saouma
Structural Engineering
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Draft
7. The reactions are then obtained by simply inverting the exibility matrix.
Note that from Maxwell-Bettis reciprocal theorem, the exibility matrix [f ] is always symmetric.
21.3
Since deections due to exural eects must be determined numerous times in the exibility method,
Table 21.1 may simplify some of the evaluation of the internal strain energy. You are strongly discouraged
to use this table while still at school!.
10
g2 (x)
a
g1 (x)
Lac
Lac
2
Lc(a+b)
2
Lac
2
Lac
3
Lc(2a+b)
6
Lac
2
Lac
6
Lc(a+2b)
6
La(c+d)
2
La(2c+d)
6
La(2c+d)+Lb(c+2d)
6
La(c+4d+e)
6
La(c+2d)
6
La(c+2d)+Lb(2d+e)
6
c
c
L
c
L
d
c
L
c
d e
L
g1 (x)g2 (x)dx
0
21.4
Examples
Victor Saouma
Structural Engineering
216
Draft
Figure 21.3:
If the frame is made of steel beam sections 21 in. deep and weighing 62 lb/ft of length (W 21 62),
and the tie member for design (c) is tentatively chosen as a 2-in.2 bar, determine the bending moment
diagrams for the three designs and discuss the alternate solutions.
Solution:
Structure a This frame is statically determinate since it has three possible unknown external
forces acting on it, and the bending moment is shown in Fig. 21.6-a.
Structure b Hinging both legs of the frame results in another unknown force, making the structure
statically indeterminate to the rst degree (one redundant).
1. A lateral release at point A is chosen. with the redundant shearing force R1 . The displacement D1Q
in the primary structure, as a result of the real loading, is shown in Figure 21.4-a. D1Q is computed by
virtual work.
2. The virtual force system in Figure 21.4-b produces a virtual bending moment M , which is uniform
Figure 21.4:
across the top member of the frame. The virtual moment acting through the real angle changes gives
the internal work term
40
M
dx
(21.12)
M
M d =
EI
0
Victor Saouma
Structural Engineering
21.4 Examples
217
Draft
40
1 D1Q =
0
(12)(1/2)(.75)(Lx x2 )
dx
EI
(21.13)
or
48, 000
k ft3
(21.14)
EI
4. The equation of consistent displacement is D1Q +f11 R1 = 0. The exibility coecient f11 is computed
by applying a unit horizontal force at the release and determining the displacement at the same point.
5. It is seen that the real loading and the virtual loading are identical for this calculation, and
12 2
20 2
x dx
12 dx
+
(21.15)
1 f11 = 2
EI
EI
0
0
D1Q =
or
f11 =
6. Solving for R1
6, 912
k ft3
EI
(21.16)
1
[48, 000 + 6, 912R1] = 0
EI
(21.17)
R1 = 6.93 k
(21.18)
or
7. The bending moment diagram is given below
Structure c The frame with the horizontal tie between points A and D has three unknown external
forces. However, the structure is statically indeterminate to the rst degree since the tie member provides
one degree of internal redundancy.
8. The logical release to choose is a longitudinal release in the tie member, with its associated longitudinal
displacement and axial force.
9. The primary structure Fig. 21.5 is the frame with the tie member released. The compatibility
Figure 21.5:
equation is based on the fact that the displacement at the release must be zero; that is, the relative
displacement of the two sections of the tie at the point of release must be zero, or
D1Q + f11 R1 = 0
Victor Saouma
(21.19)
Structural Engineering
218
Draft
where
D1Q = displacement at release 1 in the primary structure, produced by the loading,
f11 = relative displacement at release 1 for a unit axial force in the tie member,
R1 = force in the tie member in the original structure.
10. Virtual work is used to determine both displacement terms.
11. The value of D1Q is identical to the displacement D1Q computed for structure (b) because the tie
member has no forces (and consequently no deformations) in the primary structure. Thus
D1Q =
(21.20)
12. The exibility coecient f11 is composed of two separate eects: a exural displacement due to the
exibility of the frame, and the axial displacement of the stressed tie member. The virtual and real
loadings for this calculation are shown in Figure 21.5. The virtual work equation is
12 2
20
x1 dx1
(12)2 dx
pL
+
(21.21-a)
1 f11 = 2
+ P
EI
EI
EA
0
0
6, 912 1(1)(40)
=
+
(21.21-b)
EI
EA
40(12)
(6, 912)(1, 728)
+
(21.21-c)
=
(30 103 )(1, 327) (30 103 )(2)
= 0.300 + 0.008 = 0.308
(21.21-d)
and
f11 = 0.308in./k
(21.22)
(21.23)
2.08 .308R1 = 0
(21.24)
R1 = 6.75 k (tension)
(21.25)
or
or
14. The two displacement terms in the equation must carry opposite signs to account for their dierence
in direction.
Comments The bending moment in the frame, Figure 21.6-c diers only slightly from that of
structure (b). In other words, the tie member has such high axial stiness that it provides nearly as
much restraint as the foundation of structure (b). Frames with tie members are used widely in industrial
buildings. A lesson to be learned here is that it is easy to provide high stiness through an axially loaded
member.
Figure 21.6:
The maximum moment in frames (b) and (c) is about 55% of the maximum moment in frame (a).
This eect of continuity and redundancy is typical the positive bending moments in the members are
lowered while the joint moments increase and a more economical design can be realized.
Finally, we should notice that the vertical reactions at the bases of the columns do not change with
the degree of horizontal restraint at the bases. A question to ponder is Does this type of reaction
behavior occur in all frames, or only in certain geometrical congurations?
Victor Saouma
Structural Engineering
21.4 Examples
219
Draft
Example 21-2: Analysis of Irregular Building Frame, (White et al. 1976)
The structural steel frame for the Church of the Holy Spirit, Peneld, New York is shown below. In
this example we will discuss the idealization of the structure and then determine the forces and bending
moments acting on the frame.
Solution:
1. A sectional view of the building is given in Figure 21.8-a.
Figure 21.7:
The two main horizontal members of the frame are supported at points A and D by masonry walls.
2. The connection used at these points is not intended to transmit axial forces from the frame to the
wall; accordingly, the axial forces in the horizontal members are assumed to be zero and the joints at A
and D are idealized as rollers that transmit vertical forces only.
3. The base joint E is designed to resist both horizontal and vertical loads, but not moment, and is
assumed to be a hinge.
4. Finally, joints B and C are designed to provide continuity and will be taken as rigid; that is, the
angles of intersection of the members at the joint do not change with applied loading.
5. The frame is simplied for analysis by removing the small 4-in. wide ange members EF and F G
and replacing their load eect by applying the roof load which acts on EF directly to the segment AG.
6. The idealized frame is shown in Figure 21.8-b.
7. The dead load on the higher portion of the frame is wAB = 25 psf times the frame spacing of 13.33
ft, or wAB = 25(13.33) = 334 lb/ft along the frame.
8. The dead load on CD is less because the weight of the frame member is substantially smaller, and
the dead load is about 19 psf, or wCD = 19(13.33) = 254 lb/ft of frame.
9. Snow load is 35 psf over both areas, or w = 35(13.33) = 467 lb/ft.
10. Total loads are then
Victor Saouma
Structural Engineering
2110
Draft
Figure 21.8:
Victor Saouma
Structural Engineering
21.4 Examples
2111
Draft
Member AB:
Member CD:
11. The frame has four unknown reaction components and therefore has one redundant. Although
several dierent releases are possible, we choose an angular (bending) release at point B.
12. The resulting primary structure is shown in Figure 21.8-c, where the redundant quantity R1 is the
bending moment at point B.
13. The equation of compatibility is
(21.26)
1Q + 11 R1 = 0
where 1Q is the relative angular rotation corresponding to release 1 as produced by the actual loading,
and 11 is the exibility coecient for a unit moment acting at the release.
14. From virtual work we have
M
dx
(21.27)
1 1Q = M d = M
EI
and
1 11 =
M d =
M
dx
EI
(21.28)
where m is a real unit load and M and M are dened in Figure 21.8-d and e.
15. Then
1Q
=
+
=
1
(EI)AB
0
61.42
x
(24.6x 0.4x2 )dx
61.42
(21.29-a)
21.33
1
x
(7.68x 0.36x2 )dx
(EI)CD 0
21.33
7750
295
+
(EI)AB
(EI)CD
(21.29-b)
(21.29-c)
2.75
1.733 1.0107
+
=
E
E
E
(21.30)
17. Similarly
11
x 2
dx
61.42
0
21.33
8
1
x 2
1
+
dx +
(1)2 dx
(EI)CD 0
21.33
(EI)BC 0
1
(EI)AB
61.42
20.5
7.11
8.0
0.0585
+
+
=
(EI)AB
(EI)CD
(EI)BC
E
(21.31-a)
(21.31-b)
(21.32)
Note that the numerators of 1Q and 11 have the units k-ft2 /in4 .
19. Applying the compatibility equation,
2.75 0.0585
+
R1 = 0
E
E
(21.33)
and the bending moment at point B is R1 = 47.0 ft-k . The reactions and moments in the structure
are given in Figure 21.8-f.
Structural Engineering
2112
Draft
Figure 21.9:
Determine the bar forces in the steel truss shown below using the force method of analysis. The truss
is part of a supporting tower for a tank, and the 20 kN horizontal load is produced by wind loading on
the tank.
Solution:
1. Applying the criteria for indeterminacy, 2 4 = 8 equations, 6 members + 3 reactions one degree
of indeterminacy. A longitudinal release in any of the six bars may be chosen.
2. Because the truss members carry only axial load, a longitudinal release is identical to actually cutting
the member and removing its axial force capability from the truss.
3. In analyzing trusses with double diagonals it is both convenient and customary to select the release
in one of the diagonal members because the resulting primary structure will be the conventional truss
form to which we are accustomed.
4. Choosing the diagonal member BC for release, we cut it and remove its axial stiness from the
structure. The primary structure is shown in Figure 21.9-b.
5. The analysis problem reduces to applying an equation of compatibility to the changes in length of
the release member. The relative displacement D1Q of the two cut ends of member BC, as produced by
the real loading, is shown in Figure 21.9-c.
6. The displacement is always measured along the length of the redundant member, and since the
redundant is unstressed at this stage of the analysis, the displacement D1Q is equal to the relative
displacement of joint B with respect to joint C.
7. This displacement must be eliminated by the relative displacements of the cut ends of member BC
when the redundant force is acting in the member. The latter displacement is written in terms of the
axial exibility coecient f11 , and the desire equation of consistent deformation is
D1Q + f11 R1 = 0
(21.34)
(21.35)
Victor Saouma
Structural Engineering
21.4 Examples
2113
(21.36)
Draft
P
0
0
+20
+20
28.28
0
P
0.707
0.707
0.707
0.707
+1
+1
L
3
3
3
3
4.242
4.242
P P L
0
0
42.42
42.42
119.96
0
-204.8
P P L
1.5
1.5
1.5
1.5
4.242
4.242
14.484
204.8
PL
14.484
=
andf11 =
AE
AE
AE
(21.37)
1
[204.8 + 14.484R1] = 0
AE
(21.38)
Figure 21.10:
analysis for this particular truss. The reason for this is that the stiness provided by each of the diagonal
members (against shear deformation of the rectangular panel) is the same, and therefore they each
carry an equal portion of the total shear across the panel.
16. How would this structure behave if the diagonal members were very slender?
Structural Engineering
2114
Draft
Another panel with a second redundant member is added to the truss of Example 21-3 and the new
truss is supported at its outermost lower panel points, as shown in Figure 21.11. The truss, which is
similar in form to trusses used on many railway bridges, is to be analyzed for bar forces under the given
loading.
Solution:
1. The twice redundant truss is converted to a determinate primary structure by releasing two members
of the truss; we choose two diagonals (DB and BF ).
2. Releasing both diagonals in a single panel, such as members AE and DB, is inadmissible since it
leads to an unstable truss form.
3. The member forces and required displacements for the real loading and for the two redundant forces
Figure 21.11:
in members DB and BF are given in Figure 21.11.
4. Although the real loading ordinarily stresses all members of the entire truss, we see that the unit forces
corresponding to the redundants stres only those members in the panel that contains the redundant; all
other bar forces are zero.
5. Recognizing this fact enables us to solve the double diagonal truss problem more rapidly than a frame
with multiple redundants.
6. The virtual work equations for computing the six required displacements (two due to load and four
exibilities) are
PL
1 D1Q = P 1
(21.39-a)
AE
PL
1 D2Q = P 2
(21.39-b)
AE
P 1L
1 f11 = P 1
(21.39-c)
AE
P 1L
1 f21 = P 2
(21.39-d)
AE
= f21 by the reciprocal theorem
(21.39-e)
f12
Victor Saouma
Structural Engineering
21.4 Examples
2115
Draft
1 f22
= P 2
P 2L
AE
(21.39-f)
7. If we assume tension in a truss member as postive, use tensile unit loads when computing the exibility
coecients corresponding to the redundants, and let all displacement terms carry their own signs, then
in the solution for the redundants a positive value of force indicates tension while a negative value means
the member is in compression.
8. The calculation of f22 involves only the six members in the left panel of the truss; f21 involves only
member BE.
9. The simple procedures used for performing the displacement analyses, as summarized in tabular form
in Table 21.2, leads one quickly to the compatibility equations which state that the cut ends of both
Member
AB
BC
CF
EF
DE
AD
AE
BE
CE
BD
BF
P
-9.5
-9.5
-9.5
0
+4
-5.5
+7.78
.15
+13.43
0
0
P1
-0.707
0
0
0
-0.707
-0.707
+1
-0.707
0
+1
0
P2
0
-0.707
-0.707
-0.707
0
0
0
-0.707
+1
0
+1
L
120
120
120
120
120
120
170
120
170
170
170
D1Q
P 1 P L
+806
0
0
0
-340
+466
+1,322
+1,272
0
0
0
+3,528
D2Q
P 2 P L
0
+806
+806
0
0
0
0
+1272
+2,280
0
0
+5,164
f11
P 1 P 1 L
60
0
0
0
60
60
170
60
0
170
0
+580
f21
P 2 P 1 L
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
60
0
0
0
+60
f22
P 2 P 2 L
0
60
60
60
0
0
0
60
170
0
170
+580
Table 21.2:
redundant members must match (there can be no gaps or overlaps of members in the actual structure).
10. The equations are
or
1
AE
= 0
(21.40-a)
= 0
(21.40-b)
580 60
60 580
R1
R2
=
1
AE
3, 528
5, 164
(21.41)
and
R1
5.20 k
(21.42-a)
R2
8.38 k
(21.42-b)
11. The nal set of forces in the truss is obtained by adding up, for each member, the three separate
eects. In terms of the forces shown in Figure 21.11 and Table 21.2, the force in any member is given by
F = P + R1 P 1 + R2 P 2 . The nal solution is given in Figure 21.11-e. The truss is part of a supporting
tower for a tank, and the 20 kN horizontal load is produced by wind loading on the tank.
12. NOTE: A mixture of internal redundant forces and external redundant reactions is no more dicult
than the preceding example. Consider the two-panel truss of this example modied by the addition of
another reaction component at joint E, Figure 21.12. The three releases for this truss can be chosen
from a number of possible combinations: diagonals DB and BF and the reaction at E; the same two
diagonals and the reaction at F ; the same diagonals and the top chord member BC, etc. The only
requirement to be met is that the primary structure be stable and statically determinate.
13. For any set of releases there are four new displacement components: the displacement at the third
release resulting from the actual load on the primary structure, and the three exibility coecients
f31 , f32 , and f33 . Judicious choice of releases often results in a number of the exibility coecients being
zero
Victor Saouma
Structural Engineering
2116
Draft
Figure 21.12:
Figure 21.13:
Solution:
1. The beam has one redundant force; we select MB as the redundant R1 , and obtain the primary
structure shown in Figure 21.13-c. It can be shown that the exibility co-ecients for unit moments
applied at each end are those shown in Fig. 21.13-d and e, with a sign convention of counterclockwise
as positive.
2. The equation of consistent displacements at B is
3 l
MA l
+
R1 = 0
8EI
16 EI
(21.43)
Structural Engineering
21.4 Examples
2117
Draft
2
MA
(21.44)
3
3. The resulting moment diagram is given in Figure 21.13-f. We note that the inection point is 0.40l
from the xed end. If the beam had a uniform value of I across its span, the inection point would be
L/3 from the xed end. Thus the inection point shifts toward the section of reduced stiness.
4. The end rotation A is given by
l
11 MA l
5 MA l 1 2
MA
=
(21.45)
a =
16 EI
8 3
EL
48 EI
MB = R1 =
5. The ratio of applied end moment to rotation. MA /A , is called the rotational stiness and is
EI
48 EI
MA
= 4.364
=
A
11 l
l
(21.46)
6. If we now reverse the boundary conditions, making A xed and B hinged, and repeat the analysis for
an applied moment MB , the resulting moment diagram will be as given in Figure 21.13-h. The moment
induced at end A is only 40% of the applied end moment MB . The inection point is 0.286l from the
xed end A. The corresponding end rotation B in Figure 21.13-g is
B =
7. The rotational stiness
MB
B
11 MB l
80 EI
(21.47)
is
EI
MB
80 EI
= 7.272
=
B
11 l
l
(21.48)
8. A careful comparison of the rotational stinesses, and of the moment diagrams in Figures 21.13-f and
h, illustrate the fact that exural sections of increased stiness attract more moment, and that inection
points always shift in the direction of decreased stiness.
9. The approach illustrated here may be used to determine moments and end rotations in any type of
nonprismatic member. The end rotations needed in the force analysis may be calculated by either virtual
work or moment area (or by other methods). Complex variations in EI are handled by numerical integration of the virtual work equation or by approximating the resultant M/EI areas and their locations
in the moment area method.
Example 21-6: Fixed End Moments for Nonprismatic Beams, (White et al. 1976)
The beam of example 21-5, with both ends xed, is loaded with a uniform load w, Figure 21.14-a.
Determine the xed end moments MA and MB .
Solution:
1. The beam has two redundant forces and we select MA and MB . Releasing these redundants, R1 and
R2 , the primary structure is as shown in Figure 21.14-c.
2. The equations of consistent deformations are
D1Q + f11 R1 + f12 R2
= 0
(21.49-a)
= 0
(21.49-b)
where R1 is MA and R2 is MB .
3. The values of D1Q and D2Q , the end rotations produced by the real loading on the primary structure,
can be computed by the virtual work method.
4. The exibility coecients are also separately derived (not yet in these notes) and are given in Figures
21.14-d and e of the previous example.
Victor Saouma
Structural Engineering
2118
Draft
Figure 21.14:
5. We dene counterclockwise end moments and rotations a positive and obtain
5
l
wl3 0.352
R1
81
16
=
3
R2
EI 18
EI +0.0273
16
(21.50)
from which
R1
MA = 0.0742wl2
(21.51-a)
R2
MB = 0.0961wl2
(21.51-b)
6. The stier end of the beam attracts 30% more than the exible end.
7. For a prismatic beam with constant I, the xed end moments are equal in magnitude (MA = MB =
wl2 /12) and intermediate in value between the two end moments determined above.
8. Fixed end moments are an essential part of indeterminate analysis based on the displacement (stiness) method and will be used extensively in the Moment Distribution method.
12, 833
1
31, 333
{D} =
EI
1, 800
(21.53)
Structural Engineering
21.4 Examples
2119
Draft
Figure 21.15:
Victor Saouma
Structural Engineering
Victor Saouma
D3Q
D2Q
D1Q
f33
f32
f31
f23
f22
+ h(2h+10L20)
2
Lh(2h+10L20)
2
(2h+15L30)
6
+h
hL
h2
hL
+L2 h
+ h2L
(3010L)
6
L(205L)
2
+L
+ Lh(205L)
2
+L
L2
Lh
L2
+ L3
+ L2 h
Lh
+ L2 h
+Lh2
M M dx
BC
+h
h2
h2
+ h3
CD
(2h+15L30)
6EIc
h(2h+10L20)
2EIc
2h
+ EI
c
Lh(2h+10L20)
2EIc
hL
EI
c
h
EI
c
hL
EI
c
h
+L
EIc
h L
+ 2EI
c
h
EI
c
h L
+ 2EI
c
M
M EI
dx
Total
2h
+ 3EI
c
f21
h2
f13
+ h2L
f12
+ h3
AB
f11
L(205L)
2EIb
L2 (3010L)
6EIb
Lh(205L)
2EIb
L
EIb
L2
2EIb
Lh
EIb
L2
2EIb
L3
3EIb
L2 h
2EIb
Lh
EIb
L2 h
2EIb
Lh2
EIb
Draft
2120
STATIC INDETERMINANCY; FLEXIBILITY METHOD
Structural Engineering
21.4 Examples
2121
Draft
[f ]1
2.40
0.00 18.00
= 103 EI 0.00 0.375 3.750
18.000 3.750 197.5
(21.54)
2.40
0.00 18.00
1.60
R1
12, 833
1
+5.00
R2
31, 333
= 103 EI 0.00 0.375 3.750
{R} =
=
EI
7.00
R3
1, 800
18.000 3.750 197.5
(21.55)
Example 21-8: Frame with Temperature Eectsand Support Displacements, (White et al. 1976)
The single bay frame, of example 21-7, has a height h = 10 ft and span L = 20 ft and its two suports
rigidly connected and is constructed of reinforced concrete. It supports a roof and wall partitions in
such a manner that a linear temperature variation occurs across the depth of the frame members when
inside and outside temperatures dier. Assume the member depth is constant at 1 ft, and that the
structure was built with xed bases A and D at a temperature of 85 F. The temperature is now 70 F
inside and 20 F outside. We wish to determine the reactions at D under these conditions. Assume that
the coecient of linear expansion of reinforced concrete is = 0.0000055/F.
Solution:
1. Our analysis proceeds as before, using Equation 21.11 with the [D] vector interpreted appropriately.
The three releases shown in Fig. 21.16 will be used.
2. The rst stage in the analysis is the computation of the relative displacements D1 , D2 , D3 of the
primary structure caused by temperature eects. These displacements are caused by two eects: axial
shortening of the members because of the drop in average temperature (at middepth of the members),
and curvature of the members because of the temperature gradient.
3. In the following discussion the contributions to displacements due to axial strain are denoted with a
single prime () and those due to curvature by a double prime ().
4. Consider the axial strain rst. A unit length of frame member shortens as a result of the temperature
decrease from 85 F to 45 F at the middepth of the member. The strain is therefore
T = (0.0000055)(40) = 0.00022
(21.56)
5. The eect of axial strain on the relative displacements needs little analysis. The horizontal member
shortens by an amount (0.00022)(20) = 0.0044 ft. The shortening of the vertical members results in no
relative displacement in the vertical direction 2. No rotation occurs.
6. We therefore have D1
= 0.0044 ft, D2
= 0, and D3
= 0.
7. The eect of curvature must also be considered. A frame element of length dx undergoes an angular
strain as a result of the temperature gradient as indicated in Figure 21.17. The change in length at an
extreme ber is
I = T dx = 0.0000055(25)dx = 0.000138dx
(21.57)
8. with the resulting real rotation of the cross section
d = I/0.5 = 0.000138dx/0.5 = 0.000276dx radians
(21.58)
9. The relative displacements of the primary structure at D are found by the virtual force method.
10. A virtual force Q is applied in the direction of the desired displacement and the resulting moment
diagram M determined.
Victor Saouma
Structural Engineering
2122
Draft
Figure 21.17:
11. The virtual work equation
QD =
M d
(21.59)
0.0828 ft
(21.60-a)
D2
0.1104 ft
(21.60-b)
D3
0.01104 radians
(21.60-c)
=
=
=
D1
+ D1
D2 + D2
D3 + D3
=
=
=
0.0784 ft
0.1104 ft
0.01104 radians
(21.61)
(21.62)
R1
0.0784
$
%
R2 = 103 EI 18.0 3.75 197.5 0.1104 = +0.0106 103 EI
+0.355
R3
+0.01104
(21.63)
Structural Engineering
21.4 Examples
2123
Draft
For the purposes of this example, assume that a foundation study has revealed the possibility of a
clockwise rotation of the support at D of 0.001 radians and a downward movement of the support at D
of 0.12 ft. We wish to evaluate the redundants R1 , R2 , and R3 caused by this foundation movement.
19. No analysis is needed to determine the values of D1 , D2 , and D3 for the solution of the redundants. These displacements are found directly from the support movements, with proper consideration
of the originally chosen sign convention which dened the positive direction of the relative displacements.
From the given support displacements, we nd D1 = 0, D2 = +0.12 ft, and D3 = 0.001 radians.
Can you evaluate these quantities for a case in which the support movements occurred at A instead of
D?
20. The values of the redundants is given by
[R] = [f ]1 ([D])
(21.64)
R1
$
% 0.12
18.0
6
R2 = 103 EI 18.0 3.75 197.5
= 10 EI
252.5
+0.001
R3
(21.65)
Example 21-9: Braced Bent with Loads and Temperature Change, (White et al. 1976)
The truss shown in Figure 21.18 reperesents an internal braced bent in an enclosed shed, with
lateral loads of 20 kN at the panel points. A temperature drop of 30 C may occur on the outer members
(members 1-2, 2-3, 3-4, 4-5, and 5-6). We wish to analyze the truss for the loading and for the temperature
eect.
Solution:
1. The rst step in the analysis is the denition of the two redundants. The choice of forces in diagonals
2-4 and 1-5 as redundants facilitates the computations because some of the load eects are easy to
analyze. Figure ??-b shows the denition of R1 and R2 .
2. The computations are organized in tabular form in Table 21.4. The rst column gives the bar forces
P in the primary structure caused by the actual loads. Forces are in kN. Column 2 gives the force in each
bar caused by a unit load (1 kN) corresponding to release 1. These are denoted p1 and also represent the
bar force q1 /Q1 caused by a virtual force Q1 applied at the same location. Column 3 lists the same
quantity for a unit load and for a virtual force Q2 applied at release 2. These three columns constitute
a record of the truss analysis needed for this problem.
3. Column 4 gives the value of L/EA for each bar in terms of Lc /EAc of the vertical members. This is
useful because the term L/EA cancels out in some of the calculations.
4. The method of virtual work is applied directly to compute the displacements D1Q and D2Q corresponding to the releases and caused by the actual loads. Apply a virtual force Q1 at release 1. The
internal virtual forces q1 are found in column 2. The internal virtual work q1 l is found in column 5 as
the product of columns 1, 2, and 4. The summation of column 5 is D1q = 122.42 Lc /EAc . Similarly,
column 6 is the product of columns 1, 3, and 4, giving D2Q = 273.12 Lc /EAc .
5. The same method is used to compute the exibilities fij . In this case the real loading is a unit load
corresponding rst to release 1 leading to f11 , and f21 , and then to release 2 leading to f12 and f22 .
Column 7 shows the computation for f11 . It is the product of column 2 representing force due to the
real unit load with column 2 representing force due to a virtual load Q1 at the same location (release
1) multiplied by column 4 to include the Lc /EAc term. Column 8 derives from columns 2, 3, and 4 and
leads to f21 . Columns 9 and 10 are the computations for the remaining exibilities.
Victor Saouma
Structural Engineering
Victor Saouma
multiply by
1-2
60.0
2-3
20.00
3-4
0
4-5
0
5-6
20.00
6-1
40.00
2-5
20.00
1-5
0
2-6
56.56
2-4
0
3-5
28.28
0
0.707
0.707
0.707
0
0
0.707
0
0
1.00
1.00
p1
0.707
0
0
0
0.707
0.707
0.707
1.00
1.00
0
0
p2
L/EA
Lc /EAc
1
1
2
1
1
2
2
2.828
2.828
2.828
2.838
D1Q
q1 P L/EA
Lc /EAc
0
14.14
0
0
0
0
28.28
0
0
0
80.00
122.42
D2Q
q2 P L/EA
Lc /EAc
42.42
0
0
0
14.14
56.56
28.28
0
160.00
0
0
273.12
f11
q1 p1 L/EA
Lc /EAc
0
0.50
1.00
0.50
0
0
1.00
0
0
2.83
2.83
8.66
f21
q2 p2 L/EA
Lc /EAc
0
0
0
0
0
0
1.00
0
0
0
0
1.00
f12
qp2 L/EA
Lc /EAc
0
0
0
0
0
0
1.00
0
0
0
0
1.00
f22
q2 p2 L/EA
Lc /EAc
0.50
0
0
0
0.50
1.00
1.00
2.83
2.83
0
0
8.66
/temp
Lc
0.0003
0.0003
0.0003
0.0003
0.0003
0
0
0
0
0
0
D1
q1 /
104 Lc
0
2.12
2.12
2.12
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
6.36
D2
q2 /
104 Lc
2.12
0
0
0
2.12
0
0
0
0
0
0
4.24
Draft
2124
STATIC INDETERMINANCY; FLEXIBILITY METHOD
Structural Engineering
21.4 Examples
2125
Draft
Figure 21.18:
6. We have assumed that a temperature drop of 30 C occurs in the outer members. The corresponding
length changes are found in column 11. Again using the virtual work method, column 12 tabulates the
internal virtual work of virtual forces q1 through displacements l where for each bar, l = lT .
Column 12 is therefore the product of columns 2 and 11. The summation of the elements of column 12
is the displacement D1 corresponding to release 1. Column 13 repeats this process for D2 corresponding
to release 2.
7. The tabulated information provides the necessary terms for a matrix solution of the problem. We
have
Dq
therefore
f 1 =
8.66 1.00
Lc /EAc
1.00 8.66
122.42
Lc /EAc
273.12
6.36
(10)4 Lc
4.24
0.117
0.0134
0.0134 0.117
(21.66-a)
(21.66-b)
(21.66-c)
EAc /Lc
(21.67)
=
=
f 1 (DQ )
$
%
10.66
122.42
0.0134 0.117 EAc /Lc
Lc /EAc =
30.32
273.12
(21.68-a)
(21.68-b)
6.87(105)(200)(500) =
4.11(10
)(200)(500) =
6.87kN
(21.69-a)
4.11kN
(21.69-b)
Structural Engineering
2126
Draft
12. Using the redundant forces from each of these analyses, the remainder of the bar forces are computed
by simple equilibrium. The information in Table 21.4 contains the basis for such computations. The bar
force in any bar is the force of column 1 added to that in column 2 multiplied by R1 plus that in column
3 multiplied by R2 . This follows from the fact that columns 2 and 3 are bar forces caused by a force
of unity corresponding to each of the redundants. The results of the calculations are shown in Figure
??-c for the applied loading and ??-d for the temperature drop. The forces caused by the temperature
drop are similar in magnitude to those caused by wind load in this example. Temperature dierences,
shrinkage, support settlement, or tolerance errors can cause important eects in statically indeterminate
structures. These stresses are self-limiting, however, in the sense that if they cause yielding or some
ductile deformation failure does not necessarily follow, rather relief from th
Victor Saouma
Structural Engineering
Draft
Chapter 22
APPROXIMATE FRAME
ANALYSIS
1
Despite the widespread availability of computers, approximate methods of analysis are justied by
1. Inherent assumption made regarding the validity of a linear elastic analysis vis a vis of an ultimate
failure design.
2. Ability of structures to redistribute internal forces.
3. Uncertainties in load and material properties
We use the design sign convention for moments (+ve tension below), and for shear (ccw +ve).
In all free body diagrams assume positivee forces/moments, and take algeebraic sums.
6 The key to the approximate analysis method is our ability to sketch the deected shape of a structure
and identify inection points.
7 We begin by considering a uniformly loaded beam and frame. In each case we consider an extreme
end of the restraint: a) free or b) restrained. For the frame a relativly exible or sti column would be
analogous to a free or xed restrain on the beam, Fig. 22.1.
22.1
8
Vertical Loads
With reference to Fig. 22.1, we now consider an intermediary case as shown in Fig. 22.2.
9 With the location of the inection points identied, we may now determine all the reactions and
internal forces from statics.
If we now consider a multi-bay/multi-storey frame, the girders at each oor are assumed to be continuous beams, and columns are assumed to resist the resulting unbalanced moments from the girders,
we may make the following assumptions
10
222
Draft
111
000
000
111
1
0
0
1
0
1
0
1
0
1
0
1
111
000
000
111
1
0
0
1
0
1
0
1
0
1
0
1
2
wL/24
2
wL/12
0.21 L
0.21 L
1111111111111111
0000000000000000
0000000000000000
1111111111111111
0000000000000000
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0000000000000000
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0000000000000000
1111111111111111
0000000000000000
1111111111111111
0000000000000000
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0000000000000000
1111111111111111
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1111111111111111
0000000000000000
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000
111
000
111
000
111
000
111
111111111111111111
000000000000000000
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0000
1111
000
111
0000
1111
000
111
111
000
000
111
000
111
1111
0000
1111
0000
1111
0000
111
000
000
111
000
111
111
000
000
111
111
000
Figure 22.1: Uniformly Loaded Beam and Frame with Free or Fixed Beam Restraint
Victor Saouma
Structural Engineering
223
Draft
11111111111111111
00000000000000000
00000000000000000
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00000000000000000
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00000000000000000
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00000000000000000
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00000000000000000
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000
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000
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00000000000000000
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111
000
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000
111
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000
000
0.5H
0.5H
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0000000000000000
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000
111
0000
1111
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000
111
1111
0000
111
1111
000
0000
111
000
000
111
000
111
1111
0000
0000
1111
0000
1111
111
000
000
111
000
111
0.1 L
111
000
000
111
000
111
0.1 L
Victor Saouma
Structural Engineering
224
Draft
4. Unbalanced end moments from the girders at each joint is distributed to the columns above and
below the oor.
Based on the rst assumption, all beams are statically determinate and have a span, Ls equal to 0.8
the original length of the girder, L. (Note that for a rigidly connected member, the inection point is
at 0.211 L, and at the support for a simply supported beam; hence, depending on the nature of the
connection one could consider those values as upper and lower bounds for the approximate location of
the hinge).
11
12
Maximum positive moment at the center of each beam is, Fig. 22.3
Mrgt
lft
Vrgt
Vlft
0.1L
0.1L
0.8L
L
Figure 22.3: Approximate Analysis of Frames Subjected to Vertical Loads; Girder Moments
M+ =
1
1
wL2s = w (0.8)2 L2 = 0.08wL2
8
8
(22.1)
Maximum negative moment at each end of the girder is given by, Fig. 22.3
w
w
M lef t = M rgt = (0.1L)2 (0.8L)(0.1L) = 0.045wL2
2
2
(22.2)
Girder Shear are obtained from the free body diagram, Fig. 22.4
V lf t =
Victor Saouma
wL
2
V rgt =
wL
2
(22.3)
Structural Engineering
225
Draft
Pabove
Vrgti-1
Vlfti
Pbelow
Figure 22.4: Approximate Analysis of Frames Subjected to Vertical Loads; Column Axial Forces
Column axial force is obtained by summing all the girder shears to the axial force transmitted by the
column above it. Fig. 22.4
rgt
P dwn = P up + Vi1
Vilf t
(22.4)
Column Moment are obtained by considering the free body diagram of columns Fig. 22.5
rgt
bot
M top = Mabove
Mi1
+ Milf t
M bot = M top
(22.5)
Column Shear Points of inection are at mid-height, with possible exception when the columns on
the rst oor are hinged at the base, Fig. 22.5
V =
M top
h
2
(22.6)
Girder axial forces are assumed to be negligible eventhough the unbalanced column shears above and
below a oor will be resisted by girders at the oor.
22.2
Horizontal Loads
Again, we begin by considering a simple frame subjected to a horizontal force, Fig. 22.6. depending
on the boundary conditions, we will have dierent locations for the inection points.
13
For the analysis of a multi-bays/multi-storeys frame, we must dierentiate between low and high rise
buildings.
14
Low rise buidlings, where the height is at least samller than the hrizontal dimension, the deected
shape is characterized by shear deformations.
Victor Saouma
Structural Engineering
226
Draft
h/2
h/2
Mcolabove
lft
i-1
Mi-1rgt
Vi-1rgt
Vi-1lft
Li-1
Mirgt
Milft
Virgt
Vilft
Mcolbelow
Li
h/2
h/2
Figure 22.5: Approximate Analysis of Frames Subjected to Vertical Loads; Column Moments
Victor Saouma
Structural Engineering
227
Draft
PH
2
PH
2
PH
4
PH
4
H
P
2
P
2
111
000
111
000
111
000
111
000
PH
L
PH
L
L
P
I
P
2
000
111
000
111
000
111
PH
2L
000
111
P
2
000
111
111
PH 000
4
PH
2L
PH
4
111
000
000
111
111
000
000
111
PH
4
PH
4
Figure 22.6: Horizontal Force Acting on a Frame, Approximate Location of Inection Points
Victor Saouma
Structural Engineering
228
Draft
High rise buildings, where the height is several times greater than its least horizontal dimension, the
deected shape is dominated by overall exural deformation.
22.2.1
Portal Method
Low rise buildings under lateral loads, have predominantly shear deformations. Thus, the approximate
analysis of this type of structure is based on
15
17
Column Shear is obtained by passing a horizontal section through the mid-height of the columns at
each oor and summing the lateral forces above it, then Fig. 22.7
H/2
H/2
Figure 22.7: Approximate Analysis of Frames Subjected to Lateral Loads; Column Shear
*
V ext =
Victor Saouma
F lateral
2No. of bays
V int = 2V ext
(22.7)
Structural Engineering
229
Draft
Column Moments at the end of each column is equal to the shear at the column times half the height
of the corresponding column, Fig. 22.7
M top = V
h
2
M bot = M top
(22.8)
Girder Moments is obtained from the columns connected to the girder, Fig. 22.8
h/2
h/2
Mcolabove
lft
i-1
Mi-1rgt
Vi-1rgt
Vi-1lft
Li-1/2
Li-1/2
Mirgt
Milft
Virgt
Vilft
Mcolbelow
Li/2
Li/2
h/2
h/2
Figure 22.8: ***Approximate Analysis of Frames Subjected to Lateral Loads; Girder Moment
rgt
above
below
Milf t = Mcol
Mcol
+ Mi1
Mirgt = Milf t
(22.9)
Girder Shears Since there is an inection point at the center of the girder, the girder shear is obtained
by considering the sum of moments about that point, Fig. 22.8
V lf t =
2M
L
V rgt = V lf t
(22.10)
Column Axial Forces are obtained by summing girder shears and the axial force from the column
above, Fig. ??
P = P above + P rgt + P lf t
Victor Saouma
(22.11)
Structural Engineering
2210
Draft
Pabove
Vrgti-1
Vlfti
Pbelow
Figure 22.9: Approximate Analysis of Frames Subjected to Lateral Loads; Column Axial Force
In either case, you should always use a free body diagram in conjunction with this method, and
never rely on a blind application of the formulae.
18
Example 22-1: Approximate Analysis of a Frame subjected to Vertical and Horizontal Loads
Draw the shear, and moment diagram for the following frame. Solution:
0.25K/ft
15K
30K
12
9
1
13
0.50
K/ft
10
14
30
14
11
3
20
16
24
Vertical Loads
The analysis should be conducted in conjunction with the free body diagram shown in Fig. 22.11.
Victor Saouma
Structural Engineering
2211
6.5
0.51
0.8
6.0
13.0
6.5
0.45
0.7
4.5
6.0
7.5
3.6
0.7
0.56
0.93
3.6
13.0
20.2
5.6
3.6
20.2
7.5
5.0
9.0
9.0
4.5
0.56
0.93
0.51
5.6
5.0
4.5
6.5
3.6
0.8
0.64
3.0
3.0
3.75
5.6
0.64
6.5
10.1
4.5
10.1
3.75
2.5
4.5
4.5
2.5
Draft
0.81
0.45
5.6
3.6
0.81
6.5
Figure 22.11: Free Body Diagram for the Approximate Analysis of a Frame Subjected to Vertical Loads
Victor Saouma
Structural Engineering
2212
Draft
=
=
=
=
=
=
=
=
=
0.045w12L212 = (0.045)(0.25)(20)2
0.08w12 L212 = (0.08)(0.25)(20)2
lf t
M12
0.045w13L213 = (0.045)(0.25)(30)2
0.08w13 L213 = (0.08)(0.25)(30)2
lf t
M13
0.045w14L214 = (0.045)(0.25)(24)2
0.08w14 L214 = (0.08)(0.25)(24)2
lf t
M14
=
=
=
=
=
=
=
=
=
4.5 k.ft
8.0 k.ft
4.5 k.ft
10.1 k.ft
18.0 k.ft
10.1 k.ft
6.5 k.ft
11.5 k.ft
6.5 k.ft
=
=
=
=
=
=
=
=
=
9.0 k.ft
16.0 k.ft
9.0 k.ft
20.3 k.ft
36.0 k.ft
20.3 k.ft
13.0 k.ft
23.0 k.ft
13.0 k.ft
=
=
=
=
=
=
=
=
=
=
=
=
=
=
=
=
=
lf t
+M12
M5top
rgt
lf t
M12
+ M13
= (4.5) + (10.1)
top
M6
rgt
lf t
M13
+ M14
= (10.1) + (6.5)
M7top
rgt
M14
= (6.5)
M8top
=
=
=
=
=
=
=
=
4.5
4.5
5.6
5.6
3.6
3.6
6.5
6.5
k.ft
k.ft
k.ft
k.ft
k.ft
k.ft
k.ft
k.ft
=
=
=
=
=
=
=
=
=
=
=
=
=
=
=
=
4.5 k.ft
4.5 k.ft
5.6 k.ft
5.6 k.ft
3.6 k.ft
3.6 k.ft
6.5 k.ft
6.5 k.ft
Victor Saouma
=
=
=
=
=
=
w12 L12
2
lf t
V12
w13 L13
2
lf t
V13
w14 L14
2
lf t
V14
(0.25)(20)
2
(0.25)(30)
2
(0.25)(24)
2
=
=
=
=
=
=
2.5 k
2.5 k
3.75 k
3.75 k
3.0 k
3.0 k
Structural Engineering
2213
Draft
0.25K/ft
12
13
0.50
10
20
30
+8.0k
+18.0k
-4.5k
+16.0k
-9.0
-20.2
+4.5k
+5.6k
-4.5k
+4.5k
+5.6k
-5.6k
-5.6
16
24
+11.5k
-6.5k
+23.0
+32.0k
k
14
11
-9.0k
-4.5k
-4.5k
14
K/ft
k
-20.2k -13.0
+3.6k
-13.0k
+6.5k
-3.6k
-6.5k
k
+3.6
+6.5
k
-3.6k
-6.5k
Victor Saouma
Structural Engineering
2214
Draft
= w92L9 = (0.5)(20)
2
= V9lf t
= w102L10 = (0.5)(30)
2
lf t
= V10
= w112L11 = (0.5)(24)
2
lf t
= V11
7. Column Shears
V5
V6
V7
V8
V1
V2
V3
V4
M5top
H5
2
M6top
H6
2
M7top
H7
2
M8top
H8
2
M1top
H1
2
M2top
H2
2
M3top
H3
2
M4top
H4
2
=
=
=
=
=
=
5.00 k
5.00 k
7.50 k
7.50 k
6.00 k
6.00 k
4.5
= 0.64 k
5.6
= 0.80 k
3.6
0.52 k
6.5
0.93 k
=
=
14
2
14
2
14
2
14
2
4.5
= 0.56 k
5.6
= 0.70 k
3.6
0.46 k
6.5
0.81 k
=
=
16
2
16
2
16
2
16
2
=
=
=
=
lf t
V12
rgt
lf t
V12
+ V13
= (2.50) + 3.75
rgt
lf t
V13
+ V14
= (3.75) + 3.00
rgt
V14
=
=
=
=
2.50
6.25
6.75
3.00
k
k
k
k
=
=
=
=
=
=
=
=
7.5 k
18.75 k
20.25 k
9.00 k
Victor Saouma
=
=
=
=
=
=
=
=
15
(2)(3)
=
2(V5 ) = (2)(2.5) =
2(V5 ) = (2)(2.5) =
V5
=
15+30
=
(2)(3)
2(V1 ) = (2)(7.5) =
2(V1 ) = (2)(2.5) =
V1
=
2.5 k
5k
5k
2.5 k
7.5 k
15 k
15 k
7.5 k
Structural Engineering
2215
Draft
+2.5K
+3.75K
+3.0K
-2.5K
K
+7.5
+5.0K
-3.75K
K
+6.0
-5.0K
-0.64K
-0.56K
-3.0K
-0.80K
-0.70K
-6.0K
-7.5K
+0.51K
+0.45K
+0.93K
+0.81K
Victor Saouma
Structural Engineering
2216
Draft
Approximate Analysis Vertical Loads
1
2
3
4
5
6
7
8
9
10
11
12
13
14
15
16
17
18
19
20
21
22
23
24
25
26
27
28
29
30
Height
14
16
Span
Load
Load
APROXVER.XLS
Victor E. Saouma
L1
20
0.25
0.5
L2
L3
30
24
0.25
0.25
0.5
0.5
MOMENTS
Bay 1
Bay 2
Bay 3
Col
Beam
Column
Beam
Column
Beam
Col
Lft Cnt Rgt
Lft Cnr Rgt
Lft Cnt Rgt
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A -9.0 16.0
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Victor Saouma
Structural Engineering
Victor Saouma
L1
20
0.25
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APROXVER.XLS
M
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24
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AAAA
AAAA
AAAA
AAAAAAAAAAAA
AAAAAAAAAAAA
AAAAAAAAAAAA
AAAAAAAAAAAA
AAAAAAAAAAAA
AAAAAAAAAAAA
AAAAAAAAAAAA
AAAAAAAAAAAA
AAAAA
AAAAAAAA
AAAAAAAA
AAAAAAAA
AAAAAAAA
AAAAAAAA
AAAAAAAA
AAAAAAAA
AAAAAAAA
AAAAAAAA
AAAAAAAA
AAAAAAAA
AAAAAAAA
AAAAAAAA
AAAAAAAA
AAAAAAAA
AAAAAAAA
AAAAAAAA
AAAAAAAA
AAAAAAAA
AAAAAAAA
AAAAAAAA
AAAAAAAA
AAAAAAAA
AAAAAAAA
AAAAAAAA
AAAAAAAA
AAAAAAAA
AAAA
AAAAAAAA
AAAA
AAAAAAAA
AAAAAAAA
AAAAAAAAAAAA
AAAAAAAAAAAA
AAAAAAAAAAAA
AAAAAAAAAAAA
AAAAAAAAAAAA
AAAAAAAAAAAA
AAAAAAAAAAAA
AAAAAAAAAA=-Q11
AAAAAAAA
AAAAAAAAAAAA
AAAAAAAAAAAA
AAAAAAAAAAAA
AAAAAAAAAAAA
AAAAAAAAAAAA
AAAAAAAAAAAA
AAAAAAAAAAAA
AAAAAAAA
AAAAAAAAAAAA
AAAAAAAAAAAA
AAAAAAAAAAAA
AAAAAAAAAAAA
AAAAAAAAAAAA
AAAAAAAAAA =-L11
AAAA
AAAA
=-C11
=-G11
AAAA
AAAA
AAAA
AAAAAAAA
AAAAAAAA
AAAAAAAAAAAA
AAAAAAAAAAAA
AAAAAAAAAAAA
AAAAAAAAAAAA
AAAAAAAAAAAA
AAAAAAAAAAAA
AAAAAAAAAAAA
AAAAAAAAAAAA
AAAAA
AAAAAAAAAAAA
AAAAAAAAAAAA
AAAAAAAAAAAA
AAAAAAAAAAAA
AAAAAAAAAAAA
AAAAAAAAAAAA
AAAAAAAAAAAA
AAAAAAAA
AAAA
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AAAAAAAAAAAA
AAAAAAAAAAAA
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AAAAAAAAAAAA
AAAAAAAAAAAA
AAAAAA
MOMENTS
Bay 1
Col
29
30
Span
Load
Load
24
25
26
27
28
22
23
16
17
18
19
20
21
13
14
15
A
1
2
3 Height
4 14
5 16
6
7
8
9
10
11
12
Draft
Structural Engineering
35
35
30
60
120
60
77.5
35
120
7.5
7.5
35
77.5
77.5
17.5
77.5
2.5
17.5
5
77.5
2.5
17.5
2.5
60
15
15
120
15
2.5
77.5
17.5
17.5
17.5
15
17.5
17.5
Draft
17.5
17.5
2218
15
120
7.5
7.5
60
Figure 22.16: Free Body Diagram for the Approximate Analysis of a Frame Subjected to Lateral Loads
Victor Saouma
Structural Engineering
2219
Draft
=
=
=
=
=
=
=
=
V1 H5
= (2.5)(14)
2
2
top
M5
V6 H6
= (5)(14)
2
2
top
M6
up
V7 H7
= (5)(14)
2
2
M7top
V8up H8
= (2.5)(14)
2
2
top
M8
=
=
=
=
=
=
=
=
17.5 k.ft
17.5 k.ft
35.0 k.ft
35.0 k.ft
35.0 k.ft
35.0 k.ft
17.5 k.ft
17.5 k.ft
=
=
M2top
M2bot
=
=
M3top
M3bot
=
=
M4top
M4bot
=
=
V1dwn H1
2
M1top
V2dwn H2
2
M2top
V3dwn H3
2
M3top
V4dwn H4
2
M4top
(7.5)(16)
2
=
60 k.ft
= 60 k.ft
(15)(16)
2
=
120 k.ft
= 120 k.ft
(15)(16)
2
=
120 k.ft
= 120 k.ft
(7.5)(16)
2
=
60 k.ft
= 60 k.ft
=
=
=
=
=
=
M5top
lf t
M12
rgt
M12 + M6top = 17.5 + 35
lf t
M13
rgt
M13
+ M7top = 17.5 + 35
lf t
M14
=
=
=
=
=
=
17.5 k.ft
17.5 k.ft
17.5 k.ft
17.5 k.ft
17.5 k.ft
17.5 k.ft
=
=
=
=
=
=
=
=
=
=
=
=
77.5 k.ft
77.5 k.ft
77.5 k.ft
77.5 k.ft
77.5 k.ft
77.5 k.ft
lf t
V12
rgt
V12
=
=
12
L12
= (2)(17.5)
20
lf t
+V12
=
=
1.75 k
1.75 k
lf t
V13
rgt
V13
=
=
13
L13
= (2)(17.5)
30
lf t
+V13
=
=
1.17 k
1.17 k
lf t
V14
rgt
V14
=
=
14
L14
= (2)(17.5)
24
lf t
+V14
=
=
1.46 k
1.46 k
V9lf t
V9rgt
=
=
L12
= (2)(77.5)
20
9
+V9lf t
=
=
7.75 k
7.75 k
lf t
V10
rgt
V10
=
=
10
L10
= (2)(77.5)
30
lf t
+V10
=
=
5.17 k
5.17 k
lf t
V11
rgt
V11
=
=
11
L11
= (2)(77.5)
24
lf t
+V11
=
=
6.46 k
6.46 k
2M lf t
2M lf t
Victor Saouma
2M lf t
2M lf t
2M lf t
Structural Engineering
2220
Draft
15K
12
30K
13
10
20
+17.5K
-35K
+60K
-120K
+17.5K
-120K
+77.5
+77.5
+77.5
-77.5K
-17.5K
-60K
+17.5K
-17.5K
K
16
24
-35K
+120K
-60K
+17.5K
+35K
+35K
14
11
30
-17.5K
+120K
+60K
+17.5K
14
-17.5K
-17.5K
-77.5K
-77.5K
Victor Saouma
Structural Engineering
2221
Draft
=
=
=
=
lf t
V12
=
rgt
lf t
+V12 V13 = 1.75 (1.17) =
rgt
lf t
+V13
V14
= 1.17 (1.46) =
rgt
V14 = 1.46 k
(1.75) k
0.58 k
0.29 k
=
=
=
=
=
=
=
=
9.5 k
3.16 k
1.58 k
7.66 k
Design Parameters On the basis of the two approximate analyses, vertical and lateral load, we now
seek the design parameters for the frame, Table 22.2.
Mem.
Moment
Axial
Shear
Moment
Axial
Shear
Moment
Axial
Shear
Moment
Axial
Shear
Moment
Axial
Shear
Moment
Axial
Shear
Moment
Axial
Shear
Moment
Axial
Shear
Vert.
Hor.
4.50
7.50
0.56
5.60
18.75
0.70
3.60
20.25
0.45
6.50
9.00
0.81
4.50
2.50
0.64
5.60
6.25
0.80
3.60
6.75
0.51
6.50
3.00
0.93
60.00
9.50
7.50
120.00
15.83
15.00
120.00
14.25
15.00
60.00
7.92
7.50
17.50
1.75
2.50
35.00
2.92
5.00
35.00
2.63
5.00
17.50
1.46
2.50
Design
Values
64.50
17.00
8.06
125.60
34.58
15.70
123.60
34.50
15.45
66.50
16.92
8.31
22.00
4.25
3.14
40.60
9.17
5.80
38.60
9.38
5.51
24.00
4.46
3.43
Victor Saouma
Structural Engineering
2222
Draft
Portal Method
PORTAL.XLS
A
1
2
3
4
5
6
7
8
9
10
11
12
13
14
15
16
17
18
19
20
21
22
23
24
25
26
27
28
29
30
Victor E. Saouma
PORTAL METHOD
# of Bays
# of Storeys
2
Force Shear
H Lat. Tot Ext Int
H1
14 15 15 2.5
H2
16 30 45 7.5 15
L1
20
L2
L3
30
24
MOMENTS
Bay 1
Bay 2
Bay 3
Col
Beam
Column
Beam
Column
Beam
Col
Lft Rgt AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA Lft Rgt AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA Lft Rgt AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA
AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA
A
A
AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA
AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA
AAAA
AAAA
AAAA
AAAAAAAA
AAAAAAAA
AAAAAAAA
AAAAAAAA
AAAAAAAA
AAAAAAAA
AAAAAAAA
AAAAA
AAAAAAAA
AAAAAAAA
AAA
AAAAAAAAAAAA
AAAAAAAAAAAA
AAAAAAAA
AAAAA
AAAAAAAA
AAAAAAAA
AAAAAAAA
AAAAAAAA
AAAAAAAA
AAAAAAA
A
AAAAAAAA
AAAAAAAAAAAA
AAAA
AAAAAAAAAAAA
A 17.5 -17.5 AAAA
A
AAAAAAAAAAAA
AAAAAAAA
AAA 17.5 -17.5 AAAAAAAA
AAAA 17.5 -17.5AAAAAAAA
AAAAAAAA
AAAAA
AAAAAAAA
AAAAAAAA
AAAAAAAA
AAAAAAAA
AAAAAAAA
AAAAAAAA
AAAAAAA
AAAAAAAA
AAAAAAAA
AAAAAAAA
AAAAAAAA
AAAAAAAA
AAAAAAAA
AAAAAAAA
AAAAAAAA
AAAAAAAA
AAAAA
AAAAAAAA
AAAA
AAAA
AAAA
AAAA
AAAA
AAAA
AAAA
AAAA
AAAA
AAAA
AAAA
AAAA
AAAA
AAAA
A
AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA
AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA
AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA
AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA
AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA
AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA
AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA
AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA
AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA
AAAA
AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA
AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA
AAAAAAAA
AAAAAAAA
AAAAAAAA
AAAAAAAA
AAAAAAAA
AAAA
AAAAAAAA
AAAA
AAAAAAAA
AAAA
AAAAAAAA
AAAAAAAA
AAAAAAAA
AAAAAAAA
AAAAAAAA
AAAAAAAA
AAAAAAAA
AAAAAAAA
AAAAAAAA
AAAAAAAA
AAAAAAAA
AAAA
AAAAAAAA
AAAA
AAAA
AAAA
AAAA
17.5 AAAA
35.0
35.0
17.5
AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA
AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA
AAAAAAAA
AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA
AAAAAAAA
AAAA
AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA
AAAA
AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA
AAAA
AAAA
AAAA
AAAA
AAAA
AAAA
AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA
AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA
AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA
AAAAAAAA
AAAA
AAAAAAAA
AAAA
AAAAAAAA
AAAAAAAA
AAAAAAAA
AAAAAAAA
AAAAAAAA
AAAAAAAA
AAAAAAAA
AAAAAAAA
AAAAAAAA
AAAAAAAA
AAAAAAAA
AAAA
AAAAAAAA
AAAA
AAAA
-17.5 AAAA
-35.0
-35.0
-17.5
AAAAAAAA
AAAAAAAAAAAA
AAAA
AAAAAAAA
AAAAAAAAAAAA
AAAAAAAA
AAAAAAAA
AAAAAAAA
AAAAAAAA
AAAAAAAA
AAAAAAAA
AAAAAAAA
AAAAAAAA
AAAAAAAA
AAAA
AAAA
AAAAAAAA
AAAA
AAAAAAAA
AAAAAAAAAAAA
AAAAAAAAAAAA
AAAA
AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA
A
AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA
AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA
AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA
AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA
AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA
AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA
AAA
AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA
AAAA
AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA
A
A
AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA
AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA
AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA
AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA
AAAAAAAA
AAAAAAAA
AAA 77.5 -77.5 AAAAAAAA
AAAA 77.5 -77.5AAAAAAAA
AAAAAAAA
AAAAA 77.5 -77.5 AAAA
AAAAAAAA
AAAAAAAA
AAAAAAAA
AAAAAAAA
AAAAAAAA
AAAAAAA
AAAAAAAA
AAAAAAAA
AAAAAAAA
AAAAAAAA
AAAAAAAA
AAAAAAAA
AAAAAAAA
AAAAA
AAAAAAAA
AAAA
AAAAAAAAAAAA
AAAA
AAAA
AAAA
AAAA
AAAA
A
A
AAAAAAAA
AAAAAAAA
AAAAAAAA
AAAAAAAA
AAAAAAAA
AAAAAAAA
AAAAAAAA
A
AAAAAAAA
AAAAAAAA
AAAAAAAA
AAAAAAAA
AAAAAAAA
AAAAAAAA
AAAAAAA
AAA
AAAAAAAA
AAAAAAAA
AAAAAAAA
AAAAAAAA
AAAAAAAA
AAAAAAAA
AAAAAAAA
AAAA
AAAAAAAA
AAAAAAAA
AAAAA
AAAA
AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA
AAAA
AAAA
AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA
AAAA
AAAA
AAAA
AAAA
AAAA
AAAA
AAAA
AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA
AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA
AAAAAAAA
AAAAAAAA
AAAAAAAA
AAAAAAAA
AAAAAAAA
AAAA
AAAAAAAA
AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA
AAAAAAAAAAAA
AAAA
AAAAAAAA
AAAA
AAAAAAAAAAAA
AAAA
AAAAAAAA
AAAAAAAA
AAAAAAAA
AAAAAAAA
AAAAAAAA
AAAAAAAA
AAAAAAAA
AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA
60.0 AAAA
120.0
120.0
60.0
AAAA
AAAAAAAA
AAAAAAAA
AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA
AAAAAAAA
AAAA
AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA
AAAA
AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA
AAAA
AAAA
AAAA
AAAA
AAAA
AAAA
AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA
AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA
AAAAAAAA
AAAAAAAA
AAAAAAAA
AAAAAAAA
AAAAAAAA
AAAA
AAAAAAAA
AAAA
AAAAAAAA
AAAA
AAAA
AAAA
AAAA
AAAA
AAAA
AAAA
AAAA
AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA
AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA
AAAAAAAA
AAAAAAAAAAAA
AAAAAAAAAAAA
AAAA
-60.0 AAAA
-120.0
-120.0
-60.0
AAAAAAAA
AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA
AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA
AAAA
AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA
AAAAAAAAAAAA
AAAAAAAAAAAA
AAAAAAAA
AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA
AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA
AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA
AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA
SHEAR
Bay 1
Bay 2
Bay 3
Col
Beam
Column
Beam
Column
Beam
Col
Lft Rgt
Lft Rgt
Lft Rgt
AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA
AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA
AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA
AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA
A
AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA
AAAA
AAA
AAAA
AAAA
AAAA
AAAA
AAAA
AAAA
AAAA
AAAA
AAAA
AAAA
AAAA
AAAA
AAAA
AAAA
AAAA
AAAA
AAAA
AAAA
AAAA
A
A
AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA
AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA
AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA
AAAA
AAAAAAAA
AAAAA
AAAAAAAA
AAAAAAAA
AAAA
AAAAAAAAAAAA
AAAAAAAAA -1.75 -1.75 AAAAAAAA
AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA
AAAA
AAAAAAAA
AAAAAAAA
AAAAAAAA
AAAAAAAA
AAAAAAAA
AAAAAAAA -1.46 -1.46AAAAAAAA
AAAAAAAAAAAA
AAAAA
AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA
AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA -1.17 -1.17 AAAAAAAA
AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA
AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA
AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA
AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA
AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA
AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA
AAAA
AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA
AAAA
AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA
AAAAAAAA
AAAAAAAA
AAAAAAAA
AAAAAAAA
AAAAAAAA
AAAA
AAAAAAAA
AAAA
AAAAAAAA
AAAA
AAAAAAAA
AAAAAAAA
AAAAAAAA
AAAAAAAA
AAAAAAAA
AAAAAAAA
AAAA
AAAA
AAAA
AAAA
AAAA
AAAA
AAAAAAAA
AAAAAAAA
AAAA
AAAA
AAAA
AAAA
AAAA
AAAA
AAAA
AAAA
AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA
AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA
AAAAAAAA
AAAAAAAA
AAAAAAAA
AAAAAAAA
AAAAAAAA
AAAA
2.50 AAAA
5.00
5.00
2.50
AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA
AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA
AAAA
AAAA
AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA
AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA
AAAAAAAA
AAAAAAAAAAAA
AAAAAAAAAAAA
AAAA
AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA
AAAA
AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA
AAAA
AAAA
AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA
AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA
AAAAAAAAAAAA
AAAAAAAAAAAA
AAAAAAAA
AAAAAAAA
AAAA
AAAAAAAA
AAAA
AAAAAAAA
AAAAAAAA
AAAAAAAA
AAAAAAAA
AAAAAAAA
AAAAAAAA
AAAAAAAA
AAAAAAAA
AAAAAAAA
AAAAAAAA
AAAAAAAA
AAAA
2.50 AAAA
5.00
5.00
2.50
AAAAAAAA
AAAA
AAAA
AAAA
AAAA
AAAA
AAAA
AAAAAAAA
AAAAAAAA
AAAAAAAA
AAAAAAAA
AAAAAAAA
AAAA
AAAAAAAA
AAAAAAAA
AAAAAAAA
AAAAAAAA
AAAAAAAA
AAAA
AAAAAAAA
AAAAAAAA
AAAAAAAA
AAAAAAAA
AAAA
AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA
A
AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA
AAAA
AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA
AAAA
AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA
A
A
AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA
AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA
AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA
AAAA
AAAAAAAAA
AAAAAAAA
AAAA
AAA
AAAA
AAAA
AAAAAAAAAAAA
AAAA
AAAA
AAAA
AAAA
AAAA
AAAA
AAAA
AAAA
AAAA
AAAA
AAAA
AAAA
AAAA
AAAA
AAAA
AAAA
A
A
AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA
AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA -5.17 -5.17 AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA -6.46 -6.46AAAAAAAA
AAAAAAAAAAAA
AAAAA
AAAAAAAA
AAA
AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA
AAAAAAAA
AAAAAAAA
AAAAA -7.75 -7.75 AAAAAAAA
AAAAAAAA
AAAAAAAA
AAAAAAAA
AAAAAAAA
AAAAAAAA
AAAAAAAA
AAAAAAA
AAAAAAAA
AAAAA
AAAA
AAAA
AAAA
AAAA
AAAA
AAAA
AAAA
AAAA
AAAA
AAAA
AAAA
AAAA
AAAA
AAAA
AAAA
AAAA
A
AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA
AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA
AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA
AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA
AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA
AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA
AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA
AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA
AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA
AAAA
AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA
AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA
AAAAAAAA
AAAAAAAA
AAAAAAAA
AAAAAAAA
AAAAAAAA
AAAA
AAAAAAAA
AAAA
AAAAAAAA
AAAA
AAAAAAAA
AAAAAAAA
AAAAAAAA
AAAAAAAA
AAAAAAAA
AAAAAAAA
AAAAAAAA
AAAAAAAA
AAAAAAAA
AAAAAAAA
AAAAAAAA
AAAA
7.50 AAAA
15.00
15.00
7.50
AAAAAAAA
AAAAAAAA
AAAA
AAAA
AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA
AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA
AAAAAAAA
AAAAAAAA
AAAAAAAA
AAAAAAAA
AAAAAAAA
AAAA
AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA
AAAA
AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA
AAAA
AAAA
AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA
AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA
AAAAAAAA
AAAAAAAAAAAA
AAAAAAAAAAAA
AAAA
AAAA
AAAAAAAA
AAAA
AAAA
AAAAAAAA
AAAAAAAAAAAA
AAAAAAAA
AAAAAAAA
AAAAAAAA
AAAAAAAA
AAAAAAAA
AAAAAAAA
AAAAAAAA
AAAAAAAAAAAA
AAAAAAAAAAAA
AAAAAAAA
7.50 AAAA
15.00
15.00
7.50
AAAAAAAA
AAAAAAAA
AAAAAAAA
AAAAAAAA
AAAAAAAA
AAAAAAAA
AAAA
AAAAAAAA
AAAAAAAA
AAAAAAAA
AAAAAAAA
AAAAAAAA
AAAA
AAAAAAAA
AAAAAAAA
AAAAAAAA
AAAAAAAA
AAAA
AAAA
AAAA
AAAA
AXIAL FORCE
Bay 1
Bay 2
Bay 3
Col
Beam
Column
Beam
Column
Beam Col
AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA
AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA
AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA
AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA
AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA
AAAA
AAA
AAAA
AAAA
AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA
AAAA
AAAA
AAAA
AAAA
AAAA
AAAA
AAAA
AAAA
AAAA
AAAA
AAAA
AAAA
AAAA
AAAA
A
A
AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA
AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA
AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA
AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA
AAAAAAAA
AAAAAAAA
AAA
AAAAAAAA
AAAA
AAAAAAAA
0.00
0.00
0.00
A
A
AAAAAAAAAAAA
AAAAAAAAAAAA
AAA
AAAAAAAAAAAA
AAAA
AAAAAAAAAAAA
AAAAAAAA
AAAAA
AAAAAAAA
AAAAAAAA
AAAAAAAA
AAAAAAAA
AAAAAAAA
AAAAAAA
AAAAAAAA
AAAAAAAA
AAAAAAAA
AAAAAAAA
AAAAAAAA
AAAAAAAA
AAAAAAAA
AAAAA
AAAA
AAAA
AAAA
AAAA
AAAA
AAAA
AAAA
AAAA
AAAA
AAAA
AAAA
AAAA
AAAA
AAAA
AAAA
AAAA
AAAA
AAAA
AAAAAAAA
AAAA
AAAA
AAAAAAAA
A
AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA
AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA
AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA
AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA
AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA
AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA
AAAAAAAA
AAAAAAAA
AAAAAAAA
AAAAAAAA
AAAAAAAA
AAAA
AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA
AAAA
AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA
AAAA
AAAA
AAAAAAAA
AAAA
AAAAAAAA
AAAA
AAAA
AAAA
AAAA
AAAA
AAAA
AAAA
AAAA
AAAA
AAAA
AAAA
AAAA
AAAA
AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA
AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA
AAAAAAAA
AAAAAAAA
AAAAAAAA
AAAAAAAA
AAAAAAAA
AAAA
1.75
-0.58
0.29
-1.46
AAAA
AAAA
AAAA
AAAA
AAAA
AAAA
AAAA
AAAA
AAAA
AAAA
AAAA
AAAA
AAAA
AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA
AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA
A
AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA
AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA
AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA
AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA
AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA
A
AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA
AAAA
AAA
AAAA
AAAA
AAAA
AAAA
AAAA
AAAA
AAAA
AAAA
AAAA
AAAA
AAAA
AAAA
AAAA
AAAA
AAAA
AAAA
AAAA
AAAA
AAAA
AAAA
A
A
AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA
AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA
AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA
AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA
AAAAAAAA
AAAAAAAA
AAA
AAAAAAAA
AAAA
AAAAAAAA
AAAAAAAAA
AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA
AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA
AAAAAAAAA
AAAAAAAA
AAAAAAAA
AAAAAAAA
AAAAAAAA
0.00
0.00
0.00
AAAAAAAAAAAA
AAAAAAAAAAAA
AAAAAAAAAAAA
AAAAAAAAAAAA
AAAAAAAA
AAAAA
AAAAAAAA
AAAAAAAA
AAAAAAAA
AAAAAAAA
AAAAAAAA
AAAAAAA
AAAAAAAA
AAAAAAAA
AAAAAAAA
AAAAAAAA
AAAAAAAA
AAAAAAAA
AAAAAAAA
AAAAA
AAAAAAAAAAAAA
AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA
AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA
AAAAAAAAAAAAA
AAAA
AAAA
AAAA
AAAA
A
AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA
AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA
AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA
AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA
AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA
AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA
AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA
AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA
AAAA
AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA
AAAA
AAAAAAAA
AAAAAAAA
AAAAAAAA
AAAAAAAA
AAAAAAAA
AAAA
AAAAAAAA
AAAA
AAAAAAAA
AAAA
AAAA
AAAA
AAAA
AAAA
AAAA
AAAA
AAAA
AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA
AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA
AAAAAAAA
AAAAAAAA
AAAAAAAA
AAAAAAAA
AAAAAAAA
AAAA
9.50 AAAA
-3.17
1.58
-7.92
AAAA
AAAA
AAAA
AAAA
AAAA
AAAA
AAAA
AAAA
AAAA
AAAA
AAAA
AAAA
AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA
AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA
AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA
Victor Saouma
Structural Engineering
2223
Draft
Portal Method
PORTAL.XLS
A
1 PORTAL METHOD
A
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Victor E. Saouma
A
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AAAAAAAAAAAAAA
AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA
A AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA
A3
AL1
A AAAAAAAA
A AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA
AA
AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA
AAAAA
2 AAAA
# of Bays
L2
L3 AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA
AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA
AAAAAAAAAAAA
AAAA
A
A
A
A
A
A
A
AA
A
AAAAAAAA
AAAAAAAA
AAAAAAAA
AAAAAAAA
AAAAAAAA
AAAAAAAA
AAAA
AAAAAAAA
AAAAAAAA
AAAAAAAA
AAAAA
AAAAAA
AAAAAAAAA
AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA
A AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA
AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA
A AAAAAAAAAAAA
A AAAAAAAA
A AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA
AA
AAAAAAAAAA
AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA
AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA
AAAAAAAAAAAAAA
A
A
A
A
A
A
A
A
AA
A
A
A
A
3
A
A
A
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A20
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AA30
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A 24
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A MOMENTS
A
A
A
A
AA
A
A
A
A
A
A
A
A
A
A
A
A
A
A
AA
A
A
A
A
A
A
AAAAAAAAAAA
A
A
A
A
A
A
AA
A
A
A
A
A
A
A
A
A
A
A
A
A
A
A
Bay 1
Bay 2 AA
Bay 3 AA
A
A
A2
A
A
A
AA
A
A
A
A
A
AAAAAAAAAAA
A
A
AA
A
A
A
A
A
A
A
A
A
A
A
A
A
A
A
A
A
Force AA
Shear
Col
Beam
Column
Beam
Column
Beam
Col
6
A
A
A
A
AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA
AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA
AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA
AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA
AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA
AAAAAAAAAAAAAA
A
A
A
A
A
A
A
A
A
A
H Lat. AA Tot
Ext
Lft
Lft
Lft
7
AInt
A Rgt
A Rgt
A Rgt
A
AAAAAAAAAAA
AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA
A
A
AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA
A
AAAAAAAAAAAA
AAAAAAAA
AAAAAAAA
AAAAAAAA
AAAAAAAA
AAAAAAAA
AAAAAAA
AAA
AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA
AAAA
AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA
AAA
AAAAAAAAAAAAAA
AA
AAAA
A
A
AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA=+H9
AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA =+N8+O9
AAAAAAAAAAAAAA
AAAAAAAA
AAAAAAAA
AAAAAAAA
AAAAAAAA
AAAAAAAA
AAAAAAA
AAA=+J8+K9
A
A
=-I8 AAAA
=-M8 AAAA
=-Q8 AAAA
8
AAAA
AAAA
AAAA
AAAA
AAAA
AAAA
AAAA
AAAA
AAAA
AAA
AAAAAAAAAA
AAAA
A
A
AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA
AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA
AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA
AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA
AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA
AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA
AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA
AAAAAAAAAAAAAA
AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA
A
A
AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA
AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA
AAAA
A
A
AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA=+F9*B9/2
AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA=+H9
AAAAAAAA
AAAAAAAA
AAAAAAAA
AAAAAAAA
AAAAAAAA
AAAAAAAA
AAAAAA
AA
AAAAAAAA
A AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA =+E9*B9/2
H1AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA
14 AAAAA
15 AAAAAAAAAA
=+C9
=+D9/(2*$F$2)
9 AAAA
AAAA
AAAAAAAA
AAAA
AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA
AAAAAAAA
AAAAAAAA
AAAAAAA
AAA
AAAA
AAAAAAAA
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A=2*E9
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AA =+K9
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A
A
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A
A
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AAAAAA =+K10
=-H9
10
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A
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AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA =+O12-O10+N11 =-Q11 AAAAAAAA
AAAAAAAA
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AAA=+K12-K10+J11 =-M11 AAAA
A
A
11
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A
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AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA=+F12*B12/2
AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA=+H12
AAAA
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AA
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A
A
H2
16 30
=SUM($C$9:C12)
=+D12/(2*$F$2)
=2*E12
=+E12*B12/2
=+K12
12 AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA
AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA
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A
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A
A
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AA =+K13
=-H12
13
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A
A
A
A
A
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A
A
A
A
A
A
A
A
A
A
A
A
14
A SHEAR
A
A
A
A
AA
A
A
A
A
A
A
A
A
A
A
A
A
AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA
A
A
A
A
A
A
A
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AA
A
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Bay 1
Bay 2 AA
Bay 3
15 AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA
A
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A
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A
A
A
A
A
A
A
A
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Col
Beam
Column
Beam
Column
Beam
Col
16
A
A
A
A
A
A
AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA
A
A
A
A
A
A
A
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A
A
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A
A
A
A
A
A
A
A
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Lft
Rgt
Lft
Rgt
Lft
Rgt
17
A
A
A
A
A
A
A
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AAA =-2*Q8/Q$3
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AA
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=-2*M8/M$3
=+M18
=+Q18
18
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19
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20
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23
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A
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24
A AXIAL FORCE
A
A
A
A
AA
A
A
A
A
A
A
A
A
A
A
A
A
AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA
A
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A
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A
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A
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Bay 2 AA
Bay 3
25
A
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A
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A
A
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Col
Beam
Column
Beam
Column
Beam
Col
26
A
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A
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A
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27
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28 AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA
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29
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30
AAAAAAAAAAAA
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5 # of Storeys
A
A
A
A
A
A
A
A
A
A
A
A
A
A
A
A
A
A
A
A
Victor Saouma
Structural Engineering
2224
Draft
Mem.
10
11
12
13
14
-ve Moment
+ve Moment
Shear
-ve Moment
+ve Moment
Shear
-ve Moment
+ve Moment
Shear
-ve Moment
+ve Moment
Shear
-ve Moment
+ve Moment
Shear
-ve Moment
+ve Moment
Shear
Vert.
Hor.
9.00
16.00
5.00
20.20
36.00
7.50
13.0
23.00
6.00
4.50
8.00
2.50
10.10
18.00
3.75
6.50
11.50
3.00
77.50
0.00
7.75
77.50
0.00
5.17
77.50
0.00
6.46
17.50
0.00
1.75
17.50
0.00
1.17
17.50
0.00
1.46
Design
Values
86.50
16.00
12.75
97.70
36.00
12.67
90.50
23.00
12.46
22.00
8.00
4.25
27.60
18.00
4.92
24.00
11.50
4.46
Victor Saouma
Structural Engineering
Draft
Chapter 23
KINEMATIC
INDETERMINANCY; STIFFNESS
METHOD
23.1
Introduction
23.1.1
Stiness vs Flexibility
Flexibility: where the primary unknown is a force, where equations of equilibrium are the starting
point, static indeterminancy occurs if there are more unknowns than equations, and displacements
of the entire structure (usually from virtual work) are used to write an equation of compatibility
of displacements in order to solve for the redundant forces.
Stiness: method is the counterpart of the exibility one. Primary unknowns are displacements, and
we start from expressions for the forces written in terms of the displacements (at the element
level) and then apply the equations of equilibrium. The structure is considered to be kinematically
indeterminate to the nth degree where n is the total number of independent displacements. From
the displacements, we then compute the internal forces.
Flexibility
Forces
Static
Displacement(Force)/Structure
Compatibility of displacement
Consistent Deformation
Stiness
Displacements
Kinematic
Force(Displacement)/Element
Equilibrium
Slope Deection; Moment Distribution
232
Draft
In the slope deection method, all constraints are released simultaneously, thus resulting in a linear
system of n equations with n unknowns. In the Moment Distribution method, we release the constraints
one at a time and essentially solve for the system of n equations iteratively.
4
23.1.2
Sign Convention
5 The sign convention in the stiness method is dierent than the one previously adopted in structural
analysis/design, Fig. 26.3.
6 In the stiness method the sign convention adopted is consistent with the prevailing coordinate system.
Hence, we dene a positive moment as one which is counter-clockwise at the end of the element, Fig.
26.3.
23.2
7
Degrees of Freedom
8 The displacements must be linearly independent and thus not related to each other. For example, a
roller support on an inclined plane would have three displacements (rotation , and two translations u
and v), however since the two displacements are kinematically constrained, we only have two independent
displacements, Fig. 26.5.
10
The types of degrees of freedom for various types of structures are shown in Table 26.4
Victor Saouma
Structural Engineering
Draft
233
Type
Node 1
1 Dimensional
Fy1 , Mz2
{p}
Node 2
Fy3 , Mz4
Beam
{}
v1 , 2
2 Dimensional
Fx1
{p}
v3 , 4
Fx2
Truss
{}
{p}
u1
Fx1 , Fy2 , Mz3
u2
Fx4 , Fy5 , Mz6
Frame
{}
u1 , v2 , 3
3 Dimensional
Fx1 ,
{p}
u4 , v5 , 6
Fx2
Truss
{}
{p}
u1 ,
Fx1 , Fy2 , Fy3 ,
Tx4 My5 , Mz6
u2
Fx7 , Fy8 , Fy9 ,
Tx10 My11 , Mz12
{}
u1 , v2 , w3 ,
4 , 5 6
u7 , v8 , w9 ,
10 , 11 12
Frame
11
23.2.1
12
Methods of Analysis
There are three methods for the stiness based analysis of a structure
Slope Deection: (Mohr, 1892) Which results in a system of n linear equations with n unknowns,
where n is the degree of kinematic indeterminancy (i.e. total number of independent displacements/rotation).
Moment Distribution: (Cross, 1930) which is an iterative method to solve for the n displacements
and corresponding internal forces in exural structures.
Direct Stiness method: (
1960) which is a formal statement of the stiness method and cast in
matrix form is by far the most powerful method of structural analysis.
The rst two methods lend themselves to hand calculation, and the third to a computer based analysis.
23.3
Kinematic Relations
23.3.1
Force-Displacement Relations
Whereas in the exibility method we sought to obtain a displacement in terms of the forces (through
virtual work) for an entire structure, our starting point in the stiness method is to develop a set of
relationship for the force in terms of the displacements for a single element.
V1
v1
M1
1
=
(23.1)
V2
v2
M2
2
13
Victor Saouma
Structural Engineering
234
Draft
Victor Saouma
Structural Engineering
235
Draft
We start from the dierential equation of a beam, Fig. 23.4 in which we have all positive known
displacements, we have from strength of materials
14
1
M2
V2
V1
M1
v2
v1
2
1
L
Figure 23.4: Flexural Problem Formulation
d2 v
= M1 V1 x + m(x)
(23.2)
dx2
where m(x) is the moment applied due to the applied load only. It is positive when counterclockwise.
M = EI
15
Integrating twice
where f (x) =
16
17
18
EIv
EIv
=
(
(23.4)
=
=
EI1
EIv1
(23.5)
Applying the boundary conditions at x = L and combining with the expressions for C1 and C2
v = 2
EI2 = M1 L 12 V1 L2 + f (L) EI1
(23.6)
v = v2
EIv2 = 12 M1 L2 16 V1 L3 + g(L) EI1 L EIv1
Since equilibrium of forces and moments must be satised, we have:
(L
0
V1 + q + V2 = 0
M1 V1 L + m(L) + M2 = 0
(23.7)
p(x)dx, thus
V1 =
20
(23.3)
f (x)dx.
v = v1
C2
where q =
19
1
M1 x V1 x2 + f (x) + C1
2
1
1
2
M1 x V1 x3 + g(x) + C1 x + C2
2
6
1
(M1 + M2 )
+ m(L)
L
L
V2 = (V1 + q)
Substituting V1 into the expressions for 2 and v2 in Eq. 23.6 and rearranging
2EIz
2
z
M1 M2 = 2EI
L 1 + L 2 + m(L) L f (L)
6EIz
6EIz
6EIz
2M1 M2 = L 1 L2 v1 L2 v2 + m(L) L62 g(L)
(23.8)
(23.9)
Victor Saouma
Structural Engineering
236
Draft
M1
2EIz
6EIz
(21 + 2 )
(v2 v1 ) + M1F
2
L
L
II
M2
(23.10)
2EIz
6EIz
(1 + 22 )
(v2 v1 ) + M2F
2
L
L
(23.11)
II
where
M1F
M2F
2
[Lf (L) 3g(L)]
L2
%
1 $
2 L2 m(L) 4Lf (L) + 6g(L)
L
(23.12-a)
(23.12-b)
M1F and M2F are the xed end moments for 1 = 2 = 0 and v1 = v2 = 0, that is xed end moments.
They can be obtained either from the analysis of a xed end beam, or more readily from the preceding
two equations.
In Eq. 23.10 and 23.11 we observe that the moments developed at the end of a member are caused
by: I) end rotation and displacements; and II) xed end members.
21
22
6EIz
12EIz
(1 + 2 )
(v2 v1 ) + V1F
2
3
L
L
II
V2
(23.13)
6EIz
12EIz
= 2 (1 + 2 ) +
(v2 v1 ) + V2F
3
L
L
(23.14)
II
where
23
V1F
V2F
6
[Lf (L) 2g(L)]
L3
6
3 [Lf (L) 2g(L)] + q
L
(23.15-a)
(23.15-b)
The relationships just derived enable us now to determine the stiness matrix of a beam element.
V1
M1
V2
M2
v1
z
V1 12EI
L3
6EIz
M
1
L2
12EIz
V2
L3
6EIz
M
2
L2
23.3.2
1
6EIz
L2
4EIz
L
z
6EI
L2
2EIz
L
ke
v2
z
12EI
L3
6EIz
L2
12EIz
L3
z
6EI
L2
2
6EIz
L2
2EIz
L
z
6EI
L2
4EIz
L
v1
v2
(23.16)
As mentioned above, the end actions developed in a member involve the end displacements, rotations,
and the in-span loads. In-spans loads exhibit themselves in the form of xed-end forces.
24
The xed-end actions can be determined from the equations derived above, or by analyzing a xed-end
beam under the applied loads.
25
26
Note that in both cases, the load has to be assumed positive, i.e. pointing up for a beam.
The equations derived for calculating the xed-end actions can be summarized as follows. We recall
that, with the x axis directed to the right, positive loads and shear forces act upward and positive
27
Victor Saouma
Structural Engineering
237
Draft
moments are counterclockwise. To calculate the xed end actions the only thing we need is an expression
for the moment of the applied loads (without the end reactions) in the analysis sign convention. Thus
with
m(x)
f (x)
(23.17-a)
m(x)dx
(23.17-b)
f (x)dx
(23.17-c)
(23.17-d)
g(x)
=
and
23.3.2.1
28
M1F
M2F
V1F
V2F
2
[Lf (L) 3g(L)]
L2
%
1 $
2 L2 m(L) 4Lf (L) + 6g(L)
L
6
[Lf (L) 2g(L)]
L3
6
3 [Lf (L) 2g(L)] q
L
(23.18)
(23.19)
(23.20)
(23.21)
29
(23.22)
Substituting
M1F
M2F
V1F
V2F
23.3.2.2
2
2
1
1
3
4
wL
wL
L
= wL
12
L2
6
24
1
1
1
1
= 2 L2 wL2 4L wL3 + 6 wL4
=
L
2
6
24
6
1
1
3
4
wL
wL
=
L
= wL
2
L3
6
24
6
1
1
= 3 L wL3 2 wL4
wL = wL
2
L
6
24
=
(23.23-a)
wL2
12
(23.23-b)
(23.23-c)
(23.23-d)
Concentrated Loads
For a concentrated load we can use the unit step function to nd m(x). For a concentrated load P
acting at a from the left-hand end with b = L a,
30
m(x) =
f (x) =
g(x) =
P (x a)Ha
21 P (x a)2 Ha
61 P (x a)3 Ha
gives m(L) = P b
f (L) = 12 P b2
g(L) = 16 P b3
(23.24)
and
q
M1F
= P
2
2
1 2
1 3
=
L Pb 3 Pb
== PLb2 a
2
L
2
6
Victor Saouma
(23.25-a)
(23.25-b)
Structural Engineering
238
Draft
M2F
V1F
V2F
32
P ba2
L2
(23.25-c)
(23.25-d)
2
6
1 2
1 3
P b2
P
b
P
b
=
(3L 2b) = PLb3 (3a + b)
L
L3
2
6
L3
2
6
1 2
1 3
=
L Pb 2 Pb
+ P = PLa3 (a + 3b)
L3
2
6
(23.25-e)
(23.25-f)
If the load is applied at midspan (a = B = L/2), then the previous equation reduces to
M1F
M2F
V1F
V2F
PL
8
PL
=
8
P
=
2
P
=
2
=
(23.26)
(23.27)
(23.28)
(23.29)
23.4
23.4.1
33 In Eq. 23.10 and 23.11 if we let = v2 v1 (relative displacement), = /L (rotation of the chord
of the member), and K = I/L (stiness factor) then the end equations are:
34
M1
2EK(21 + 2 3) + M1F
(23.30)
M2
2EK(1 + 22 3) + M2F
(23.31)
From Eq. 23.30 and 23.31, we note that if a node has a displacement , then both moments in the
adjacent element will have the same sign. However, the moments in elements on each side of the node
will have dierent sign.
35
23.4.2
Procedure
To illustrate the general procedure, we consider the two span beam in Fig. 23.5 under the applied
load, we will have three rotations 1 , 2 , and 3 (i.e. three degrees of freedom) at the supports. Separating
the spans from the supports, we can write the following equilibrium equations for each support
36
M12
M21 + M23
= 0
= 0
(23.32-a)
(23.32-b)
M32
= 0
(23.32-c)
The three equilibrium equations in turn can be expressed in terms of the three unknown rotations,
thus we can analyze this structure (note that in the slope deection this will always be the case).
37
38
Victor Saouma
M12
F
= 2EK12 (21 + 2 ) + M12
(23.33-a)
M21
M23
= 2EK12 (1 + 22 ) +
= 2EK23 (22 + 3 )
F
M21
(23.33-b)
(23.33-c)
M32
= 2EK23 (2 + 23 )
(23.33-d)
Structural Engineering
Draft
239
1
111
000
000
111
1111
0000
1111
0000
111
000
111
000
L1
P
M 12
M21
M23
M 32
39
2
K12
0
MF
1
0
1
2EK1212
F
M21
2(K12 + K23 ) K23
2
=
2E
1
2
3
0
Stiness Matrix
(23.34)
40
The computational requirements of this method are far less than the one involved in the exibility
method (or method of consistent deformation).
41
23.4.3
42
Algorithm
Victor Saouma
Structural Engineering
2310
Draft
23.4.4
Examples
1
0
0
1
0
1
0
1
0
1
0
1
0
1
0
1
11111
00000
00000
11111
10 m
5m
2
EI2
10
4
EI2
= 2EK12 (1 + 22 ) =
10
= 2EK12 (21 + 2 ) =
(23.36-a)
(23.36-b)
10
250
M21 =
4EI
EI
(23.37)
10
2
2
(2)EI(50)
EI2 =
EI
M21 =
= 50 kN.m
10
10
4EI
(10)EI
(23.38)
Victor Saouma
M21 + M23
= 0
(23.39-a)
M32
= 0
(23.39-b)
Structural Engineering
2311
Draft
5 kips
2 kip/ft
1
0
0
1
0
1
0
1
0
1
0
1
0
1
11
00
11
00
20
111
000
111
000
15
15
0
40.97
79.52
F
M12
F
M21
=
(23.40-a)
F
M23
F
M32
(23.40-b)
4. The members end moments in terms of the rotations are (Eq. 23.30 and 23.31)
M12
M21
M23
=
=
M32
=
=
2EI
EI
F
2 + 66.67
2 + M12
=
L1
10
4EI
EI
F
F
2 66.67
2EK12 (22 ) + M21
=
2 + M21
=
L1
5
2EI
F
F
2EK23 (22 + 3 ) + M23
=
(22 + 3 ) + M23
L2
EI
EI
2 +
3 + 18.75
7.5
15
2EI
F
F
2EK23 (2 + 23 ) + M32
=
(2 + 23 ) + M32
L2
EI
EI
2 +
3 18.75
15
7.5
F
2EK12 (2 ) + M12
=
(23.41-a)
(23.41-b)
(23.41-c)
(23.41-d)
(23.41-e)
Victor Saouma
EI
3 + 18.75 = 0
15
EI
3 18.75 = 0
7.5
5 1
718.8
2
EI
=
1 2
3
281.25
Stiness Matrix
(23.42-a)
(23.42-b)
(23.43)
Structural Engineering
2312
Draft
M21
M23
M32
128.48 76.38
+
+ 18.75 = 40.97 k.ft
7.5
15
128.48 76.38
+
18.75 = 0 k.ft
15
7.5
(23.44-a)
(23.44-b)
(23.44-c)
(23.44-d)
The nal moment diagram is also shown in Fig. 23.8. We note that the midspan moment has to be
separately computed from the equations of equilibrium in order to complete the diagram.
43
Example 23-3: Two-Span Beam, Slope Deection, Initial Deection, (Arbabi 1991)
Determine the end moments for the previous problem if the middle support settles by 6 inches, Fig.
23.8.
1
0
0
1
0
1
0
1
0
1
0
1
0
1
111
000
000
111
11
00
00
11
6"
20
15
15
= 0
= 0
(23.45-a)
(23.45-b)
4. The members end moments in terms of the rotations are (Eq. 23.30 and 23.31)
3EI
EI
2 +
M12 = 2EK12 2 3
=
L12
10
400
3EI
EI
2 +
M21 = 2EK12 22 3
=
L12
5
400
EI
EI
EI
M23 = 2EK23 22 + 3 3
2 +
3 +
=
L23
7.5
15
300
EI
EI
EI
2 +
3 +
M32 = 2EK23 2 + 23 3
=
L23
15
7.5
300
Victor Saouma
(23.46-a)
(23.46-b)
(23.46-c)
(23.46-d)
Structural Engineering
2313
Draft
Stiness Matrix
or
(23.47-a)
(23.47-b)
13
4
1
(23.48)
1+ 5.5
5.5
which will give 2 = 180
= 0.031 radians and 3 = 40 9 = 0.0097 radians
6. Thus the additional moments due to the settlement are
M12
M21
M23
M32
3EI
EI
(0.031) +
= 0.0044EI
10
400
3EI
EI
(0.031) +
= 0.0013EI
5
400
EI
EI
EI
(0.031) +
(0.0097) +
= 0.0015EI
7.5
15
300
EI
EI
EI
2 +
(0.0097) +
= 0.
15
7.5
300
(23.49-a)
(23.49-b)
(23.49-c)
(23.49-d)
2
2
3 kips/ft
2
3
5
10 kips
5
4
1
20
L
= (3)(6)(3) = 54 k.ft
2
(23.50)
Structural Engineering
2314
Draft
We observe that due to the lack of symmetry, there will be a lateral displacement in the frame, and
neglecting axial deformations, 2 = 3 .
3. The equilibrium relations are
M21 + M23
M32 + M34
= 0
= 54
(23.51-a)
(23.51-b)
M43 = 0
V12 + V43 10 = 0
(23.51-c)
(23.51-d)
Thus we have four unknown displacements and four equations. However, the last two equations are in
terms of the shear forces, and we need to have them in term of the end moments, this can be achieved
through the following equilibrium relations
V12
V43
M12 + M21 + 50
L12
M34 + M43
L34
(23.52-a)
(23.52-b)
(10)(10)
PL
=
= 12.5 k.ft
8
8
(3)(20)2
wL2
=
= 100 k.ft
=
12
12
=
(23.53-a)
(23.53-b)
5. The members end moments in terms of the rotations are (Eq. 23.30 and 23.31)
2
F
M12 = 2EK12 2 3
= 0.2EI(2 0.32 ) + 12.5
+ M12
L12
2
F
= 0.2EI(22 0.32 ) 12.5
M21 = 2EK12 22 3
+ M21
L21
(23.54-a)
(23.54-b)
F
2EK23 (22 + 3 ) + M23
= 0.1EI(22 + 3 ) + 100.
(23.54-c)
M32
(23.54-d)
M34
M43
2EK32 (2 + 23 ) +
= 0.1EI(2 + 23 ) 100.
32
2EK34 23 + 4
= 0.2EI(23 + 4 0.32 )
L34
32
2EK43 3 + 24
= 0.2EI(3 + 24 0.32 )
L34
M23
F
M32
(23.54-e)
(23.54-f)
875
EI
460
=
EI
= 0
=
(23.55-a)
(23.55-b)
(23.55-c)
and the last equilibrium equation is obtained by substituting V12 and V43 and multiplying by 10/EI:
2 + 3 + 4 0.42 =
Victor Saouma
83.3
EI
(23.56)
Structural Engineering
Draft
or
6 1 0 0.6
1 6 2 0.6
EI
0 1 2 0.3
1 1 1 0.4
Stiness Matrix
3
4
2
3
2315
875
1
460
=
0
EI
83.3
294.8
1
68.4
=
240.6
EI
1, 375.7
(23.57)
(23.58)
M12
M21
M23
M32
M34
M43
36.0
47.88
47.88
=
115.80
61.78
23.5
23.5.1
Background
(23.59)
The moment distribution is essentially a variation of the slope deection method, however rather than
solving a system of n linear equations directly, the solution is achieved iteratively through a successive
series of operations.
43
The method starts by locking all the joints, and then unlock each joint in succession, the internal
moments are then distributed and balanced until all the joints have rotated to their nal (or nearly
nal) position.
44
45
In order to better understand the method, some key terms must rst be dened.
23.5.1.1
Sign Convention
The sign convention is the same as the one adopted for the slope deection method, counter-clockwise
moment atelements end is positive.
46
23.5.1.2
Fixed-End Moments
Again xed end moments are the same set of forces dened in the slope deection method for a beam
which is rigidly connected at both ends.
47
Consistent with the sign convention, the xed end moments are the moments caused by the applied
load at the end of the beam (assuming it is rigidly connected).
48
23.5.1.3
Stiness Factor
We dene the stiness factor as the moment required to rotate the end of a beam by a unit angle of
one radian, while the other end is xed. From Eq. 23.10, we set 2 = v1 = v2 = 0, and 1 = 1, this will
49
Victor Saouma
Structural Engineering
2316
Draft
yield
K=
50
4EI
Far End Fixed
L
(23.60)
We note that this is slightly dierent than the denition given in the slope deection method (I/L).
51 If the far end of the beam is hinged rather than xed, then we will have a reduced stiness factor.
From Eq. 23.10 and 23.11, with M2 = v1 = v2 = 0, we obtain
M2
2
2EIz
(1 + 22 ) = 0
L
1
=
2
=
(23.61-a)
(23.61-b)
Substituting into M1
M1
2
=
=
2EIz
L
21
52
(21 + 2 )
3EI
L
M1 =
(23.62)
23.5.1.4
3EI
L 1
3
Kred
= Far End Pinned
K
4
(23.63)
If a member is applied to a xed-connection joint where there is a total of n members, then from
equilibrium:
M = M1 + M2 + + Mn
(23.64)
53
However, from Eq. 23.30, and assuming the other end of the member to be xed, then
M = K1 + K2 + + Kn
(23.65)
or
DFi =
Ki
Mi
=
M
Ki
(23.66)
54 Hence if a moment M is applied at a joint, then the portion of M carried by a member connected
to this joint is proportional to the distribution factor. The stier the member, the greater the moment
carried.
55
23.5.1.5
56
Carry-Over Factor
=
=
2EK(21 + 2 3) + M1F
2EK(1 + 22 3) + M2F
(23.67-a)
(23.67-b)
we observe that if one end of the beam is restrained (2 = = 0), and there is no member load, then
the previous equations reduce to
1
M1 = 2EK(21 )
(23.68)
M2 = M1
M2 = 2EK(1 )
2
Victor Saouma
Structural Engineering
2317
Draft
Hence in this case the carry-over factor represents the fraction of M that is carried over from the
rotating end to the xed one.
57
CO =
58
(23.69)
23.5.2
59
1
Far End Fixed
2
Procedure
The general procedure of the Moment Distribution method can be described as follows:
1. Constrain all the rotations and translations.
2. Apply the load, and determine the xed end moments (which may be caused by element loading,
or support translation).
F
F
3. At any given joint i equilibrium is not satised Mlef
t = Mright , and the net moment is Mi
4. We enforce equilibrium by applying at the node Mi , in other words we balance the forces at the
node.
5. How much of Mi goes to each of the elements connected to node i depends on the distribution
factor.
6. But by applying a portion of Mi to the end of a beam, while the other is still constrained, from
Eq. 23.30, half of that moment must also be carried over to the other end.
7. We then lock node i, and move on to node j where these operations are repeated
(a) Sum moments
(b) Balance moments
(c) Distribute moments (K, DF )
(d) Carry over moments (CO)
(e) lock node
8. repeat the above operations until all nodes are balanced, then sum all moments.
9. The preceding operations can be easily carried out through a proper tabulation.
If an end node is hinged, then we can use the reduced stiness factor and we will not carry over
moments to it.
60
Analysis of frame with unsymmetric loading, will result in lateral displacements, and a two step
analysis must be performed (see below).
61
23.5.3
Algorithm
1. Calculate the stiness (K = 4EI/L, however this can often be simplied to I/L) factor for all the
members and the distribution factors at all the joints.
2. If a member AB is pinned at B, then K AB = 3EI/L, and K BA = 4EI/L. Thus, we must apply
the reduced stiness factor to K AB only and not to K BA .
3. The carry-over factor is
1
2
4. Find the xed-end moments for all the members. Note that even if the end of a member is pinned,
determine the xed end moments as if it was xed.
5. Start out by xing all the joints, and release them one at a time.
Victor Saouma
Structural Engineering
2318
Draft
6. If a node is pinned, start by balancing this particular node. If no node is pinned, start from either
end of the structure.
7. Distribute the unbalanced moment at the released joint
8. Carry over the moments to the far ends of the members (unless it is pinned).
9. Fix the joint, and release the next one.
10. Continue releasing joints until the distributed moments are insignicant. If the last moments
carried over are small and cannot be distributed, it is better to discard them so that the joints
remain in equilibrium.
11. Sum up the moments at each end of the members to obtain the nal moments.
23.5.4
Examples
10k
1
0
0
1
0
1
0
1
0
1
0
1
0
1
0
1
12
11
00
10
12.9
25.8
3.22
3.22 6.29
10
11
00
3.71
37.1
12.9
9.51
M
25.8
Solution:
Victor Saouma
Structural Engineering
2319
Draft
F
MCB
PL
(10)(20)
=
= +25.0 k.ft
8
8
25.0 k.ft
(23.70-a)
(23.70-b)
2. Since the relative stiness is given in each span, the distribution factors are
DFAB
KAB
K
DFBA
KBA
K
DFBC
KBC
K
DFCB
KCB
K
5
= 0,
+5
5
= = 0.625,
8
3
= = 0.375,
8
3
= = 1.
3
(23.71-a)
(23.71-b)
(23.71-c)
(23.71-d)
Total
A
AB
5
0
C
Balance
BC
CB
3
3
0.375
1
+25.0
-25.0
+12.5 +25.0 C
-14.1 -7.0
-11.7
B
-23.4
C
+3.5
+7.0
-1.3
-1.1
-0.6
B
-2.2
C
+0.6
+0.3
-0.1
-0.1
B
-0.2
-12.9 -25.8 +25.8
0
CO
BA
5
0.625
BC
AB; CB
BC
AB; CB
BC
AB
4. The above solution is that referred to as the ordinary method, so named to designate the manner of
handling the balancing at the simple support at C. It is known, of course, that the nal moment must
be zero at this support because it is simple.
5. Consequently, the rst step is to balance the xed-end moment at C to zero. The carry-over is
then made immediately to B. When B is balanced, however, a carry-over must be made back to C
simply because the relative stiness of BC is based on end C of this span being xed. It is apparent,
however, that the moment carried back to C (in this case, -7.0) cannot exist at this joint. Accordingly,
it is immediately balanced out, and a carry-over is again made to B, this carry-over being considerably
smaller than the rst. Now B is again balanced, and the process continues until the numbers involved
become too small to have any practical value.
6. Alternatively, we can use the simplied method. It was previously shown that if the support at C is
simple and a moment is applied at B, then the resistance of the span BC to this moment is reduced to
three-fourths of the value it would have had with C xed. Consequently, if the relative stiness of span
BC is reduced to three-fourths of the value given, it will not be necessary to carry over to C.
Joint
Member
K
DF
FEM
Total
Victor Saouma
A
AB
5
0
C
Balance
CB
3
3.00
4 3 = 2.25
0.31
1
+25.0
-25.0
+25.0 C
+12.5
-12.9
-11.7
B
-25.8
-12.9 -25.8
+25.8
0
BA
5
0.69
CO
BC
BC
AB
Structural Engineering
2320
Draft
7. From the standpoint of work involved, the advantage of the simplied method is obvious. It should
always be used when the external (terminal) end of a member rests on a simple support, but it does
not apply when a structure is continuous at a simple support. Attention is called to the fact that when
the opposite end of the member is simply supported, the reduction factor for stiness is always 34 for a
prismatic member but a variable quantity for nonprismatic members.
8. One valuable feature of the tabular arrangement is that of dropping down one line for each balancing
operation and making the carry-over on the same line. This practice clearly indicates the order of
balancing the joints, which in turn makes it possible to check back in the event of error. Moreover, the
placing of the carry-over on the same line with the balancing moments denitely decreases the chance
of omitting a carry-over.
9. The correctness of the answers may in a sense be checked by verifying that M = 0 at each joint.
However, even though the nal answers satisfy this equation at every joint, this in no way a check on
the initial xed-end moments. These xed-end moments, therefore, should be checked with great care
before beginning the balancing operation. Moreover, it occasionally happens that compensating errors
are made in the balancing, and these errors will not be apparent when checking M = 0 at each joint.
10. To draw the nal shear and moment diagram, we start by drawing the free body diagram of each
beam segment with the computed moments, and then solve from statics for the reactions:
12, 9 + 25.8 12VA = 0
25.8 +
VA + VBL
(10)(10) 20VBR
=0
=0
6.29 + VC 10 = 0
VBL VBR + RB = 0
Check: RA + RB + RC 10
+
MBC
VA = RA = 3.22 k
(23.72-a)
(23.72-b)
(23.72-c)
VBL
VBR
= 3.22 k
= 6.29 k
VC = RC 3.71 k
RB = 9.51 k
=
(23.72-d)
(23.72-e)
(23.72-f)
(23.72-g)
Solution:
1. Fixed-end moments:
F
= (0.5)(10) = 5.0 k.ft
MAO
(23.73)
Victor Saouma
F
MAB
F
MBA
P ab2
(1)(5)(152 )
=
= +2.8 k.ft
2
L
202
P a2 b
(1)(52 )(15)
=
= 0.9 k.ft
L2
202
(23.74-a)
(23.74-b)
Structural Engineering
2321
Draft
PL
8
(4)(20)
8
= +10.0 k.ft
(23.75-a)
= 10.0 k.ft
F
MBA
(23.75-b)
F
MDC
(0.2)(152 )
wL2
=
= +3.8 k.ft
12
12
3.8 k.ft
(23.76-a)
(23.76-b)
Total
A
AO
0
0
-5.0
-5.0
B
C
D
AB
BA
BC
CB
CD
DC
3
20
60
60
40
40
4 (20) = 15
1
0.2
0.8
0.6
0.4
0
+12.8
-10.9
+3.8
-3.8
-7.8
-3.9
s +11.9 +5.9
+2.9
s-3.9 -1.9
-2.9 -5.8
+2.3 +1.1
+0.6
s-0.4 -0.2
-0.7
-0.3
+0.1
+0.2
+5.0
-11.2
+11.2 +0.5 -0.5 -5.9
Balance
CO
A
B
C
B
C
B
BA
CB
DC; BC
CB
DC; BC
3. The only new point in this example is the method of handling the overhanging end. It is obvious that
the nal internal moment at A must be 5.0 k.ft and, accordingly, the rst step is to balance out 7.8 k.ft
of the xed-end moment at AB, leaving the required 5.0 k.ft for the internal moment at AB. Since the
relative stiness of BA has been reduced to three-fourths of its original value, to permit considering the
support at A as simple in the balancing, no carry-over from B to A is required.
4. The easiest way to determine the reactions is to consider each span as a free body. End shears are
rst determined as caused by the loads alone on each span and, following this, the end shears caused by
the end moments are computed. These two shears are added algebraically to obtain the net end shear
for each span. An algebraic summation of the end shears at any support will give the total reaction.
Victor Saouma
Structural Engineering
2322
Draft
Solution:
1. Fixed-end moments: Uniform load:
F
MBA
(5)(202 )
wL2
=
= +167 k.ft
12
12
= 167 k.ft
F
MCD
F
MAB
(23.77-a)
(23.77-b)
Concentrated load:
F
MDC
Victor Saouma
(10)(30)
PL
=
= +37.5 k.ft
8
8
= 37.5 k.ft
(23.78-a)
(23.78-b)
Structural Engineering
2323
Draft
F
MCB
F
MCD
F
MDC
6EI
6(30, 000)(1, 200)(0.1)
=
= +1, 500 k.in = +125 k.ft
L2
(120)2
(23.79-a)
+125 k.ft
6EI
(6)(30, 000)(7, 200)(0.1)
=
= 1, 000 k.in = 83 k.ft
2
L
(360)2
(23.79-b)
83 k.ft
(23.79-d)
(23.79-c)
2. Moment distribution
Joint
Member
K
DF
FEM Load
FEM
Total
A
AB
10
0
+167
D
DC
3
20
4 (20) = 15
0.6
1
+38
-38
+125
+125
-83
-83
+60
+121
-84
-28
-56
+35 +17
+17 +35
-3
-7 s -10
+1
+1
+2
+185 -130 +130
+79
-79
0
BA
10
0.5
-167
BC
10
0.5
CB
10
0.4
Balance
CO
D
C
B
C
B
CD
BC
AB; CB
BC
CD
The xed-end moments caused by a settlement of supports have the same sign at both ends of each
span adjacent to the settling support. The above computations have been carried to the nearest k.ft,
which for moments of the magnitudes involved, would be suciently close for purposes of design.
Solution:
Victor Saouma
Structural Engineering
2324
Draft
1. The rst step is to perform the usual moment distribution. The reader should fully understand
that this balancing operation adjusts the internal moments at the ends of the members by a series of
corrections as the joints are considered to rotate, until M = 0 at each joint. The reader should also
realize that during this balancing operation no translation of any joint is permitted.
2. The xed-end moments are
F
MBC
F
MCB
(18)(12)(62 )
= +24 k.ft
182
(18)(6)(122 )
= 48 k.ft
182
(23.80-a)
(23.80-b)
3. Moment distribution
Joint
Member
K
DF
FEM
Total
A
AB
10
0
C
D
BC
CB
CD
DC
20
20
15
15
0.667
0.571
0.429
0
+24.0
-48.0
+10.3
+13.7 +27.4 +20.6
-12.5
-6.3
-25.1
-12.6
s +5.4 +2.7
+3.6 +7.1
-1.2
-0.6
-2.4
-1.2
s +0.5 +0.02
+0.7
+0.3
-0.1
-0.2
-6.9 -13.9 +13.9 -26.5 +26.5 +13.2
Balance
CO
FEM
C
B
C
B
C
B
DC; BC
AB; CB
BC; DC
AB; CB
BC; DC
BA
10
0.333
4. The nal moments listed in the table are correct only if there is no translation of any joint. It is
therefore necessary to determine whether or not, with the above moments existing, there is any tendency
for side lurch of the top of the frame.
5. If the frame is divided into three free bodies, the result will be as shown below.
Inspection of this sketch indicates that if the moments of the rst balance exist in the frame, there is a
net force of 1.53 0.80 = 0.73 k tending to sway the frame to the left. In order to prevent side-sway,
and thus allow these moments to exist (temporarily, for the purpose of the analysis), it is necessary that
an imaginary horizontal force be considered to act to the right at B or C. This force is designated as
the articial joint restraint (abbreviated as AJR) and is shown below.
6. This illustration now shows the complete load system which would have to act on the structure if the
nal moments of the rst balance are to be correct. The AJR, however, cannot be permitted to remain,
Victor Saouma
Structural Engineering
2325
Draft
and thus its eect must be cancelled. This may be accomplished by nding the moments in the frame
resulting from a force equal but opposite to the AJR and applied at the top.
7. Although it is not possible to make a direct solution for the moments resulting from this force, they
may be determined indirectly. Assume that some unknown force P acts on the frame, as shown below
and causes it to deect laterally to the left, without joint rotation, through some distance . Now,
regardless of the value of P and the value of the resulting , the xed-end moments induced in the ends
of the columns must be proportional to the respective values of KM .
62
F
MAB
F
MDC
=
=
F
F
MDC
MAB
=
6EKm
6EKm
AB
Km
10
=
DC
Km
15
I
L2
K
L
we can write
(23.81-a)
(23.81-b)
These xed-end moments could, for example, have the values of 10 and 15 k.ft or 20 and 30, or
30 and 45, or any other combination so long as the above ratio is maintained. The proper procedure
is to choose values for these xed-end moments of approximately the same order of magnitude as the
original xed-end moments due to the real loads. This will result in the same accuracy for the results
of the balance for the side-sway correction that was realized in the rst balance for the real loads.
Accordingly, it will be assumed that P , and the resulting , are of such magnitudes as to result in the
xed-end moments shown below
63
8. Obviously, M = 0 is not satised for joints B and C in this deected frame. Therefore these joints
must rotate until equilibrium is reached. The eect of this rotation is determined in the distribution
below
Victor Saouma
Structural Engineering
2326
Draft
Joint
Member
K
DF
FEM
Total
D
CD
DC
15
15
0.429
0
-45.0
-45.0
+19.2 +9.6
+12.9 +25.8
+11.4
+5.7
+2.8
+5.7
-1.2
-3.3 s -2.4
-1.6
+0.5
+0.5
+0.2
+1.1
s -0.2 -0.1
-0.3
-27.0 -23.8 +23.8 +28.4 -28.4 -36.7
BA
10
0.333
-30.0
BC
20
0.667
Balance
CO
CB
20
0.571
C
B
C
B
C
BC;
AB;
BC;
AB;
DC
CB
DC
CB
9. During the rotation of joints B and C, as represented by the above distribution, the value of has
remained constant, with P varying in magnitude as required to maintain .
10. It is now possible to determine the nal value of P simply by adding the shears in the columns.
The shear in any member, without external loads applied along its length, is obtained by adding the
end moments algebraically and dividing by the length of the member. The nal value of P is the force
necessary to maintain the deection of the frame after the joints have rotated. In other words, it is the
force which will be consistent with the displacement and internal moments of the structure as determined
by the second balancing operation. Hence this nal value of P will be called the consistent joint force
(abbreviated as CJF).
11. The consistent joint force is given by
CJF =
(23.82)
and inspection clearly indicates that the CJF must act to the left.
12. Obviously, then, the results of the last balance above are moments which will exist in the frame when
a force of 4.45 k acts to the left at the top level. It is necessary, however, to determine the moments
resulting from a force of 0.73 k acting to the left at the top level, and some as yet unknown factor z
times 4.45 will be used to represent this force acting to the left.
13. The free body for the member BC is shown above. H = 0 must be satised for this gure, and if
forces to the left are considered as positive, the result is 4.45z 0.73 = 0, and
z = +0.164.
(23.83)
If this factor z = +0.164 is applied to the moments obtained from the second balance, the result will
be the moments caused by a force of 0.73 k acting to the left at the top level. If these moments are
then added to the moments obtained from the rst balance, the result will be the nal moments for the
frame, the eect of the AJR having been cancelled. This combination of moments is shown below.
Joint
Member
M from 1st balance
z M from 2nd balance
Final moments
A
AB
-6.9
-4.4
-11.3
B
BA
-13.9
-3.9
-17.8
BC
+13.9
+3.9
+17.8
C
CB
-26.5
+4.7
-21.8
CD
+26.5
-4.7
+21.8
D
DC
+13.2
-6.0
+7.2
14. If the nal moments are correct, the shears in the two columns of the frame should be equal and
opposite to satisfy H = 0 for the entire frame. This check is expressed as
+11.3 + 17.8 21.8 7.2
+
= 0,
26
26
(23.84)
(23.85)
and
Victor Saouma
Structural Engineering
Draft
2327
The signs of all moments taken from the previous table have been reversed to give the correct signs
for the end moments external to the columns. It will be remembered that the moments considered in
moment distribution are always internal for each member. However, the above check actually considers
each column as a free body and so external moments must be used.
15. The moment under the 18 k load is obtained by treating BC as a free body:
(23.86)
16. The direction of side-lurch may be determined from the obvious fact that the frame will always lurch
in a direction opposite to the AJR. If required, the magnitude of this side lurch may be found. The
procedure which follows will apply.
A force P of sucient magnitude to result in the indicated column moments and the lurch was applied
to the frame. During the second balance this value of was held constant as the joints B and C rotated,
and the value of P was considered to vary as necessary. The nal value of P was found to be 4.45 k. Since
was held constant, however, its magnitude may be determined from the equation M = 6EI/L2 ,
where M is the xed-end moment for either column, I is the moment of inertia of that column, and L
is the length. This will be the lurch for 4.45 k acting at the top level. For any other force acting
horizontally, would vary proportionally and thus the nal lurch of the frame would be the factor z
multiplied by the determined above.
Victor Saouma
Structural Engineering
2328
Draft
Solution:
The rst balance will give the results shown
AB
-7.2
BA
-14.6
BC
+14.6
CB
-22.5
CD
-22.5
DC
0
A check of the member BC as a free body for H = 0 will indicate that an AJR is necessary as follows:
AJR + 0.84 0.87 5.0 = 0
(23.87)
(23.88)
from which
The values of KM for the two columns are shown, with KM for column CD being K/2L because of the
pin at the bottom. The horizontal displacement of the top of the frame is
assumed to cause the xed-end moments shown there. These moments are proportional to the values
of KM and of approximately the same order of magnitude as the original xed-end moments due to the
real loads. The results of balancing out these moments are
AB
-34.4
BA
-28.4
CJF =
BC
+28.4
CB
+23.6
CD
-23.6
DC
0
(23.89)
and
5.03 z(3.32) = 0,
(23.90)
z = +1.52.
(23.91)
from which
The nal results are
Victor Saouma
Structural Engineering
Draft
AB
-7.2
-52.1
-59.3
BA
-14.6
-43.0
-57.6
2329
BC
+14.6
+43.0
+57.6
CB
-22.5
+35.8
+13.3
CD
+22.5
-35.8
-13.3
DC
0
0
0
If these nal moments are correct, the sum of the column shears will be 5.0 k: Sum of column shears:
V =
(23.92)
The 5 k horizontal load acting at C enters into the problem only in connection with the determination
of the AJR. If this load had been applied to the column CD between the ends, it would have resulted
in initial xed-end moments in CD and these would be computed in the usual way. In addition, such a
load would have entered into the determination of the AJR, since the horizontal reaction of CD against
the right end of BC would have been computed by treating CD as a free body.
12
8
20 k
C
I = cst
15
10
D
A
Solution:
Victor Saouma
Structural Engineering
2330
Draft
Sheet1
Lenght
EI
K
DF
FEM
A
B
AB BA
15
15
30
30
2.0 2.0
1.0 0.6
-8.0 -8.0
2.3 4.6
-0.8
Total
-6.5
1st
z 2nd
Final
AB
-14.2
-9.6
-23.9
C
BC CB CD
20
20
10
30
30
30
1.5 1.5 3.0
0.4 0.3 0.7
-18.0
3.4 1.7
2.7 5.4 10.9
-1.6 -1.2 -0.6
0.1 0.2 0.4
-0.1 0.0
-5.0 5.0 6.8 -6.8
Final Moments
BA BC CB CD
-28.4 28.5 -45.5 45.5
-7.5 7.5 10.0 -10.0
-35.9 35.9 -35.5 35.5
D
DC Balance
10
30 "arbitrary"
3.0
1.0
-18.0
B
5.4 C
B
0.2 C
B
-12.4 .
CO
V
6EI/L^2 M^F
H_A
-2.84
AB
0.80
-8
H_D 6.826355685 DC
1.80
-18
AJR
3.98
Delta
-10
Delta to the left, will cause -ve M^F
Frame sways to the right
AB, CB
BC, DC
AB, CB
BC, DC
AB, CB
BC, DC
CO
AB, CB
BC, DC
AB, CB
BC, DC
AB, CB
H_A
H_D
CJF
z
V
-0.77
-1.9
-2.68
1.49
DC
22.8
-18.4
4.4
Page 1
Victor Saouma
Structural Engineering
Draft
Chapter 24
REINFORCED CONCRETE
BEAMS; Part I
24.1
Introduction
Recalling that concrete has a tensile strength (ft ) about one tenth its compressive strength (fc ),
concrete by itself is a very poor material for exural members.
24.1.1
6
Notation
Area of steel
Width
Distance from top of compressive bers to neutral axis
Distance from the top of the compressive bers to the centroid
of the reinforcement
Concrete compressive strength
Concrete modulus of rupture
Steel stress
Concrete tensile strength
Steel yield stress (equivalent to Fy in AISC)
Height
Steel ratio, Abds
242
Draft
24.1.2
Modes of Failure
7 A reinforced concrete beam is a composite structure where concrete provides the compression and steel
the tension.
Failure is initiated by
1. Yielding of the steel when the steel stress reaches the yield stress (fs = fy ). This occurs if we
do not have enough reinforcement that is the section is under-reinforced. This will result in
excessive rotation and deformation prior to failure.
2. Crushing of the concrete, when the concrete strain reaches its ultimate value (c = u = 0.003),
ACI 318: 10.2.3. This occurs if there is too much reinforcement that is the section is overreinforced. This is a sudden mode of failure.
9 Ideally in an optimal (i.e. most ecient use of materials) design, a section should be dimensioned
such that crushing of concrete should occur simultaneously with steel yielding. This would then be a
balanced design.
However since concrete crushing is a sudden mode of failure with no prior warning, whereas steel
yielding is often accompanied by excessive deformation (thus providing ample warning of an imminent
failure), design codes require the section to be moderately under-reinforced.
10
24.1.3
11
Analysis vs Design
Analysis: Given a certain design, determine what is the maximum moment which can be applied.
Design: Given an external moment to be resisted, determine cross sectional dimensions (b and h) as
well as reinforcement (As ). Note that in many cases the external dimensions of the beam (b and
h) are xed by the architect.
12
We often consider the maximum moment along a member, and design accordingly.
24.1.4
In developing a design/analysis method for reinforced concrete, the following basic relations will be
used:
13
1. Equilibrium: of forces and moment at the cross section. 1) Fx = 0 or Tension in the reinforcement
= Compression in concrete; and 2) M = 0 or external moment (that is the one obtained from
the moment envelope) equal and opposite to the internal one (tension in steel and compression of
the concrete).
2. Material Stress Strain: We recall that all normal strength concrete have a failure strain Iu = .003
in compression irrespective of fc .
14
Compatibility of Displacements: Perfect bond between steel and concrete (no slip). Note that those
two materials do also have very close coecients of thermal expansion under normal temperature.
Plane section remain plane strain is proportional to distance from neutral axis.
Victor Saouma
Structural Engineering
243
Draft
24.1.5
ACI Code
The ACI code is based on limit strength, or Mn Mu thus a similar design philosophy is used as
the one adopted by the LRFD method of the AISC code, ACI-318: 8.1.1; 9.3.1; 9.3.2
15
16
17
1.4D + 1.7L
(24.1)
We should consider the behaviors of a reinforced concrete section under increasing load:
1. Section uncracked
2. Section cracked, elastic
3. Section cracked, limit state
The second analysis gives rise to the Working Stress Design (WSD) method (to be covered in Structural
Engineering II), and the third one to the Ultimate Strength Design (USD) method.
24.2
24.2.1
In determining the limit state moment of a cross section, we consider Fig. 24.1. Whereas the strain
distribution is linear (ACI-318 10.2.2), the stress distribution is non-linear because the stress-strain
curve of concrete is itself non-linear beyond 0.5fc .
18
Thus we have two alternatives to investigate the moment carrying capacity of the section, ACI-318:
10.2.6
19
20
= T = As fs = As fy
= T (d c)
We select an equivalent rectangular stress distribution, often referred to as the Whitney Stress
Block such that the constant stress is equal to 0.85fc and is applied over a depth a = 1 c, ACI-318:
10.2.7
22
Comparing the actual and the equivalent stress distributions, the two requirements previously stated
translate into the following mathematical relations
23
fc bc
c
Victor Saouma
= 0.85fc b1 c
= 12 1 c
Structural Engineering
244
Draft
= 2
= .85
We have two equations and three unknowns (, 1 , and ). Thus we need to use test data to solve
this problem1 . From experimental tests, the following relations are obtained
24
fc (ppsi)
< 4,000
.72
.425
.85
5,000
.68
.400
.80
6,000
.64
.375
.75
7,000
.60
.350
.70
8,000
.56
.325
.65
=
=
.85
1
.85 (.05)(fc 4, 000) 1,000
if fc 4, 000
if 4, 000 < fc < 8, 000
(24.3)
Victor Saouma
Structural Engineering
245
Draft
24.2.2
Next we seek to determine the balanced steel ratio b such that failure occurs by simultaneous
yielding of the steel fs = fy and crushing of the concrete c = 0.003, ACI-318: 10.3.2 We will
separately consider the two failure possibilities:
25
(24.4)
Compression Failure: where the concrete strain is equal to the ultimate strain; From the strain
diagram
.003
c = 0.003
d
(24.5)
c = fs
c
.003
=
+ .003
d
.003+s
Es
26
Balanced Design is obtained by equating Eq. 24.4 to Eq. 24.5 and by replacing by b and fs by fy :
fy
.003
d
fs
f
0.85fc 1 d =
+.003
.003
Es
b y
d
d = fy
fs = fy
.85f
c 1
Es + .003
= b
(24.6)
This b corresponds to the only combination of b, d and As which will result in simultaneous yielding of
the steel and crushing of the concrete, that is an optimal design.
Because we need to have ample warning against failure, hence we prefer to have an under-reinforced
section. Thus, the ACI code stipulates:
27
< .75b
(24.7)
In practice, depending on the relative cost of steel/concrete and of labour it is common to select lower
values of . If < 0.5b (thus we will have a deeper section) then we need not check for deection.
28
29 A minimum amount of reinforcement must always be used to prevent temperature and shrinkage
cracks:
min
30
200
fy
(24.8)
MD = Mn > Mu
24.2.3
= b = 0.9
(24.9)
Analysis
As
bd
f
2. b = (.85)1 fyc
Victor Saouma
87
87+fy
Structural Engineering
246
Draft
A
f
M
d
0.59
D
s y
fc b
MD = As fy d a2
Mn
MD
As
bd
yields
fy
= fy bd 1 .59
fc
2
(24.10)
4. If act > b is not allowed by the code as this would be an over-reinforced section which would
fail with no prior warning. However, if such a section exists, and we need to determine its moment
carrying capacity, then we have two unknowns:
(a) Steel strain s (which was equal to y in the previous case)
(b) Location of the neutral axis c.
We have two equations to solve this problem
Equilibrium: of forces
c=
As fs
.85fc b1
(24.11)
Strain compatibility: since we know that at failure the maximum compressive strain c is equal
to 0.003. Thus from similar triangles we have
c
.003
=
d
.003 + s
(24.12)
24.2.4
(24.13)
Design
We distinguish between two cases. The rst one has dimensions as well as steel area unknown, the
second has the dimensions known (usually specied by the architect or by other constraints), and we
seek As .
31
Victor Saouma
Structural Engineering
Draft
247
fy
MD = fy 1 .59 bd2
fc
or
fy
R = fy 1 .59
fc
(24.14)
which does not depend on unknown quantities2 . Then solve for bd2 :
bd2 =
MD
R
(24.15)
MD
fs d a2
(24.16)
As fs
.85fc b
(24.17)
(24.18)
a
1 .
2.35
(10)(23) = .0102
f
87
4
87
b = .851 fyc 87+f
= (.85)(.85) 60
87+60 =
y
As fy
(2.35)(60)
= (.85)(4)(10)
= 4.147 in
a = .85f
cb
2 Note analogy with Eq. 14.5 M = F Z for stell beams.
y
Mn = p (2.35)(60)(23
4.147
2 ) = 2, 950 k.in
MD = Mn = (.9)(2, 950) = 2, 660 k.in
act
Victor Saouma
Structural Engineering
248
Draft
=
=
=
4.414
a
=
= 4.87 in
0.85
0.85
f
act fy bd2 1 .59act fy
c
f
As fy d 1 .59act fy
c
%
$
(2.35)(60)(23) 1 (.59) 60
4 (.01021) = 2, 950 k.in = 245 k.ft
R
bd2
k/ft(15)2 ft2
=
(12) in/ft = 2, 000 k.in
8
fc
87
= .851 fy 87+fy
3
87
= (.85)(.85) 40
87+40 = 0.040
= .75b = .75(0.04)
= 0.030
f
= fy 1 .59 fy
%
$ c
= 0.917 ksi
= (0.03)(40) 1. (0.59)(0.03) 40
3
2
2,000
Md
k.in
in
= R = (0.9)(0.917)
= 2, 423 in3
k
#
Assume b = 10 in, this will give d = 2,423
10 = 15.57 in. We thus adopt b = 10 in and d = 16 in.
Finally,
As = bd = (0.030)(10)(16) = 4.80 in2
we select 3 bars No. 11
d
5
20
5
= 4 in and fs = fy
2. Equilibrium of moments:
As =
1, 600 k.in
MD
==
= 2.47 in2
fy (d a2 )
(.9)(40) ksi(20 42 ) in
Victor Saouma
249
Draft
4. We originally assumed a = 4, at the end of this rst iteration a = 3.38, let us iterate again with
a = 3.30
5. Equilibrium of moments:
As =
1, 600 k.in
MD
a ==
fy (d 2 )
(.9)(40) ksi(20
3.3
2 )
in
= 2.42 in2
7. we have converged on a.
8. Actual is act =
2.42
(11.5)(20)
= .011
9. b is equal to
87
fc 87
3
= .037
= (.85)(.85)
fy 87 + fy
40 87 + 40
10. max
24.3
ACI Code
Attached is an unauthorized copy of some of the most relevant ACI-318-89 design code provisions.
8.1.1 - In design of reinforced concrete structures, members shall be proportioned for adequate
strength in accordance with provisions of this code, using load factors and strength reduction factors
specied in Chapter 9.
8.3.1 - All members of frames or continuous construction shall be designed for the maximum eects
of factored loads as determined by the theory of elastic analysis, except as modied according to Section
8.4. Simplifying assumptions of Section 8.6 through 8.9 may be used.
8.5.1 - Modulus of elasticity Ec for concrete may be taken as Wc1.5 33 fc ( psi) for values of Wc
between 90 and 155 lb per cu ft. For normal weight concrete, Ec may be taken as 57, 000 fc .
8.5.2 - Modulus of elasticity Es for non-prestressed reinforcement may be taken as 29,000 psi.
9.1.1 - Structures and structural members shall be designed to have design strengths at all sections
at least equal to the required strengths calculated for the factored loads and forces in such combinations
as are stipulated in this code.
9.2 - Required Strength
9.2.1 - Required strength U to resist dead load D and live load L shall be at least equal to
U = 1.4D + 1.7L
9.2.2 - If resistance to structural eects of a specied wind load W are included in design, the
following combinations of D, L, and W shall be investigated to determine the greatest required strength
U
U = 0.75(1.4D + 1.7L + 1.7W )
where load combinations shall include both full value and zero value of L to determine the more severe
condition, and
U = 0.9D + 1.3W
but for any combination of D, L, and W, required strength U shall not be less than Eq. (9-1).
9.3.1 - Design strength provided by a member, its connections to other members, and its cross
sections, in terms of exure, axial load, shear, and torsion, shall be taken as the nominal strength
calculated in accordance with requirements and assumptions of this code, multiplied by a strength
reduction factor .
Victor Saouma
Structural Engineering
2410
Draft
Victor Saouma
200
fy
Structural Engineering
Draft
Chapter 25
REINFORCED CONCRETE
BEAMS; Part II
25.1
1
Equivalent width for uniform stress, Fig. 25.1 must satisfy the following requirements (ACI 8.10.2):
b
hf
bw
be
252
Draft
1.
1
2 (b
bw ) 8hf
bw
2
L
4
Two possibilities:
1. Neutral axis within the anges (c < hf ) rectangular section of width b, Fig. 25.2.
2. Neutral axis in the web (c > hf ) T beam.
hf
.85fc
a=1c
As fy
Victor Saouma
Structural Engineering
253
Draft
25.1.1
5
Review
As
Asf
As-Asf
Asf
Mn1
F = 0
) M = 0
Web:
a =
Mn2 =
F = 0
(As Asf )fy (d a2 ) M = 0
Total moment:
Mn = Mn1 + Mn2
25.1.2
7
Design, (balanced)
As fy
u
= u+
StrainCompatibility
y
= .85fc 1 cbw + .85fc(b bw )hf F = 0
Asf fy
thus,
Asf y
w
f
=
=
=
wb
b + f
Hence, max
.75(b + f ) (25.2)
u
w = .85 1
+f
fy u + y
fc
(25.1)
Victor Saouma
Structural Engineering
254
Draft
30"
7"
36"
14"
Solution:
1. Check requirements for isolated T sections
(a) be = 30 in should not exceed 4bw = 4(14) = 56 in
(b) hf b2u 7 14
2
(12.48)(50)
= 8.16 in > hf
(0.85)(3)(30)
3. For a T section
.85fc hf (bbw )
fy
(.85)(3)(7)(3014)
50
5.71
(14)(36) = .0113
Asf
f
Asw
w
=
= 5.71 in2
=
= 12.48 5.71 = 6.77 in2
12.48
= (14)(36)
= .025
f
87
= .851 fyc 87+f
y
3
87
= (.85)(.85) 50
87+50 = .0275
= .75(b + f )
Victor Saouma
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255
Draft
Determine the moment capacity of the following section, assume ange dimensions to satisfy ACI
requirements; As = 6#10 = 7.59 in2 ; fc = 3 ksi; fy =60 ksi.
28"
6"
26"
10"
As = 6#10= 7.59in2
Solution:
Assume rectangular beam
Asf
Asw
w
f
max
Mn1
As Asf
a
Mn2
Md
=
=
=
=
=
=
=
=
=
=
7.59
(28)(26)
= .0104
3 87
(.85)(.85) 60
87+60 = .0214 > fs = fy
(7.59)(60)
(.85)(3)(28) =
(.85)(3)(18)(6)
60
= 4.59 in2
7.59 4.59 = 3.00 in2
7.59
(26)(10) = .0292
4.59
(26)(10) = .0177
.75(.0214 + .0177) = .0294 > .0292 Ductile failure
(4.59)(60)(26 3) = 6, 330 k.in
7.59 4.59 = 3. in2
(3)(60)
(.85)(3)(10) = 7.07 in
(3.00)(60)(26 7.07
2 ) = 4, 050 k.in
(.9)(6, 330 + 4, 050) = 9, 350 k.in
Victor Saouma
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256
Draft
3"
20"
11"
47"
Solution:
1. Determine eective ange width:
bw ) 8hf
16hf + bw = (16)(3) + 11 = 59 in
L
24
= 72 in
4 = 4 12
Center Line spacing
= 47 in
1
2 (b
2. Assume a = 3 in
As
6,400
Md
= 0.9)(60)(20
=
3
fy (d a
2)
2)
As fy
(6.4)(60)
(.85)fc b = (.85)(3)(47) = 3.20
b = 47 in
6.40 in2
in > hf
Md1
Md2
=
=
(.85)(3)(4711)(3)
60
= 4.58 in2
d
5
20
5
= 4. in
1, 830
= 1.88 in2
(.90)(60) 20 42
1.88)(60)
(.85)(3)(11)
As
w
f
=
=
=
b
max
=
=
= 4.02 in 4.00
6. Note that 6.46 in2 (T beam) is close to As = 6.40 in2 if rectangular section was assumed.
25.2
8
Victor Saouma
Structural Engineering
257
Draft
2. Support stirups
3. Reverse moments (moving load)
4. Provide ductility (earthquake)
5. Reduce creep (long term deections)
Approach will again be based on a strain compatibility analysis & equilibrium equation, Fig. 25.5.
d
As
s
.85fc
.85fc
Asfs
Asfy
d-d
+
Asfy
Asfs
As
(As-As)fs
10
11
and we dene
=
25.2.1
12
As
bd
(25.3)
1
yes
no
As yield?
yes
I
f s=fy
fs=fy
As yield?
no
II
fs=fy
fs< fy
yes
As yield?
III
fs< fy
fs=fy
no
IV
fs< fy
fs< fy
Victor Saouma
Structural Engineering
258
Draft
Test 1 Is As yielding?
Assuming s = y , and fs = fy , we have from the strain diagram
s
fs
c
From equilibrium:
= u dd (u + y )
= Es s
u
= u+
d
y
Combining:
b = 1 =
fs
u
f
+ .85 c 1
fy
fy u + y
1 =
fs
fy
+ b
(25.4)
fs
(25.5)Note that 0.75 premultiplies only one term as in the other
fy
failure is ipso facto by yielding. We also note the similarity with max of T Beams (where 0.75
premultiplied both terms).
thus max
0.75b +
Test 2 fs = fy is fs = fy ?
We set s = y , and from the strain diagram
s=y
s>y
Figure 25.7: Strain Diagram, Doubly Reinforced Beam; is As Yielding?
c=
from equilibrium
u
d
u y
combining
min 2 = + .851
fc d 87
fy d 87 fy
(25.6)
which corresponds to the minimum amount of steel to ensure yielding of compression steel at
failure. Thus, if < min then fs < fy .
Test 3 fs < fy , is fs = fy ?
From strain diagram:
c
s
Victor Saouma
=
=
u
u y d
dc
cd y
Structural Engineering
259
Draft
From equilibrium
combining
= 3 =
f c
c d
+ .851 c
dc
fy d
(25.7)
cy
fs< fy
fs = fy
II
fs = fy
III
fs< fy
fs < fy
IV
Figure 25.8: Summary of Conditions for top and Bottom Steel Yielding
25.2.2
Moment Equations
= As fy + .85fc ab
(As As )fy
=
.85f b
c
a
+ As fy (d d )
MnI = .85fc ab d
2
(25.8)
Case II We have fs = fy and fs < fy (small bottom and large top reinforcement ratios, most common
case)
s
fs
As fy
= u cd
c
= Es s
= As fs + .85fc b1 c
(25.9)
Case III fs < fy and fs = fy (large bottom and small top reinforcement ratios, rare)
s
fs
As fs
a
Victor Saouma
=
=
=
=
u dc
c
Es s
As fy + .85fc ab
1 c
Structural Engineering
2510
Draft
solve for a
a
MnIII = .85fc ab d
+ As fy (d d )
2
(25.10)
Case IV fs < fy and fs < fy (large bottom and top reinforcement ratios, rare)
s
s
As fs
a
=
=
=
=
u cd
c
u dc
c
As fs + .85fc ab
1 c
solve for a
a
+ As fs (d d )
MnIV = .85fc ab d
2
(25.11)
Note that in most beams of normal size and proportions, it will be found that fs < fy when fs = fy .
We nevertheless use As in order to ensure ductility, stiness and support for the stirrups.
13
Solution:
b
=
=
=
f
(.85)1 fyc
6.24
(16)(27.3)
4.68
(16)(27.3)
87
87+fy
4
87
= (.85)(.85) 60
87+60 = .0285
= .0143
= .0107
We can not check yet if < max because fs is yet unknown
min
=
=
f
u
+ .85 fyc 1 dd u
y
4
3
.003
.0107 + (.85) 60 (.85) 27.3
.003 60
= .0278 >
29,000
Hence
Structural Engineering
2511
Draft
solve for c
fs
=
=
As fy =
(6.24)(60) =
374.4 =
fs =
Es u cd
= (29, 000)(.003) c3
c
c
c3
87 c
As fs + .85fc b1 c
(4.68)fs + (.85)(4)(16)(.85)c
4.68fs + 46.24c
9.9c + 80.2
25
-25
-50
-75
-100
We note that f s increases with c from the strain diagram, but fs decreases with c from equilibrium.
Graphically the solution is around 4.9.
Combining those two equations1
c2 + .7085c 26.42 = 0
we obtain c = 4.80 in a = 0.85(4.8) = 4.078 in, and fs = (.003)(29, 000) 4.803
4.80 = 32.6 ksi
Substituting into the moment equation
Mn = .85fc ab d a2 + As fs (d d )
+ (4.68)(32.62)(27.3 3)
= (.85)(4)(4.078)(16) 27.3 4.078
2
= 9, 313 k.in
Md = 0.9(9, 313) = 8, 382 k.in = 699 k.ft
Check
max
f
= .75b + fys
= (.75)(.0285) +
32.6
60 (.0107)
=
.027
2512
Draft
=
=
As
As
min
=
=
1.12
(12)(21)
6.49
(12)(21)
= .00444
= .0257
f
u
= + .851 fyc dd u
y
4 2.5
87
= .00444 + (.85)(.85) 60
21.0 8760 = .0229 < (.0257)
Note that if it turns out that fs < fy , then we will need to make an assumption on As (such as As = A2s ,
as we will have three equations (2 of equilibrium and one of strain compatibility) and four unknowns
(As , As , fs and c).
Victor Saouma
Structural Engineering
Draft
Chapter 26
Introduction
26.1.1
Structural Idealization
1 Prior to analysis, a structure must be idealized for a suitable mathematical representation. Since it is
practically impossible (and most often unnecessary) to model every single detail, assumptions must be
made. Hence, structural idealization is as much an art as a science. Some of the questions confronting
the analyst include:
1. Two dimensional versus three dimensional; Should we model a single bay of a building, or the
entire structure?
2. Frame or truss, can we neglect exural stiness?
3. Rigid or semi-rigid connections (most important in steel structures)
4. Rigid supports or elastic foundations (are the foundations over solid rock, or over clay which may
consolidate over time)
5. Include or not secondary members (such as diagonal braces in a three dimensional analysis).
6. Include or not axial deformation (can we neglect the axial stiness of a beam in a building?)
7. Cross sectional properties (what is the moment of inertia of a reinforced concrete beam?)
8. Neglect or not haunches (those are usually present in zones of high negative moments)
9. Linear or nonlinear analysis (linear analysis can not predict the peak or failure load, and will
underestimate the deformations).
10. Small or large deformations (In the analysis of a high rise building subjected to wind load, the
moments should be amplied by the product of the axial load times the lateral deformation, P
eects).
11. Time dependent eects (such as creep, which is extremely important in prestressed concrete, or
cable stayed concrete bridges).
12. Partial collapse or local yielding (would the failure of a single element trigger the failure of the
entire structure?).
13. Load static or dynamic (when should a dynamic analysis be performed?).
14. Wind load (the lateral drift of a high rise building subjected to wind load, is often the major
limitation to higher structures).
15. Thermal load (can induce large displacements, specially when a thermal gradient is present.).
16. Secondary stresses (caused by welding. Present in most statically indeterminate structures).
262
Draft
26.1.2
Structural Discretization
2 Once a structure has been idealized, it must be discretized to lend itself for a mathematical representation which will be analyzed by a computer program. This discretization should uniquely dene each
node, and member.
3 The node is characterized by its nodal id (node number), coordinates, boundary conditions, and load
(this one is often dened separately), Table 26.1. Note that in this case we have two nodal coordinates,
Node No.
1
2
3
4
Coor.
X
Y
0.
0.
5.
5.
20. 5.
25. 2.5
X
1
0
0
1
B. C.
Y
1
0
0
1
Z
0
0
0
1
The element is characterized by the nodes which it connects, and its group number, Table 26.2.
Element
No.
1
2
3
From
Node
1
3
3
To
Node
2
2
4
Group
Number
1
2
2
Group
No.
1
2
3
Element
Type
1
2
1
Material
Group
1
1
2
26.1.3
8
Coordinate Systems
Victor Saouma
Structural Engineering
26.1 Introduction
263
Draft
Global: to describe the structure nodal coordinates. This system can be arbitrarily selected provided
it is a Right Hand Side (RHS) one, and we will associate with it upper case axis labels, X, Y, Z,
Fig. 26.1 or 1,2,3 (running indeces within a computer program).
10
26.1.4
Sign Convention
The sign convention in structural analysis is completely dierent than the one previously adopted in
structural analysis/design, Fig. 26.3 (where we focused mostly on exure and dened a positive moment
as one causing tension below. This would be awkward to program!).
11
In matrix structural analysis the sign convention adopted is consistent with the prevailing coordinate
system. Hence, we dene a positive moment as one which is counter-clockwise, Fig. 26.3
12
13
Fig. 26.4 illustrates the sign convention associated with each type of element.
Fig. 26.4 also shows the geometric (upper left) and elastic material (upper right) properties associated
with each type of element.
14
26.1.5
15
Degrees of Freedom
The displacements must be linearly independent and thus not related to each other. For example, a
roller support on an inclined plane would have three displacements (rotation , and two translations u
16
Victor Saouma
Structural Engineering
264
Draft
Structural Engineering
265
Draft
and v), however since the two displacements are kinematically constrained, we only have two independent
displacements, Fig. 26.5.
17
In most cases, there is the same number of d.o.f in local coordinates as in the global coordinate system.
One notable exception is the truss element. In local coordinate we can only have one axial deformation,
whereas in global coordinates there are two or three translations in 2D and 3D respectively for each
node.
18
Hence, it is essential that we understand the degrees of freedom which can be associated with the
various types of structures made up of one dimensional rod elements, Table 26.4.
19
20
This table shows the degree of freedoms and the corresponding generalized forces.
We should distinguish between local and global d.o.f.s. The numbering scheme follows the following
simple rules:
21
Local: d.o.f. for a given element: Start with the rst node, number the local d.o.f. in the same order
as the subscripts of the relevant local coordinate system, and repeat for the second node.
Global: d.o.f. for the entire structure: Starting with the 1st node, number all the unrestrained global
d.o.f.s, and then move to the next one until all global d.o.f have been numbered, Fig. 26.6.
26.2
Stiness Matrices
26.2.1
Truss Element
22
A
P
= EI
AE
=
L
(26.1)
AE
L .
The truss element (whether in 2D or 3D) has only one degree of freedom associated with each node.
Victor Saouma
Structural Engineering
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Victor Saouma
Structural Engineering
Draft
267
Type
Node 1
Node 2
1 Dimensional
Fy3 , Mz4
{p}
Fy1 , Mz2
{}
v1 , 2
{p}
Fx1
{}
{p}
u1
Fx1 , Fy2 , Mz3
u2
Fx4 , Fy5 , Mz6
{}
{p}
u1 , v2 , 3
Tx1 , Fy2 , Mz3
u4 , v5 , 6
Tx4 , Fy5 , Mz6
{}
1 , v2 , 3
{p}
Fx1 ,
{}
{p}
u1 ,
Fx1 , Fy2 , Fy3 ,
Tx4 My5 , Mz6
u2
Fx7 , Fy8 , Fy9 ,
Tx10 My11 , Mz12
{}
u1 , v2 , w3 ,
4 , 5 6
u7 , v8 , w9 ,
10 , 11 12
Beam
v3 , 4
2 Dimensional
Fx2
Truss
Frame
Grid
4 , v5 , 6
3 Dimensional
Fx2
Truss
Frame
[k]
(Local)
[K]
(Global)
44
44
22
44
66
66
66
66
22
66
12 12
12 12
[kt ] =
26.2.2
AE
L
u1 u2
p1 1 1
1
p
2 1
(26.2)
Beam Element
Using Equations 23.10, 23.11, 23.13 and 23.14 we can determine the forces associated with each unit
displacement.
24
[kb ] =
25
V1 Eq.
M
1 Eq.
V2 Eq.
M2 Eq.
v1
23.13(v1
23.10(v1
23.14(v1
23.11(v1
= 1)
= 1)
= 1)
= 1)
Eq.
Eq.
Eq.
Eq.
1
23.13(1
23.10(1
23.14(1
23.11(1
= 1)
= 1)
= 1)
= 1)
Eq.
Eq.
Eq.
Eq.
v2
23.13(v2
23.10(v2
23.14(v2
23.11(v2
= 1)
= 1)
= 1)
= 1)
Eq.
Eq.
Eq.
Eq.
2
23.13(2
23.10(2
23.14(2
23.11(2
= 1)
= 1)
= 1)
= 1)
(26.3)
The stiness matrix of the beam element (neglecting shear and axial deformation) will thus be
[kb ] =
Victor Saouma
v1
z
V1 12EI
L3
6EIz
M
1
L2
12EIz
V2
L3
6EIz
M
2
L2
1
6EIz
L2
4EIz
L
z
6EI
L2
2EIz
L
v2
z
12EI
L3
6EIz
L2
12EIz
L3
z
6EI
L2
2
6EIz
L2
2EIz
L
z
6EI
L2
4EIz
L
(26.4)
Structural Engineering
268
Draft
26
V1
M1
V2
M2
=
v1
z
V1 12EI
L3
6EIz
M
1
L2
z
V2 12EI
L3
6EIz
M2
L2
1
6EIz
L2
4EIz
L
z
6EI
L2
2EIz
L
v2
z
12EI
L3
6EIz
L2
12EIz
L3
z
6EI
L2
2
6EIz
L2
2EIz
L
z
6EI
L2
4EIz
L
v1
v2
(26.5)
k(e)
26.2.3
2D Frame Element
The stiness matrix of the two dimensional frame element is composed of terms from the truss and
beam elements where kb and kt refer to the beam and truss element stiness matrices respectively.
27
[k2df r ] =
u
t1
P1 k11
V1
0
M
1 0
t
P2
k21
V2 0
M2 0
v1
0
b
k11
b
k21
0
b
k31
b
k41
1
0
b
k12
b
k22
0
b
k32
b
k42
u2
t
k12
0
0
t
k22
0
0
v2
0
b
k13
b
k23
0
b
k33
b
k43
0
b
k14
b
k24
b
k34
b
k44
(26.6)
Thus, we have:
[k2df r ] =
26.2.4
u1
P1 EA
L
V1
0
M
0
1
EA
P2
L
V2 0
M
0
2
v1
0
1
0
12EIz
L3
6EIz
L2
6EIz
L2
4EIz
L
z
12EI
L3
z
6EI
L2
6EIz
L2
2EIz
L
u2
EA
L
0
0
EA
L
0
0
v2
0
z
12EI
L3
6EIz
L2
0
12EIz
L3
z
6EI
L2
2
0
6EIz
L2
2EIz
L
0
6EI
2
L
4EIz
(26.7)
Singularity: All the derived stiness matrices are singular, that is there is at least one row and one
column which is a linear combination of others. For example in the beam element, row 4 = row
1; and L times row 2 is equal to the sum of row 3 and 6. This singularity (not present in the
exibility matrix) is caused by the linear relations introduced by the equilibrium equations which
are embedded in the formulation.
Symmetry: All matrices are symmetric due to Maxwell-Bettis reciprocal theorem, and the stiness
exibility relation.
28
26.3
26.3.1
Orthogonal Structures
As a vehicle for the introduction to the stiness method let us consider the problem in Fig 26.7-a,
and recognize that there are only two unknown displacements, or more precisely, two global d.o.f: 1
and 2 .
29
30
If we were to analyse this problem by the force (or exibility) method, then
Victor Saouma
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Draft
1. We make the structure statically determinate by removing arbitrarily two reactions (as long as the
structure remains stable), and the beam is now statically determinate.
2. Assuming that we remove the two roller supports, then we determine the corresponding deections
due to the actual laod (B and C ).
3. Apply a unit load at point B, and then C, and compute the deections fij at note i due to a unit
force at node j.
4. Write the compatibility of displacement equation
RB
1
0
fBB fBC
=
fCB fCC
RC
2
0
(26.8)
M1
M2
=
FEM1
FEM2
+
K11
K21
K12
K22
1
2
(26.9)
Note that the FEM being on the right hand side, they are detemined as the reactions to the applied
load. Strictly speaking, it is a load which should appear on the left hand side of the equation, and are
the nodal equivalent loads to the element load (more about this later).
32
As with the element stiness matrix, each entry in the global stiness matrix Kij , corresponds to
the internal force along d.o.f. i due to a unit displacement (generalized) along d.o.f. j (both in global
coordinate systems).
33
PL
P1 L P2 L
2P L P L
+
=
=
+
=
8
8
8
8
8
BA
FEM2
PL
=
8
(26.10)
BC
(26.11)
CB
Victor Saouma
Structural Engineering
2611
Draft
4EI
AB
BC
2. If it takes 4EI
L (k44 ) to rotate AB (Eq. 26.4) and L (k22 ) to rotate BC, it will take a total force
8EI
of L to simultaneously rotate AB and BC, (Note that a rigid joint is assumed).
3. Hence, K11 which is the sum of the rotational stinesses at global d.o.f. 1. will be equal to K11 = 8EI
L ;
2EI
BC
similarly, K21 = L (k42 ) .
2EI
BC
BC
4. If we now rotate dof 2 by a unit angle, then we will have K22 = 4EI
L (k22 ) and K12 = L (k42 ) .
5. The equilibrium relation can thus be written as:
P L 8EI 2EI
8
PL
1
L
L
=
+
(26.12)
2EI
4EI
2
0
PL
8 L
L
M
F EM
K
or
P L + P8L
+ P8L
=
8EI
L
2EI
L
2EI
L
4EI
L
1
2
(26.13)
We note that this matrix corresponds to the structures stiness matrix, and not the augmented one.
6. The two by two matrix is next inverted
8EI 2EI 1
3 17 P L2 2
P L + P8L
1
L
L
112 EI 2
(26.14)
= 2EI 4EI
=
5 PL
2
+ P8L
112
L
L
EI
7. Next we need to determine both the reactions and the internal forces.
8. Recall that for each element {p} = [k]{}, and in this case {p} = {P} and {} = {} for element
AB. The element stiness matrix has been previously derived, Eq. 26.4, and in this case the global and
local d.o.f. are the same.
9. Hence, the equilibrium equation for element AB, at the element level, can be written as:
12EI
2P
6EI
6EI
0
12EI
p1
3
2
3
2
L
L
L
L
6EI
2P2L
4EI
2EI
0
p2
6EI
2
2
L
L
L
L
8
= 12EI
+
(26.15)
12EI
2P
0
p3
L3
6EI
6EI
L2
L3
L2
2
2
6EI
2EI
4EI
17 P L
p4
6EI
2P8 L
2
L2
L
L
L
112
EI
{p}
[k]
FEM
{ }
solving
p1
p2
p3
12EI
6EI
p1
L3
L2
6EI
4EI
p2
2
L
L
= 12EI
p3
L3
6EI
L2
6EI
2EI
p4
L2
L
p4 =
12EI
L3
6EI
L2
12EI
L3
6EI
L2
107
56 P
6EI
L2
2EI
L
6EI
L2
4EI
L
31
56 P L
5
56 P
5
14 P L
17 P L2
112 EI
0
2
5 PL
112
EI
(26.16)
P
2
PL
8
P
2
P8L
(26.17)
or
p1
p2
p3
p4 =
7
8P
9
14 P L
P7
0
(26.18)
Victor Saouma
Structural Engineering
2612
Draft
26.3.2
In the previous section, in which we focused on orthogonal structures, the assembly of the structures
stiness matrix [K(e) ] in terms of the element stiness matrices was relatively straight-forward.
34
The determination of the element stiness matrix in global coordinates, from the element stiness
matrix in local coordinates requires the introduction of a transformation.
35
This section will examine the 2D transformation required to obtain an element stiness matrix in
global coordinate system prior to assembly (as discussed in the next section).
36
37
38
Recalling that
{p} =
[k(e) ]{}
(26.19)
{P} =
(e)
(26.20)
[K
]{}
{p} =
[(e) ]{}
(e)
(26.21)
]{P}
(26.22)
Note that we use the same matrix (e) since both {} and {p} are vector quantities (or tensors of order
one).
39
Substituting Eqn. 26.21 and Eqn. 26.22 into Eqn. 26.19 we obtain
[(e) ]{P} = [k(e) ][(e) ]{}
(26.23)
(26.24)
premultiplying by [(e) ]1
40
But since the rotation matrix is orthogonal, we have [(e) ]1 = [(e) ]T and
{P} = [(e) ]T [k(e) ][(e) ]{}
(26.25)
[K(e) ]
(26.26)
which is the general relationship between element stiness matrix in local and global coordinates.
26.3.2.1
2D Frame
The vector rotation matrix is dened in terms of 9 direction cosines of 9 dierent angles. However
for the 2D case, Fig. 26.8, we will note that four angles are interrelated (lxX , lxY , lyX , lyY ) and can all
be expressed in terms of a single one , where is the direction of the local x axis (along the member
from the rst to the second node) with respect to the global X axis. The remaining 5 terms are related
to another angle, , which is between the Z axis and the x-y plane. This angle is zero because we select
an orthogonal right handed coordinate system. Thus, the rotation matrix can be written as:
cos sin 0
cos
cos( 2 ) 0
lxX lxY lxZ
cos
0 = sin cos 0
(26.27)
[] = lyX lyY lyZ = cos( 2 + )
0
0
1
0
0
1
lzX lzY lzZ
41
and we observe that the angles are dened from the second subscript to the rst, and that counterclockwise angles are positive.
Victor Saouma
Structural Engineering
2613
Draft
42
cos sin 0
p1
0
sin
cos
0
p
0
0
0
1
p3
0
=
p4
0
0 0
cos
sin
0
0
0
5
0
0 0
p6
0
(e)
[ ]
26.3.3
0
0
0
sin
cos
0
0
0
0
0
0
1
P1
P2
P3
P4
P5
P6
(26.28)
The physical interpretation of the global stiness matrix K is analogous to the one of the element,
i.e. If all degrees of freedom are restrained, then Kij corresponds to the force along global degree of
freedom i due to a unit positive displacement (or rotation) along global degree of freedom j.
43
For instance, with reference to Fig. 26.9, we have three global degrees of freedom, 1 , 2 , and 3 .
and the global (restrained or structures) stiness matrix is
44
and the rst column corresponds to all the internal forces in the unrestrained d.o.f. when a unit displacement along global d.o.f. 1 is applied.
26.3.3.1
The structural stiness matrix is assembled only for those active dgrees of freedom which are active
(i.e unrestrained). It is the one which will be inverted (or rather decomposed) to determine the nodal
displacements.
45
26.3.3.2
The augmented stiness matrix is expressed in terms of all the dof. However, it is partitioned into two
groups with respective subscript u where the displacements are known (zero otherwise), and t where
the loads are known.
Ktt Ktu
Pt
t ?
(26.30)
=
Ru ?
Kut Kuu
u
46
Victor Saouma
Structural Engineering
2614
Draft
48
(26.31)
Ru = Kut t + Kuu u
(26.32)
For internal book-keeping purpose, since we are assembling the augmented stiness matrix, we proceed
in two stages:
49
26.3.4
Internal Forces
The element internal forces (axia and shear forces, and moment at each end of the member) are
determined from
50
(e)
(26.33)
1 An
alternative scheme is to separately number the restrained dof but assign a negative number. This will enable us
later on to distinguish the restrained from unrestrained dof.
Victor Saouma
Structural Engineering
Draft
2615
(e)
at the element level where pint is the six by six array of internal forces, k(e) the element stiness matrix
in local coordinate systems, and (e) is the vector of nodal displacements in local coordinate system.
Note that this last array is obrained by rst identifying the displacements in global coordinate system,
and then premultiplying it by the transofrmation matrix to obtain the displacements in local coordinate
system.
26.3.5
51 Because of the boundary condition restraints, the total structure number of active degrees of freedom
(i.e unconstrained) will be less than the number of nodes times the number of degrees of freedom per
node.
52
To obtain the global degree of freedom for a given node, we need to dene an [ID] matrix such that:
ID has dimensions l k where l is the number of degree of freedom per node, and k is the number of
nodes).
ID matrix is initialized to zero.
1. At input stage read ID(idof,inod) of each degree of freedom for every node such that:
0
if unrestrained d.o.f.
ID(idof, inod) =
1
if restrained d.o.f.
(26.34)
2. After all the node boundary conditions have been read, assign incrementally equation numbers
(a) First to all the active dof
(b) Then to the other (restrained) dof.
(c) Multiply by -1 all the passive dof.
Note that the total number of dof will be equal to the number of nodes times the number of
dof/node NEQA.
3. The largest positive global degree of freedom number will be equal to NEQ (Number Of Equations),
which is the size of the square matrix which will have to be decomposed.
53
[ID]T
000
110
000
100
0
ID = 0
0
1 0
1 0
0 0
1
0
0
1 1 5 3
ID = 2 2 6 8
3 4 7 9
Victor Saouma
(26.35)
(26.36)
Structural Engineering
2616
Draft
26.3.6
LM Vector
The LM vector of a given element gives the global degree of freedom of each one of the element degree
of freedoms. For the structure shown in Fig. 26.10, we would have:
54
LM
LM
LM
26.3.7
= 1 2 4 5 6 7 element 1 (2 3)
= 5 6 7 1 2 3
element 2 (3 1)
= 1 2 3 3 8 9
element 3 (1 4)
As for the element stiness matrix, the global stiness matrix [K] is such that Kij is the force in
degree of freedom i caused by a unit displacement at degree of freedom j.
55
Whereas this relationship was derived from basic analysis at the element level, at the structure level,
this term can be obtained from the contribution of the element stiness matrices [K(e) ] (written in global
coordinate system).
56
For each Kij term, we shall add the contribution of all the elements which can connect degree of
freedom i to degree of freedom j, assuming that those forces are readily available from the individual
element stiness matrices written in global coordinate system.
57
Kij is non-zero if and only if degree of freedom i and degree of freedom j are connected by an element
or share a node.
58
There are usually more than one element connected to a dof. Hence, individual element stiness
matrices terms must be added up.
59
Because each term of all the element stiness matrices must nd its position inside the global stiness matrix [K], it is found computationally most eective to initialize the global stiness matrix
[KS ](N EQAN EQA ) to zero, and then loop through all the elements, and then through each entry of
(e)
the respective element stiness matrix Kij .
60
(e)
The assignment of the element stiness matrix term Kij (note that e, i, and j are all known since
we are looping on e from 1 to the number of elements, and then looping on the rows and columns of the
61
Victor Saouma
Structural Engineering
2617
Draft
S
element stiness matrix i, j) into the global stiness matrix Kkl
is made through the LM vector (note
that it is k and l which must be determined).
Since the global stiness matrix is also symmetric, we would need to only assemble one side of it,
usually the upper one.
62
63
Contrarily to the previous method, we will assemble the full augmented stiness matrix.
Example 26-2: Assembly of the Global Stiness Matrix
As an example, let us consider the frame shown in Fig. 26.11.
50kN
4 kN/m
1
0
0
1
0
1
0
1
8m
3m
111
000
000
111
000
111
000
111
000
111
7.416 m
8m
1
[ID] = 1
1
0 1
0 1
0 1
(26.37)
4 1 7
[ID] = 5 2 8
6 3 9
(26.38)
Finally the LM vectors for the two elements (assuming that Element 1 is dened from node 1 to node
2, and element 2 from node 2 to node 3):
2
3
4 5 6 1
(26.39)
[LM ] =
1
2
3 7 8 9
Let us simplfy the operation by designating the element stiness matrices in global coordinates as follows:
K (1)
4 A11
5
A21
6
A31
1
A41
2 A51
3 A61
5
A12
A22
A32
A42
A52
A62
6
A13
A23
A33
A43
A53
A63
1
A14
A24
A34
A44
A54
A64
2
A15
A25
A35
A45
A55
A65
A16
A26
A36
A46
A56
A66
1
1 B11
2
B21
3
B31
7
B41
8 B51
9 B61
2
B12
B22
B32
B42
B52
B62
3
B13
B23
B33
B43
B53
B63
7
B14
B24
B34
B44
B54
B64
8
B15
B25
B35
B45
B55
B65
B16
B26
B36
B46
B56
B66
K (2)
Victor Saouma
(26.40-a)
(26.40-b)
Structural Engineering
2618
Draft
A14
A15
A16
K=
A
A26
A
24
25
A
A
A36
34
35
B
B
B43
41
42
B51
B52
B53
B61
B62
B63
A42
A52
A62
A12
A22
A32
0
0
0
A43
A53
A63
A13
A23
A33
0
0
0
B14
B24
B34
0
0
0
B44
B54
B64
B15
B25
B35
0
0
0
B45
B55
B65
B16
B26
B36
0
0
0
B46
B56
B66
(26.41)
We note that some terms are equal to zero because we do not have a connection between the corresponding degrees of freedom (i.e. node 1 is not connected to node 3).
26.3.8
64
Algorithm
Some of the prescribed steps are further discussed in the next sections.
Example 26-3: Direct Stiness Analysis of a Truss
Victor Saouma
Structural Engineering
2619
Draft
5
1
6
8
50k
12
100k
16
16
Figure 26.12:
Using the direct stiness method, analyse the truss shown in Fig. 26.12.
Solution:
1. Determine the structure ID matrix
Node #
1
2
3
4
5
ID
Bound.
X
0
0
1
0
0
0 0
1 0
1 0
1 0
Cond.
Y
1
0
1
0
0
0
0
(26.42-a)
N ode 1 2 3 4
1 2 2 4
1 3 3 5
5
6
7
(26.42-b)
= 1
= 1
= 2
= 4
1 4
1 2
5
3
4 5
6 7
= 2 3 4 5
= 2 3 6 7
= 2 3 0 0
= 2 3 6 7
3
5
(26.43-a)
(26.43-b)
(26.43-c)
(26.43-d)
(26.43-e)
(26.43-f)
(26.43-g)
(26.43-h)
3. Determine the element stiness matrix of each element in the global coordinate system noting that
for a 2D truss element we have
[K (e) ] =
=
Victor Saouma
2
L c cs
cs s2
c2 cs
cs s2
c2
cs
cs
s2
(26.44-a)
(26.44-b)
Structural Engineering
2620
Draft
x2 x1
L ;
where c = cos =
Element 1 L = 20 , c =
Y2 Y1
L
s = sin =
160
20
120
20
= 0.8, s =
= 0.6,
EA
L
(30,000
ksi)(10 in2 )
20
1
1
4
5
1
9600
7200 9600 7200
1
5400 7200 5400
7200
[K1 ] =
EA
L
Element 2 L = 16 , c = 1 , s = 0 ,
Element 3 L = 12 , c = 0 , s = 1 ,
[K3 ] =
Element 4 L = 16 , c = 1 , s = 0 ,
[K4 ] =
Element 5 L = 20 , c =
160
20
EA
L
2 0
3
0
4 0
5 0
EA
L
3
0
25, 000
0
25, 000
0
0
0
0
(26.46)
4
0
0
0
0
0
25, 000
0
25, 000
(26.47)
4 18, 750
5
0
6 18, 750
7
0
5
0
0
0
0
6
18, 750
0
18, 750
0
EA
L
0
0
0
0
(26.48)
2
3
4
5
4 9600 7200
9600 7200
5
7200 5400 7200 5400
[K6 ] =
2
18, 750
0
18, 750
0
= 0.8 , s = 0.6 ,
[K5 ] =
EA
L
[K7 ] =
EA
L
(26.49)
2
3
6
7
2 9600
7200 9600 7200
3
5400 7200 5400
7200
Element 7 L = 16 , c = 1 , s = 0 ,
Victor Saouma
1
1
1
18, 750
0
1
0
0
2 18, 750 0
3
0
0
[K2 ] =
(26.45)
(26.50)
2 18, 750
3
0
0 18, 750
0
0
3
0
0
0
0
0
18, 750
0
18, 750
0
0
0
0
0
(26.51)
Structural Engineering
Draft
2621
EA
L
Element 8 L = 12 , c = 0 , s = 1 ,
2
3
6
7
[K8 ] =
3
0
25, 000
0
25, 000
6
7
0
0
0 25, 000
0
0
0 25, 000
(26.52)
4. Assemble the global stiness matrix in k/ft Note that we are not assembling the augmented stiness
matrix, but rather its submatrix [Ktt ].
0 9600 + 18, 750
18, 750
0
9600
7200
0
0
0
9600 + (2) 18, 750
7200
0
0
9600
7200
100k
0
18, 750 + (2)9600
7200 7200
18, 750
0
=
0
SYMMETRIC
25, 000 + 5400(2)
0
0
50k
2362.5
1562.5
0
800
600
0
0
0
3925.0
600
0
0
800
600
0
2533.33
0
2083.33
600
450
100
3162.5
0
1562.5
0
0
=
2983.33
0
0
SYMMETRIC
0
2362.5
600
50
2533.33
0
6. Invert stiness matrix and solve for displacements
U1
0.0223 in
U
0.00433 in
V3
0.116 in
=
U4
0.0102 in
0.0856 in
0.00919 in
V7
0.0174 in
U1
U2
V3
U4
V5
U6
V7
(26.54)
7. Solve for member internal forces (in this case axial forces) in local coordinate systems
U1
u1
V1
c
s c s
=
u2
U2
c s
c
s
V2
(26.55)
(26.56)
Element 1
p1
p2
1
= (15, 000 k/ft)(
=
52.1 k
52.1 k
1 ft
)
12 in
0.0223
0.8
0.6 0.8 0.6
0
(26.57-a)
0.8 0.6
0.8
0.6
0.0102
0.0856
Compression
(26.57-b)
Element 2
Victor Saouma
p1
p2
2
= 18, 750 k/ft(
1 ft
)
12 in
0.0233
1 0 1 0
0
(26.58-a)
1 0
1 0
0.00433
0.116
Structural Engineering
u1
u2
v3
u4
v5
u6
v7
2622
Draft
=
43.2 k
43.2 k
Tension
(26.58-b)
Element 3
3
p1
p2
63.3 k
63.3 k
1 ft
)
12 in
0
1 0
0 1 0
0.00433
1
0.116
1
0.0102
0.0856
Tension
(26.59-a)
(26.59-b)
Element 4
4
p1
p2
1.58 k
1.58 k
1 ft
)
12 in
1 0 1
1 0
1
0.0102
0
0.0856
0
0.00919
0.0174
Tension
(26.60-a)
(26.60-b)
Element 5
5
p1
p2
1 ft
0.8
0.6
0.8 0.6
0.0102
= 15, 000 k/ft(
)
(26.61-a)
0.8 0.6 0.8
0.6
0.0856
12 in
54.0 k
=
Compression
(26.61-b)
54.0 k
Element 6
p1
p2
6
=
=
0.116
1 ft
0.8
0.6 0.8 0.6
0.00919 (26.62-a)
15, 000 k/ft(
)
0.8 0.6
0.8
0.6
12 in
0.0174
60.43 k
Tension
(26.62-b)
60.43 k
Element 7
p1
p2
7
1 ft
1 0
)
1 0
12 in
6.72 k
Compression
=
6.72 k
= 18, 750 k/ft(
0.116
1 0
0
1 0
(26.63-a)
(26.63-b)
Element 8
p1
p2
8
=
=
Victor Saouma
36.3 k
36.3 k
1 ft
)
12 in
0
1 0
0 1 0
Compression
1
1
0
0
0.00919
0.0174
(26.64-a)
(26.64-b)
Structural Engineering
2623
Draft
1 3
2 5
[K] =
9
8
7
6
14
13
12
11
10
19
18
17
16
15
25
24
23
22
21
20
4
6
MAXA =
10
15
20
(26.65)
4 kN/m
00
11
11
00
00
11
00
11
00
11
8m
3m
111
000
000
111
000
111
000
111
000
111
7.416 m
8m
Structural Engineering
2624
Draft
for elem=1:2
for r=1:6
lr=abs(LM(elem,r));
for c=1:6
lc=abs(LM(elem,c));
Kaug(lr,lc)=Kaug(lr,lc)+K(r,c,elem);
end
end
end
% Extract the structures Stiffness Matrix
Ktt=Kaug(1:3,1:3);
% Determine the fixed end actions in local coordinate system
fea(1:6,1)=0;
fea(1:6,2)=[0,8*4/2,4*8^2/12,0,8*4/2,-4*8^2/12];
% Determine the fixed end actions in global coordinate system
FEA(1:6,1)=Gamma(:,:,1)*fea(1:6,1);
FEA(1:6,2)=Gamma(:,:,2)*fea(1:6,2);
% FEA_Rest for all the restrained nodes
FEA_Rest=[0,0,0,FEA(4:6,2)];
% Assemble the load vector for the unrestrained node
P(1)=50*3/8;P(2)=-50*7.416/8-fea(2,2);P(3)=-fea(3,2);
% Solve for the Displacements in meters and radians
Displacements=inv(Ktt)*P
% Extract Kut
Kut=Kaug(4:9,1:3);
% Compute the Reactions and do not forget to add fixed end actions
Reactions=Kut*Displacements+FEA_Rest
% Solve for the internal forces and do not forget to include the fixed end actions
dis_global(:,:,1)=[0,0,0,Displacements(1:3)];
dis_global(:,:,2)=[Displacements(1:3),0,0,0];
for elem=1:2
dis_local=Gamma(:,:,elem)*dis_global(:,:,elem);
int_forces=k(:,:,elem)*dis_local+fea(1:6,elem)
end
function [k,K,Gamma]=stiff(EE,II,A,i,j)
% Determine the length
L=sqrt((j(2)-i(2))^2+(j(1)-i(1))^2);
% Compute the angle theta (carefull with vertical members!)
if(j(1)-i(1))~=0
alpha=atan((j(2)-i(2))/(j(1)-i(1)));
else
alpha=-pi/2;
end
% form rotation matrix Gamma
Gamma=[
cos(alpha) sin(alpha) 0 0
0
0;
-sin(alpha) cos(alpha) 0 0
0
0;
0
0
1 0
0
0;
0
0
0 cos(alpha) sin(alpha) 0;
0
0
0 -sin(alpha) cos(alpha) 0;
0
0
0 0
0
1];
% form element stiffness matrix in local coordinate system
EI=EE*II;
EA=EE*A;
k=[EA/L,
0,
0, -EA/L,
0,
0;
0,
12*EI/L^3, 6*EI/L^2,
0, -12*EI/L^3, 6*EI/L^2;
Victor Saouma
Structural Engineering
2625
Draft
0,
6*EI/L^2,
4*EI/L,
0, -6*EI/L^2,
2*EI/L;
-EA/L,
0,
0, EA/L,
0,
0;
0, -12*EI/L^3, -6*EI/L^2,
0, 12*EI/L^3, -6*EI/L^2;
0,
6*EI/L^2,
2*EI/L,
0, -6*EI/L^2,
4*EI/L];
% Element stiffness matrix in global coordinate system
K=Gamma*k*Gamma;
This simple proigram will produce the following results:
Displacements =
0.0010
-0.0050
-0.0005
Reactions =
130.4973
55.6766
13.3742
-149.2473
22.6734
-45.3557
int_forces =
int_forces =
141.8530
2.6758
13.3742
-141.8530
-2.6758
8.0315
149.2473
9.3266
-8.0315
-149.2473
22.6734
-45.3557
We note that the internal forces are consistent with the reactions (specially for the second node of
element 2), and amongst themselves, i.e. the moment at node 2 is the same for both elements (8.0315).
[K] =
v1
V1
12EI/L3
2
M1
6EI/L 3
V2 12EI/L
M2 6EI/L2
1
6EI/L2
4EI/L
6EI/L2
2EI/L
v2
12EI/L3
6EI/L2
12EI/L3
6EI/L2
6EI/L2
2EI/L
6EI/L2
4EI/L
(26.66)
This matrix is singular, it has a rank 2 and order 4 (as it embodies also 2 rigid body motions).
66
k=
Victor Saouma
3 12EI/L3
4 6EI/L2
1
12EI/L3
2
6EI/L2
4
6EI/L2
4EI/L
6EI/L2
2EI/L
1
12EI/L3
6EI/L2
12EI/L3
6EI/L2
6EI/L2
2EI/L
6EI/L2
4EI/L
Structural Engineering
2626
Draft
1
12EI/L2
2 6EI/L2
3 12EI/L3
4 6EI/L2
K=
2
6EI/L2
4EI/L
6EI/L2
2EI/L
12EI/L2
6EI/L2
P
2
6EI/L
4EI/L
0
=
12EI/L3
6EI/L2
R3 ?
2
6EI/L
R4 ?
2EI/L
3
12EI/L3
6EI/L2
12EI/L3
6EI/L2
12EI/L3
6EI/L2
12EI/L3
6EI/L2
6EI/L2
2EI/L
6EI/L2
4EI/L
6EI/L2
2EI/L
6EI/L2
4EI/L
1 ?
2 ?
3
4
4. Ktt is inverted (or actually decomposed) and stored in the same global matrix
L3 /3EI
L2 /2EI
12EI/L3
6EI/L2
L2 /2EI
L/EI
6EI/L2
2EI/L
12EI/L3
6EI/L2
6EI/L2
2EI/L
12EI/L3
6EI/L2
6EI/L2
4EI/L
L3 /3EI
L2 /2EI
12EI/L3
6EI/L2
P
2
0
L/EI
6EI/L2
2EI/L
Pt Ktu u =
L /2EI
12EI/L3 6EI/L2
12EI/L3
6EI/L2
0
6EI/L2
2EI/L
6EI/L2
4EI/L
0
0
0
Victor Saouma
6. Now we solve for the displacement t = K1
tt Pt ,
L3 /3EI
L2 /2EI
1
2
2
L/EI
= L /2EI
12EI/L3
6EI/L2
2
0
2EI/L
6EI/L
3 /3EI
P
L
Pt
P L2 /2EI
0
0
and overwrite Pt by t
12EI/L3 6EI/L2
P
0
6EI/L2
2EI/L
0
12EI/L3
6EI/L2
6EI/L2
4EI/L
Structural Engineering
2627
Draft
P L3 /3EI
3
L3 /3EI
L2 /2EI
12EI/L3 6EI/L2
P L /3EI
P L2 /2EI
L/EI
6EI/L2
2EI/L
L /2EI
P L2 /2EI
= 12EI/L3
6EI/L2
12EI/L3
6EI/L2
R
3
R4
6EI/L2
2EI/L
6EI/L2
4EI/L
0
P L3 /3EI
P L2 /2EI
=
P
PL
3 12EI/L3
1 6EI/L2
4 12EI/L3
2
6EI/L2
k=
1
6EI/L2
4EI/L
6EI/L2
2EI/L
4
12EI/L3
6EI/L2
12EI/L3
6EI/L2
6EI/L2
2EI/L
6EI/L2
4EI/L
1
4EI/L
2 2EI/L
3 6EI/L2
4 6EI/L2
K=
2
2EI/L
4EI/L
6EI/L2
6EI/L2
3
6EI/L2
6EI/L2
12EI/L3
12EI/L3
4EI/L
2EI/L
6EI/L2
2EI/L
4EI/L
6EI/L2
=
6EI/L2
6EI/L2
12EI/L3
R3 ?
4. Ktt is inverted
L3 /3EI
L/6EI
6EI/L
6EI/L2
0
Pt Ktu u
M
0
0
0
M
0
0
6EI/L2
6EI/L2
12EI/L3
12EI/L3
L/6EI
6EI/L2
6EI/L2
L/3EI
6EI/L2
6EI/L2
6EI/L2
6EI/L2
12EI/L3
12EI/L3
12EI/L3
12EI/L3
L/3EI
6EI/L2
L/6EI
6EI/L2
6EI/L2
12EI/L3
6EI/L2 6EI/L2 12EI/L3
Victor Saouma
1 ?
?
2
3
4
Pt by Pt
6EI/L2
6EI/L2
12EI/L3
12EI/L3
6. Solve for the displacements, t = K1
tt Pt , and overwrite Pt
L3 /3EI
L/6EI
6EI/L2
2
L/3EI
6EI/L2
= L/6EI
6EI/L2
6EI/L2
12EI/L3
2
2
0
6EI/L
12EI/L3
6EI/L
M L/6EI
6EI/L2
2
6EI/L
12EI/L3
12EI/L3
M L/3EI
0
0
by t
M
6EI/L2
0
12EI/L3
6EI/L2
12EI/L3
Structural Engineering
2628
Draft
M L/6EI
L3 /3EI
L/6EI
6EI/L2
2
M L/3EI
L/6EI
L/3EI
6EI/L
=
6EI/L2
12EI/L3
R1
6EI/L2
2
2
3
6EI/L
R2
6EI/L
12EI/L
M L/6EI
M L/3EI
M/L
M/L
u by Ru
6EI/L2
6EI/L2
12EI/L3
12EI/L3
M L/6EI
M L/3EI
2 12EI/L3
3 6EI/L2
4 12EI/L3
1
6EI/L2
k=
3
6EI/L2
4EI/L
6EI/L2
2EI/L
4
12EI/L3
6EI/L2
12EI/L3
6EI/L2
6EI/L2
2EI/L
6EI/L2
4EI/L
3
2EI/L
6EI/L2
4EI/L
6EI/L2
6EI/L2
12EI/L3
6EI/L2
12EI/L3
1
4EI/L
2 6EI/L2
3 2EI/L
4 6EI/L2
K=
2
6EI/L2
12EI/L3
6EI/L2
12EI/L3
rewritten as
4EI/L
6EI/L2
2EI/L
6EI/L2
6EI/L2
12EI/L3
6EI/L2
12EI/L3
2EI/L
6EI/L2
4EI/L
6EI/L2
6EI/L2
12EI/L3
6EI/L2
12EI/L3
1 ?
2
3
4
4. Ktt is inverted (or actually decomposed) and stored in the same global matrix
L/4EI
6EI/L2
2EI/L
6EI/L2
6EI/L2
2EI/L
6EI/L2
12EI/L3
6EI/L2
12EI/L3
6EI/L2
12EI/L3
6EI/L2
12EI/L3
4EI/L
6EI/L2
5. Next we compute the equivalent load, Pt = Pt Ktu u , and overwrite Pt by Pt
L/4EI
6EI/L2
2EI/L
6EI/L2
0
M
6EI/L2
3
2
3
0
12EI/L
6EI/L
12EI/L
Pt Ktu u =
2EI/L
6EI/L2
4EI/L
6EI/L2
00
0
2
M + 6EI /L
0
0
0
Victor Saouma
0
0
0
6. Now we solve for the displacements, t = K1
tt Pt , and overwrite Pt by t
0
2
L/4EI
6EI/L2
2EI/L
6EI/L2
M + 6EI /L
2
3
2
3
0
12EI/L
6EI/L
12EI/L
0
= 6EI/L
2EI/L
6EI/L2
4EI/L
6EI/L2
0
00
M L/4EI + 3 /2L
Structural Engineering
2629
Draft
M L/4EI + 30 /2L
R2
=
R3
R4
26.4
66
6EI/L2
2EI/L
6EI/L2
6EI/L2
12EI/L3
6EI/L2
12EI/L3
2EI/L
6EI/L2
4EI/L
6EI/L2
6EI/L2
12EI/L3
6EI/L2
12EI/L3
M L/4EI + 30 /2L
0
0
0
M L/4EI + 30 /2L
3M/2L 3EI0 /L3
Number of nodes
Number of elements
Type of structure: beam, grid, truss, or frame; (2D or 3D)
Number of dierent element properties
Number of load cases
2. Determine:
(a) Number of spatial coordinates for the structure
(b) Number of local and global degrees of freedom per node
3. For each node read:
(a) Node number
(b) Boundary conditions of each global degree of freedom [ID]
(c) Spatial coordinates
Note that all the above are usually written on the same data card
4. For each element, read:
(a) Element number
(b) First and second node
(c) Element Property number
5. For each element property group read the associated elastic and cross sectional characteristics.
Note these variables will depend on the structure type.
6. Determine the vector u which stores the initial displacements.
7. Loop over all the elements and for each one:
Victor Saouma
Structural Engineering
2630
Draft
4
5
ii. Compute nodal displacements in local coordinate system from (e) = [(e) ] {}
5
4
iii. Compute element internal forces from {p} = [k(e) ] (e)
iv. If the element is loaded, add corresponding xed end actions
v. print the interior forces
Victor Saouma
Structural Engineering
Draft
26.5
2631
You will be required, as part of your term project, to write a simple MATLAB (or whatever other
language you choose) program for the analysis of two dimensional frames with nodal load and initial
displacement, as well as element load.
67
To facilitate the task, your instructor has taken the liberty of taking a program written by Mr. Dean
Frank (as part of his term project with this instructor in the Advanced Structural Analysis course, Fall
1995), modied it with the aid of Mr. Pawel Smolarki, and is making available most, but not all of it to
you. Hence, you will be expected to rst familiarize yourself with the code made available to you, and
then complete it by essentially lling up the missing parts.
68
26.5.1
Program Input
69
In order for the program to be run, the user must supply the required data by setting certain variables
in the le called indat.m equal to the appropriate values. All the user has to do is open the text le
called indat.txt, ll in the required values and save the le as indat.m in a directory within MATABs
path. There are helpful hints within this le. It is especially important that the user keep track of
units for all of the variables in the input data le. All of the units MUST be consistent. It is suggested
that one always use the same units for all problems. For example, always use kips and inches, or kilonewtons and millimeters.
70
26.5.1.1
A brief description of each of the variables to be used in the input le is given below:
npoin This variable should be set equal to the number of nodes that comprise the structure. A node
is dened as any point where two or more elements are joined.
nelem This variable should be set equal to the number of elements in the structure. Elements are
the members which span between nodes.
istrtp This variable should be set equal to the type of structure. There are six types of structures
which this program will analyze: beams, 2-D trusses, 2-D frames, grids, 3-D trusses, and 3-D frames. Set
this to 1 for beams, 2 for 2D-trusses, 3 for 2D- frames, 4 for grids, 5 for 3D-trusses, and 6 for 3D-frames.
An error will occur if it is not set to a number between 1 and 6. Note only istrp=3 was kept.
nload This variable should be set equal to the number of dierent load cases to be analyzed. A load
case is a specic manner in which the structure is loaded.
ID (matrix) The ID matrix contains information concerning the boundary conditions for each node.
The number of rows in the matrix correspond with the number of nodes in the structure and the number
of columns corresponds with the number of degrees of freedom for each node for that type of structure
type. The matrix is composed of ones and zeros. A one indicates that the degree of freedom is restrained
and a zero means it is unrestrained.
nodecoor (matrix) This matrix contains the coordinates (in the global coordinate system) of the
nodes in the structure. The rows correspond with the node number and the columns correspond with
the global coordinates x, y, and z, respectively. It is important to always include all three coordinates
for each node even if the structure is only two- dimensional. In the case of a two-dimensional structure,
the z-coordinate would be equal to zero.
71
Victor Saouma
Structural Engineering
2632
Draft
lnods (matrix) This matrix contains the nodal connectivity information. The rows correspond with
the element number and the columns correspond with the node numbers which the element is connected
from and to, respectively.
E,A,Iy (arrays) These are the material and cross-sectional properties for the elements. They are
arrays with the number of terms equal to the number of elements in the structure. The index number of
each term corresponds with the element number. For example, the value of A(3) is the area of element
3, and so on. E is the modulus of elasticity, A is the cross-sectional area, Iy is the moment of inertia
about the y axes
Pnods This is an array of nodal loads in global degrees of freedom. Only put in the loads in the
global degrees of freedom and if there is no load in a particular degree of freedom, then put a zero in its
place. The index number corresponds with the global degree of freedom.
Pelem This an array of element loads, or loads which are applied between nodes. Only one load
between elements can be analyzed. If there are more than one element loads on the structure, the
equivalent nodal load can be added to the nodal loads. The index number corresponds with the element
number. If there is not a load on a particular member, put a zero in its place. These should be in local
coordinates.
a This is an array of distances from the left end of an element to the element load. The index number
corresponds to the element number. If there is not a load on a particular member, put a zero in its
place. This should be in local coordinates.
w This is an array of distributed loads on the structure. The index number corresponds with the
element number. If there is not a load on a particular member, put a zero in its place. This should be
in local coordinates
dispflag Set this variable to 1 if there are initial displacements and 0 if there are none.
initial displ This is an array of initial displacements in all structural degrees of freedom. This
means that you must enter in values for all structure degrees of freedom, not just those restrained. For
example, if the structure is a 2D truss with 3 members and 3 node, there would be 6 structural degrees
of freedom, etc. If there are no initial displacements, then set the values equal to zero.
angle This is an array of angles which the x-axis has possibly been rotated. This angle is taken
as positive if the element has been rotated towards the z-axis. The index number corresponds to the
element number.
drawflag Set this variable equal to 1 if you want the program to draw the structure and 0 if you do
not.
26.5.1.2
The contents of the input.m le which the user is to ll out is given below:
%**********************************************************************************************
% Scriptfile name: indat.m (EXAMPLE 2D-FRAME INPUT DATA)
%
% Main Program: casap.m
%
% This is the main data input file for the computer aided
% structural analysis program CASAP. The user must supply
% the required numeric values for the variables found in
% this file (see users manual for instructions).
%
% By Dean A. Frank
% CVEN 5525 - Term Project
% Fall 1995
%
% Edited by Pawel Smolarkiewicz, 3/16/99
% Simplified for 2D Frame Case only
%
%**********************************************************************************************
% HELPFUL INSTRUCTION COMMENTS IN ALL CAPITALS
% SET NPOIN EQUAL TO THE NUMBER OF NODES IN THE STRUCTURE
npoin=3;
% SET NELEM EQUAL TO THE NUMBER OF ELEMENTS IN THE STRUCTURE
Victor Saouma
Structural Engineering
2633
Draft
nelem=2;
INPUT THE LOAD DATA. NODAL LOADS, PNODS SHOULD BE IN MATRIX FORM. THE COLUMNS CORRESPOND
TO THE GLOBAL DEGREE OF FREEDOM IN WHICH THE LOAD IS ACTING AND THE THE ROW NUMBER CORRESPONDS
WITH THE LOAD CASE NUMBER. PELEM IS THE ELEMENT LOAD, GIVEN IN A MATRIX, WITH COLUMNS
CORRESPONDING TO THE ELEMENT NUMBER AND ROW THE LOAD CASE. ARRAY "A" IS THE DISTANCE FROM
THE LEFT END OF THE ELEMENT TO THE LOAD, IN ARRAY FORM. THE DISTRIBUTED LOAD, W SHOULD BE
IN MATRIX FORM ALSO WITH COLUMNS = ELEMENT NUMBER UPON WHICH W IS ACTING AND ROWS = LOAD CASE.
ZEROS SHOULD BE USED IN THE MATRICES WHEN THERE IS NO LOAD PRESENT. NODAL LOADS SHOULD
BE GIVEN IN GLOBAL COORDINATES, WHEREAS THE ELEMENT LOADS AND DISTRIBUTED LOADS SHOULD BE
GIVEN IN LOCAL COORDINATES.
26.5.1.3
Program Implementation
In order to run the program, open a new MATLAB Notebook. On the rst line, type the name of the
main program CASAP and evaluate that line by typing ctrl-enter. At this point, the main program reads
the input le you have just created and calls the appropriate subroutines to analyze your structure.
In doing so, your input data is echoed into your MATLAB notebook and the program results are also
displayed. As a note, the program can also be executed directly from the MATAB workspace window,
without Microsoft Word.
Victor Saouma
Structural Engineering
2634
Draft
26.5.2
Program Listing
26.5.2.1
Main Program
%**********************************************************************************************
%Main Program: casap.m
%
% This is the main program, Computer Aided Structural Analysis Program
% CASAP. This program primarily contains logic for calling scriptfiles and does not
% perform calculations.
%
% All variables are global, but are defined in the scriptfiles in which they are used.
%
% Associated scriptfiles:
%
% (for all stuctures)
% indat.m (input data file)
% idrasmbl.m
% elmcoord.m
% draw.m
%
% (3 - for 2D-frames)
% length3.m
% stiffl3.m
% trans3.m
% assembl3.m
% loads3.m
% disp3.m
% react3.m
%
% By Dean A. Frank
% CVEN 5525
% Advanced Structural Analysis - Term Project
% Fall 1995
%
% Edited by Pawel Smolarkiewicz, 3/16/99
% Simplified for 2D Frame Case only
%
%**********************************************************************************************
% COMMENT CARDS ARE IN ALL CAPITALS
% SET NUMERIC FORMAT
format short e
% CLEAR MEMORY OF ALL VARIABLES
clear
% INITIALIZE OUTPUT FILE
fid = fopen(casap.out, wt);
% SET ISTRTP EQUAL TO THE NUMBER CORRESPONDING TO THE TYPE OF STRUCTURE:
% 3 = 2DFRAME
istrtp=3;
% READ INPUT DATA SUPPLIED BY THE USER
indat
% REASSAMBLE THE ID MATRIX AND CALCULATE THE LM VECTORS
% CALL SCRIPTFILE IDRASMBL
idrasmbl
% ASSEMBLE THE ELEMENT COORDINATE MATRIX
elmcoord
% 2DFRAME CALCULATIONS
Victor Saouma
Structural Engineering
2635
Draft
% CALCULATE THE LENGTH AND ORIENTATION ANGLE, ALPHA FOR EACH ELEMENT
% CALL SCRIPTFILE LENGTH3.M
length3
% CALCULATE THE 2DFRAME ELEMENT STIFFNESS MATRIX IN LOCAL COORDINATES
% CALL SCRIPTFILE STIFFL3.M
stiffl3
% CALCULATE THE 2DFRAME ELEMENT STIFFNESS MATRIX IN GLOBAL COORDINATES
% CALL SCRIPTFILE TRANS3.M
trans3
% ASSEMBLE THE GLOBAL STRUCTURAL STIFFNESS MATRIX
% CALL SCRIPTFILE ASSEMBL3.M
assembl3
%
print_general_info
% LOOP TO PERFORM ANALYSIS FOR EACH LOAD CASE
for iload=1:nload
print_loads
% DETERMINE THE LOAD VECTOR IN GLOBAL COORDINATES
% CALL SCRIPTFILE LOADS3.M
loads3
% CALCULATE THE DISPLACEMENTS
% CALL SCRIPTFILE DISP3.M
disp3
% CALCULATE THE REACTIONS AT THE RESTRAINED DEGREES OF FREEDOM
% CALL SCRIPTFILE REACT3.M
react3
% CALCULATE THE INTERNAL FORCES FOR EACH ELEMENT
intern3
% END LOOP FOR EACH LOAD CASE
end
% DRAW THE STRUCTURE, IF USER HAS REQUESTED (DRAWFLAG=1)
% CALL SCRIPTFILE DRAW.M
draw
st=fclose(all);
% END OF MAIN PROGRAM (CASAP.M)
disp(Program completed! - See "casap.out" for complete output);
26.5.2.2
Assembly of ID Matrix
%************************************************************************************************
%SCRIPTFILE NAME: IDRASMBL.M
%
%MAIN FILE : CASAP
%
%Description : This file re-assambles the ID matrix such that the restrained
% degrees of freedom are given negative values and the unrestrained
Victor Saouma
Structural Engineering
2636
Draft
26.5.2.3
%**********************************************************************************************
%SCRIPTFILE NAME: ELEMCOORD.M
%
%MAIN FILE : CASAP
%
%Description : This file assembles a matrix, elemcoor which contains the coordinates
% of the first and second nodes on each element, respectively.
%
Victor Saouma
Structural Engineering
2637
Draft
% By Dean A. Frank
% CVEN 5525
% Advanced Structural Analysis - Term Project
% Fall 1995
%
% Edited by Pawel Smolarkiewicz, 3/16/99
% Simplified for 2D Frame Case only
%
%**********************************************************************************************
% ASSEMBLE THE ELEMENT COORDINATE MATRIX, ELEMCOOR FROM NODECOOR AND LNODS
for ielem=1:nelem
elemcoor(ielem,1)=nodecoor(lnods(ielem,1),1);
elemcoor(ielem,2)=nodecoor(lnods(ielem,1),2);
%elemcoor(ielem,3)=nodecoor(lnods(ielem,1),3);
elemcoor(ielem,3)=nodecoor(lnods(ielem,2),1);
elemcoor(ielem,4)=nodecoor(lnods(ielem,2),2);
%elemcoor(ielem,6)=nodecoor(lnods(ielem,2),3);
end
% END OF ELMCOORD.M SCRIPTFILE
26.5.2.4
Element Lengths
%**********************************************************************************************
% Scriptfile name : length3.m (for 2d-frame structures)
%
% Main program : casap.m
%
% When this file is called, it computes the length of each element and the
% angle alpha between the local and global x-axes. This file can be used
% for 2-dimensional elements such as 2-D truss, 2-D frame, and grid elements.
% This information will be useful for transformation between local and global
% variables.
%
% Variable descriptions: (in the order in which they appear)
%
% nelem = number of elements in the structure
% ielem = counter for loop
% L(ielem) = length of element ielem
% elemcoor(ielem,4) = xj-coordinate of element ielem
% elemcoor(ielem,1) = xi-coordinate of element ielem
% elemcoor(ielem,5) = yj-coordinate of element ielem
% elemcoor(ielem,2) = yi-coordinate of element ielem
% alpha(ielem) = angle between local and global x-axes
%
% By Dean A. Frank
% CVEN 5525 - Term Project
% Fall 1995
%
% Edited by Pawel Smolarkiewicz, 3/16/99
% Simplified for 2D Frame Case only
%
%**********************************************************************************************
% COMPUTE THE LENGTH AND ANGLE BETWEEN LOCAL AND GLOBAL X-AXES FOR EACH ELEMENT
for ielem=1:nelem
L(ielem)=
XXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXX COMPLETE XXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXX
alpha(ielem)=
XXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXX COMPLETE XXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXX
% END OF LENGTH3.M SCRIPTFILE
26.5.2.5
%**********************************************************************************************
% Scriptfile name: stiffl3.m (for 2d-frame structures)
%
Victor Saouma
Structural Engineering
2638
Draft
26.5.2.6
Transformation Matrices
%**********************************************************************************************
% Scriptfile name : trans3.m (for 2d-frame structures)
%
% Main program : casap.m
%
% This file calculates the rotation matrix and the element stiffness
% matrices for each element in a 2D frame.
%
% Variable descriptions: (in the order in which they appear)
%
% ielem = counter for the loop
% nelem = number of elements in the structure
% rotation = rotation matrix containing all elements info
% Rot = rotational matrix for 2d-frame element
% alpha(ielem) = angle between local and global x-axes
% K = element stiffness matrix in global coordinates
% k = element stiffness matrix in local coordinates
%
% By Dean A. Frank
% CVEN 5525 - Term Project
% Fall 1995
%
%**********************************************************************************************
% CALCULATE THE ELEMENT STIFFNESS MATRIX IN GLOBAL COORDINATES
% FOR EACH ELEMENT IN THE STRUCTURE
for ielem=1:nelem
% SET UP THE ROTATION MATRIX, ROTATAION
rotation(1:6,1:6,ielem)=...
XXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXX COMPLETE XXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXX
ktemp=k(1:6,1:6,ielem);
% CALCULATE THE ELEMENT STIFFNESS MATRIX IN GLOBAL COORDINATES
Rot=rotation(1:6,1:6,ielem);
K(1:6,1:6,ielem)=
Victor Saouma
Structural Engineering
Draft
2639
26.5.2.7
%**********************************************************************************************
% Scriptfile name : assembl3.m (for 2d-frame structures)
%
% Main program : casap.m
%
% This file assembles the global structural stiffness matrix from the
% element stiffness matrices in global coordinates using the LM vectors.
% In addition, this file assembles the augmented stiffness matrix.
%
% Variable Descritpions (in order of appearance):
%
% ielem = Row counter for element number
% nelem = Number of elements in the structure
% iterm = Counter for term number in LM matrix
% LM(a,b) = LM matrix
% jterm = Column counter for element number
% temp1 = Temporary variable
% temp2 = Temporary variable
% temp3 = Temporary variable
% temp4 = Temporary variable
% number_gdofs = Number of global dofs
% new_LM = LM matrix used in assembling the augmented stiffness matrix
% aug_total_dofs = Total number of structure dofs
% K_aug
= Augmented structural stiffness matrix
% Ktt
= Structural Stiffness Matrix (Upper left part of Augmented structural stiffness matrix)
% Ktu = Upper right part of Augmented structural stiffness matrix
% Kut = Lower left part of Augmented structural stiffness matrix
% Kuu = Lower rigth part of Augmented structural stiffness matrix
%
%
% By Dean A. Frank
% CVEN 5525 - Term Project
% Fall 1995
%
% Edited by Pawel Smolarkiewicz, 3/16/99
% Simplified for 2D Frame Case only
%
%**********************************************************************************************
% RENUMBER DOF INCLUDE ALL DOF, FREE DOF FIRST, RESTRAINED NEXT
new_LM=LM;
number_gdofs=max(LM(:));
new_LM(find(LM<0))=number_gdofs-LM(find(LM<0));
aug_total_dofs=max(new_LM(:));
% ASSEMBLE THE AUGMENTED STRUCTURAL STIFFNESS MATRIX
K_aug=zeros(aug_total_dofs);
for ielem=1:nelem
XXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXX COMPLETE XXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXX
Tough one!
XXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXX COMPLETE XXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXX
end
% SET UP SUBMATRICES FROM THE AUGMENTED STIFFNESS MATRIX
Ktt=
XXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXX COMPLETE
Ktu=
XXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXX COMPLETE
Kut=
XXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXX COMPLETE
Kuu=
XXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXX COMPLETE
% END OF ASSEMBL3.M SCRIPTFILE
Victor Saouma
XXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXX
XXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXX
XXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXX
XXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXX
Structural Engineering
2640
Draft
26.5.2.8
%**********************************************************************************************
% Scriptfile name : print_general_info.m
%
% Main program : casap.m
%
% Prints the general structure info to the output file
%
%
By Pawel Smolarkiewicz, 3/16/99
% Simplified for 2D Frame Case only
%
%**********************************************************************************************
fprintf(fid,\n\nNumber of Nodes: %d\n,npoin);
fprintf(fid,Number of Elements: %d\n,nelem);
fprintf(fid,Number of Load Cases: %d\n,nload);
fprintf(fid,Number of Restrained dofs: %d\n,abs(min(LM(:))));
fprintf(fid,Number of Free dofs: %d\n,max(LM(:)));
fprintf(fid,\nNode Info:\n);
for inode=1:npoin
fprintf(fid,
Node %d (%d,%d)\n,inode,nodecoor(inode,1),nodecoor(inode,2));
freedof= ;
if(ID(inode,1))>0
freedof=strcat(freedof, X );
end
if(ID(inode,2))>0
freedof=strcat(freedof, Y );
end
if(ID(inode,3))>0
freedof=strcat(freedof, Rot);
end
if freedof==
freedof= none; node is fixed;
end
fprintf(fid,
Free dofs:%s\n,freedof);
end
fprintf(fid,\nElement Info:\n);
for ielem=1:nelem
fprintf(fid,
Element %d (%d->%d),ielem,lnods(ielem,1),lnods(ielem,2));
fprintf(fid,
E=%d A=%d Iz=%d \n,E(ielem),A(ielem),Iz(ielem));
end
26.5.2.9
Print Load
%**********************************************************************************************
% Scriptfile name : print_loads.m
%
% Main program : casap.m
%
% Prints the current load case data to the output file
%
%
By Pawel Smolarkiewicz, 3/16/99
% Simplified for 2D Frame Case only
%
%**********************************************************************************************
Load_case=iload
if iload==1
fprintf(fid,\n_________________________________________________________________________\n\n);
end
fprintf(fid,Load Case: %d\n\n,iload);
fprintf(fid,
Nodal Loads:\n);
for k=1:max(LM(:));
%WORK BACKWARDS WITH LM MATRIX TO FIND NODE# AND DOF
LM_spot=find(LM==k);
elem=fix(LM_spot(1)/(nterm+1))+1;
dof=mod(LM_spot(1)-1,nterm)+1;
node=lnods(elem,fix(dof/4)+1);
Victor Saouma
Structural Engineering
2641
Draft
switch(dof)
case {1,4}, dof=Fx;
case {2,5}, dof=Fy;
otherwise, dof= M;
end
%PRINT THE DISPLACEMENTS
if Pnods(k)~=0
fprintf(fid,
Node: %2d %s = %14d\n,node, dof, Pnods(k));
end
end
fprintf(fid,\n
Elemental Loads:\n);
for k=1:nelem
fprintf(fid,
Element: %d
Point load = %d at %d from left\n,k,Pelem(k),a(k));
fprintf(fid,
Distributed load = %d\n,w(k));
end
fprintf(fid,\n);
26.5.2.10
Load Vector
%**********************************************************************************************
% Scriptfile name: loads3.m (for 2d-frame structures)
%
% Main program: casap.m
%
% When this file is called, it computes the fixed end actions for elements which
% carry distributed loads for a 2-D frame.
%
% Variable descriptions: (in the order in which they appear)
%
% ielem = counter for loop
% nelem = number of elements in the structure
% b(ielem) = distance from the right end of the element to the point load
% L(ielem) = length of the element
% a(ielem) = distance from the left end of the element to the point load
% Ffl = fixed end force (reaction) at the left end due to the point load
% w(ielem) = distributed load on element ielem
% L(ielem) = length of element ielem
% Pelem(ielem) = element point load on element ielem
% Mfl = fixed end moment (reaction) at the left end due to the point load
% Ffr = fixed end force (reaction) at the right end due to the point load
% Mfr = fixed end moment (reaction) at the right end due to the point load
% feamatrix_local = matrix containing resulting fixed end actions in local coordinates
% feamatrix_global = matrix containing resulting fixed end actions in global coordinates
% fea_vector = vector of feas in global dofs, used to calc displacements
% fea_vector_abs = vector of feas in every structure dof
% dispflag = flag indicating initial displacements
% Ffld = fea (vert force) on left end of element due to initial disp
% Mfld = fea (moment) on left end of element due to initial disp
% Ffrd = fea (vert force) on right end of element due to initial disp
% Mfrd = fea (moment) on right end of element due to initial disp
% fea_vector_disp = vector of feas due to initial disp, used to calc displacements
% fea_vector_react = vector of feas due to initial disp, used to calc reactions
%
% By Dean A. Frank
% CVEN 5525 - Term Project
% Fall 1995
%
%**********************************************************************************************
% CALCULATE THE FIXED END ACTIONS AND INSERT INTO A MATRIX IN WHICH THE ROWS CORRESPOND
% WITH THE ELEMENT NUMBER AND THE COLUMNS CORRESPOND WITH THE ELEMENT LOCAL DEGREES
% OF FREEDOM
for ielem=1:nelem
b(ielem)=L(ielem)-a(ielem);
Ffl=((w(ielem)*L(ielem))/2)+((Pelem(ielem)*(b(ielem))^2)/(L(ielem))^3)*(3*a(ielem)+b(ielem));
Mfl=((w(ielem)*(L(ielem))^2))/12+(Pelem(ielem)*a(ielem)*(b(ielem))^2)/(L(ielem))^2;
Ffr=((w(ielem)*L(ielem))/2)+((Pelem(ielem)*(a(ielem))^2)/(L(ielem))^3)*(a(ielem)+3*b(ielem));
Victor Saouma
Structural Engineering
2642
Draft
Mfr=-((w(ielem)*(L(ielem))^2))/12+(Pelem(ielem)*a(ielem)*(b(ielem))^2)/(L(ielem))^2;
feamatrix_local(ielem,1:6)=[0 Ffl Mfl 0 Ffr Mfr];
% ROTATE THE LOCAL FEA MATRIX TO GLOBAL
feamatrix_global=...
XXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXX COMPLETE XXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXX
end
% CREATE A LOAD VECTOR USING THE LM MATRIX
% INITIALIZE FEA VECTOR TO ALL ZEROS
for idofpn=1:ndofpn
fea_vector(idofpn,1)=0;
end
for ielem=1:nelem
for idof=1:6
if ielem==1
if LM(ielem,idof)>0
fea_vector(LM(ielem,idof),1)=feamatrix_global(idof,ielem);
end
elseif ielem>1
if LM(ielem,idof)>0
fea_vector(LM(ielem,idof),1)=fea_vector(LM(ielem,1))+feamatrix_global(idof,ielem);
end
end
end
end
for ielem=1:nelem
for iterm=1:nterm
if feamatrix_global(iterm,ielem)==0
else
if new_LM(ielem,iterm)>number_gdofs
fea_vector_react(iterm,1)=feamatrix_global(iterm,ielem);
end
end
end
end
% END OF LOADS3.M SCRIPTFILE
26.5.2.11
Nodal Displacements
%**********************************************************************************************
% Scriptfile name : disp3.m (for 2d-frame structures)
%
% Main program : casap.m
%
% When this file is called, it computes the displacements in the global
% degrees of freedom.
%
% Variable descriptions: (in the order in which they appear)
%
% Ksinv = inverse of the structural stiffness matrix
% Ktt = structural stiffness matrix
% Delta = vector of displacements for the global degrees of freedom
% Pnods = vector of nodal loads in the global degrees of freedom
% fea_vector = vector of fixed end actions in the global degrees of freedom
%
% By Dean A. Frank
% CVEN 5525 - Term Project
% Fall 1995
%
% Edited by Pawel Smolarkiewicz, 3/16/99
% Simplified for 2D Frame Case only
Victor Saouma
Structural Engineering
2643
Draft
%
%**********************************************************************************************
% CREATE A TEMPORARY VARIABLE EQUAL TO THE INVERSE OF THE STRUCTURAL STIFFNESS MATRIX
Ksinv=inv(Ktt);
% CALCULATE THE DISPLACEMENTS IN GLOBAL COORDINATES
Delta=
XXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXX COMPLETE XXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXX
%
fprintf(fid,
Displacements:\n);
for k=1:size(Delta,1)
%WORK BACKWARDS WITH LM MATRIX TO FIND NODE# AND DOF
LM_spot=find(LM==k);
elem=fix(LM_spot(1)/(nterm+1))+1;
dof=mod(LM_spot(1)-1,nterm)+1;
node=lnods(elem,fix(dof/4)+1);
switch(dof)
case {1,4}, dof=delta X;
case {2,5}, dof=delta Y;
otherwise, dof=rotate ;
end
%PRINT THE DISPLACEMENTS
fprintf(fid,
(Node: %2d %s) %14d\n,node, dof, Delta(k));
end
fprintf(fid,\n);
% END OF DISP3.M SCRIPTFILE
26.5.2.12
Reactions
%**********************************************************************************************
% Scriptfile name : react3.m (for 2d-frame structures)
%
% Main program : casap.m
%
% When this file is called, it calculates the reactions at the restrained degrees of
% freedom.
%
% Variable Descriptions:
%
% Reactions = Reactions at restrained degrees of freedom
% Kut = Upper left part of aug stiffness matrix, normal structure stiff matrix
% Delta = vector of displacements
% fea_vector_react = vector of feas in restrained dofs
%
%
% By Dean A. Frank
% CVEN 5525 - Term Project
% Fall 1995
%
% Edited by Pawel Smolarkiewicz, 3/16/99
% Simplified for 2D Frame Case only
%
%**********************************************************************************************
% CALCULATE THE REACTIONS FROM THE AUGMENTED STIFFNESS MATRIX
Reactions=
XXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXX COMPLETE XXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXX
fprintf(fid,
Reactions:\n);
for k=1:size(Reactions,1)
%WORK BACKWARDS WITH LM MATRIX TO FIND NODE# AND DOF
LM_spot=find(LM==-k);
elem=fix(LM_spot(1)/(nterm+1))+1;
Victor Saouma
Structural Engineering
2644
Draft
dof=mod(LM_spot(1)-1,nterm)+1;
node=lnods(elem,fix(dof/4)+1);
switch(dof)
case {1,4}, dof=Fx;
case {2,5}, dof=Fy;
otherwise, dof=M ;
end
%PRINT THE REACTIONS
fprintf(fid,
(Node: %2d %s) %14d\n,node, dof, Reactions(k));
end
fprintf(fid,\n);
% END OF REACT3.M SCRIPTFILE
26.5.2.13
Internal Forces
%**********************************************************************************************
% Scriptfile name : intern3.m (for 2d-frame structures)
%
% Main program : casap.m
%
% When this file is called, it calculates the internal forces in all elements
% freedom.
%
%
By Pawel Smolarkiewicz, 3/16/99
% Simplified for 2D Frame Case only
%
%**********************************************************************************************
Pglobe=zeros(6,nelem);
Plocal=Pglobe;
fprintf(fid,
Internal Forces:);
%LOOP FOR EACH ELEMENT
for ielem=1:nelem
%FIND ALL 6 LOCAL DISPLACEMENTS
elem_delta=zeros(6,1);
for idof=1:6
gdof=LM(ielem,idof);
if gdof<0
elem_delta(idof)=
XXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXX COMPLETE XXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXX
else
elem_delta(idof)=
XXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXX COMPLETE XXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXX
end
end
%SOLVE FOR ELEMENT FORCES (GLOBAL)
Pglobe(:,ielem)=K(:,:,ielem)*elem_delta+feamatrix_global(:,ielem);
%ROTATE FORCES FROM GLOBAL TO LOCAL COORDINATES
%ROTATE FORCES TO LOCAL COORDINATES
Plocal(:,ielem)=
XXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXX COMPLETE XXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXX
%PRINT RESULTS
fprintf(fid,\n
Element: %2d\n,ielem);
for idof=1:6
if idof==1
fprintf(fid,
At Node: %d\n,lnods(ielem,1));
end
if idof==4
fprintf(fid,
At Node: %d\n,lnods(ielem,2));
end
switch(idof)
case {1,4}, dof=Fx;
case {2,5}, dof=Fy;
otherwise, dof=M ;
end
fprintf(fid,
(Global : %s ) %14d,dof, Pglobe(idof,ielem));
Victor Saouma
Structural Engineering
Draft
fprintf(fid,
2645
end
end
fprintf(fid,\n_________________________________________________________________________\n\n);
26.5.2.14
Plotting
%************************************************************************************************
% SCRIPTFILE NAME : DRAW.M
%
% MAIN FILE : CASAP
%
% Description : This file will draw a 2D or 3D structure (1D structures are generally
% boring to draw).
%
% Input Variables : nodecoor - nodal coordinates
% ID - connectivity matrix
% drawflag - flag for performing drawing routine
%
% By Dean A. Frank
% CVEN 5525
% Advanced Structural Analysis - Term Project
% Fall 1995
%
% (with thanks to Brian Rose for help with this file)
%
%************************************************************************************************
% PERFORM OPERATIONS IN THIS FILE IF DRAWFLAG = 1
if drawflag==1
if istrtp==1
drawtype=2;
elseif istrtp==2
drawtype=2;
elseif istrtp==3
drawtype=2;
elseif istrtp==4
drawtype=2;
elseif istrtp==5
drawtype=3;
elseif istrtp==6
drawtype=3;
else
error(Incorrect structure type in indat.m)
end
ID=orig_ID.;
% DRAW 2D STRUCTURE IF DRAWTYPE=2
if drawtype==2
% RETREIVE NODAL COORDINATES
x=nodecoor(:,1);
y=nodecoor(:,2);
%IF 2D-TRUSS, MODIFY ID MATRIX
if istrtp==2
for ipoin=1:npoin
if ID(1:2,ipoin)==[0;0]
ID(1:3,ipoin)=[0;0;0]
elseif ID(1:2,ipoin)==[0;1]
ID(1:3,ipoin)=[0;1;0]
elseif ID(1:2,ipoin)==[1;1]
ID(1:3,ipoin)=[1;1;0]
end
Victor Saouma
Structural Engineering
2646
Draft
end
end
%if size(ID,1)==2
% ID=[ID;zeros(1,size(ID,2))];
%end
% IF GRID, SET ID=ZEROS
if istrtp==4
ID=ID*0;
end
% SET UP FIGURE
handle=figure;
margin=max(max(x)-min(x),max(y)-min(y))/10;
axis([min(x)-margin, max(x)+margin, min(y)-margin, max(y)+margin])
axis(equal)
hold on
% CALC NUMBER OF NODES, ETC.
number_nodes=length(x);
number_elements=size(lnods,1);
number_fixities=size(ID,2);
axislimits=axis;
circlesize=max(axislimits(2)-axislimits(1),axislimits(4)-axislimits(3))/40;
% DRAW SUPPORTS
for i=1:number_fixities
% DRAW HORIZ. ROLLER
if ID(:,i)==[0 1 0]
plot(sin(0:0.1:pi*2)*circlesize/2+x(i),cos(0:0.1:pi*2)*circlesize/2-circlesize/2+y(i),r)
% DRAW PIN SUPPORT
elseif ID(:,i)==[1 1 0]
plot([x(i),x(i)-circlesize,x(i)+circlesize,x(i)],[y(i),y(i)-circlesize,y(i)-circlesize,y(i)],r)
% DRAW HOERIZ. ROLLER SUPPORT
elseif ID(:,i)==[0 1 1]
plot([x(i)+circlesize*2,x(i)-circlesize*2],[y(i),y(i)],r);
plot(sin(0:0.1:pi*2)*circlesize/2+x(i),cos(0:0.1:pi*2)*circlesize/2-circlesize/2+y(i),r)
plot(sin(0:0.1:pi*2)*circlesize/2+x(i)+circlesize,cos(0:0.1:pi*2)*circlesize/2-circlesize/2+y(i),r)
plot(sin(0:0.1:pi*2)*circlesize/2+x(i)-circlesize,cos(0:0.1:pi*2)*circlesize/2-circlesize/2+y(i),r)
% DRAW VERT. ROLLER SUPPORT
elseif ID(:,i)==[1 0 0]
plot(sin(0:0.1:pi*2)*circlesize/2+x(i)-circlesize*.5,cos(0:0.1:pi*2)*circlesize/2,r)
% DRAW ROLLER SUPPORT WITH NO ROTATION
elseif ID(:,i)==[1 0 1]
plot([x(i),x(i)],[y(i)+circlesize*2,y(i)-circlesize*2],r);
plot(sin(0:0.1:pi*2)*circlesize/2+x(i)-circlesize*.5,cos(0:0.1:pi*2)*circlesize/2,r)
plot(sin(0:0.1:pi*2)*circlesize/2+x(i)-circlesize*.5,cos(0:0.1:pi*2)*circlesize/2+circlesize,r)
plot(sin(0:0.1:pi*2)*circlesize/2+x(i)-circlesize*.5,cos(0:0.1:pi*2)*circlesize/2-circlesize,r)
end
% DRAW HORIZ. PLATFORM
if min(ID(:,i)==[0 1 0]) | min(ID(:,i)==[1 1 0]) | min(ID(:,i)==[0 1 1])
plot([x(i)-circlesize*2,x(i)+circlesize*2],[y(i)-circlesize,y(i)-circlesize],r)
plot([x(i)-circlesize*1.5,x(i)-circlesize*2],[y(i)-circlesize,y(i)-circlesize*1.5],r)
plot([x(i)-circlesize*1,x(i)-circlesize*2],[y(i)-circlesize,y(i)-circlesize*2],r)
plot([x(i)-circlesize*.5,x(i)-circlesize*1.5],[y(i)-circlesize,y(i)-circlesize*2],r)
Victor Saouma
Structural Engineering
2647
Draft
plot([x(i)+circlesize*0,x(i)-circlesize*1],[y(i)-circlesize,y(i)-circlesize*2],r)
plot([x(i)+circlesize*.5,x(i)-circlesize*(0.5)],[y(i)-circlesize,y(i)-circlesize*2],r)
plot([x(i)+circlesize*1,x(i)+circlesize*0],[y(i)-circlesize,y(i)-circlesize*2],r)
plot([x(i)+circlesize*1.5,x(i)+circlesize*.5],[y(i)-circlesize,y(i)-circlesize*2],r)
plot([x(i)+circlesize*2,x(i)+circlesize*1],[y(i)-circlesize,y(i)-circlesize*2],r)
plot([x(i)+circlesize*2,x(i)+circlesize*1.5],[y(i)-circlesize*1.5,y(i)-circlesize*2],r)
% DRAW FIXED SUPPORT
elseif ID(:,i)==[1 1 1]
plot([x(i)-circlesize*2,x(i)+circlesize*2],[y(i)-circlesize,y(i)-circlesize]+circlesize,r)
plot([x(i)-circlesize*1.5,x(i)-circlesize*2],[y(i)-circlesize,y(i)-circlesize*1.5]+circlesize,r)
plot([x(i)-circlesize*1,x(i)-circlesize*2],[y(i)-circlesize,y(i)-circlesize*2]+circlesize,r)
plot([x(i)-circlesize*.5,x(i)-circlesize*1.5],[y(i)-circlesize,y(i)-circlesize*2]+circlesize,r)
plot([x(i)+circlesize*0,x(i)-circlesize*1],[y(i)-circlesize,y(i)-circlesize*2]+circlesize,r)
plot([x(i)+circlesize*.5,x(i)-circlesize*(0.5)],[y(i)-circlesize,y(i)-circlesize*2]+circlesize,r)
plot([x(i)+circlesize*1,x(i)+circlesize*0],[y(i)-circlesize,y(i)-circlesize*2]+circlesize,r)
plot([x(i)+circlesize*1.5,x(i)+circlesize*.5],[y(i)-circlesize,y(i)-circlesize*2]+circlesize,r)
plot([x(i)+circlesize*2,x(i)+circlesize*1],[y(i)-circlesize,y(i)-circlesize*2]+circlesize,r)
plot([x(i)+circlesize*2,x(i)+circlesize*1.5],[y(i)-circlesize*1.5,y(i)-circlesize*2]+circlesize,r)
% DRAW VERT. PLATFORM
elseif min(ID(:,i)==[1 0 0]) | min(ID(:,i)==[1 0 1])
xf=[x(i)-circlesize,x(i)-circlesize*2];
yf=[y(i),y(i)- circlesize];
plot(xf,yf,r)
plot(xf,yf+circlesize*.5,r)
plot(xf,yf+circlesize*1,r)
plot(xf,yf+circlesize*1.5,r)
plot(xf,yf+circlesize*2,r)
plot([x(i)-circlesize*1.5,x(i)-circlesize*2],[y(i)+circlesize*2,y(i)+ circlesize*1.5],r)
plot(xf,yf-circlesize*.5,r)
plot(xf,yf-circlesize*1,r)
plot([x(i)-circlesize,x(i)-circlesize*1.5],[y(i)-circlesize*1.5,y(i)- circlesize*2],r)
plot([xf(1),xf(1)],[y(i)+circlesize*2,y(i)-circlesize*2],r);
end
end
% DRAW ELEMENTS
for i=1:number_elements
plot([x(lnods(i,1)),x(lnods(i,2))],[y(lnods(i,1)),y(lnods(i,2))],b);
if i==1
end
end
% DRAW JOINTS
for i=1:number_nodes
if ~max(ID(:,i))
plot(x(i),y(i),mo)
end
end
% DRAW ELEMENT NUMBERS
for i=1:number_elements
set(handle,DefaultTextColor,blue)
text( (x(lnods(i,1))+x(lnods(i,2)))/2+circlesize,(y(lnods(i,1))+y(lnods(i,2)))/2+circlesize,int2str(i))
end
% DRAW JOINT NUMBERS
for i=1:number_nodes
set(handle,DefaultTextColor,magenta)
text(x(i)+circlesize,y(i)+circlesize,int2str(i))
end
if exist(filename)
title(filename)
end
Victor Saouma
Structural Engineering
2648
Draft
hold off
set(handle,DefaultTextColor,white)
% DRAW 3D STRUCTURE IF DRAWTYPE=3
elseif drawtype==3
% RETREIVE NODE COORIDINATES
x=nodecoor(:,1);
y=nodecoor(:,2);
z=nodecoor(:,3);
% SET UP FIGURE
handle=figure;
margin=max([max(x)-min(x),max(y)-min(y),max(z)-min(z)])/10;
axis([min(x)-margin, max(x)+margin, min(y)-margin, max(y)+margin, min(z)-margin, max(z)+margin])
axis(equal)
hold on
% RETREIVE NUMBER OF NODES, ETC.
number_nodes=length(x);
number_elements=size(lnods,1);
axislimits=axis;
circlesize=max([axislimits(2)-axislimits(1),axislimits(4)-axislimits(3),axislimits(6)-axislimits(5)])/40;
% DRAW ELEMENTS
for i=1:number_elements
plot3([x(lnods(i,1)),x(lnods(i,2))],[y(lnods(i,1)),y(lnods(i,2))],[z(lnods(i,1)),z(lnods(i,2))],b);
end
% DRAW JOINTS
for i=1:number_nodes
plot3(x(i),y(i),z(i),mo)
end
% DRAW ELEMENT NUMBERS
for i=1:number_elements
set(handle,DefaultTextColor,blue)
text( (x(lnods(i,1))+x(lnods(i,2)))/2+circlesize,(y(lnods(i,1))+y(lnods(i,2)))/2+circlesize,(z(lnods(i,1))+z(lnods(i,2)
end
% DRAW JOINT NUMBERS
for i=1:number_nodes
set(handle,DefaultTextColor,magenta)
text(x(i)+circlesize,y(i)+circlesize,z(i)+circlesize,int2str(i))
end
if exist(filename)
title(filename)
end
xlabel(x)
ylabel(y)
zlabel(z)
% DRAW GROUND
X=x;
Y=y;
Z=z;
X=axislimits(1)-margin:margin:axislimits(2)+margin;
Y=axislimits(3)-margin:margin:axislimits(4)+margin;
Z=zeros(length(X),length(Y));
mesh(X,Y,Z)
Victor Saouma
Structural Engineering
2649
Draft
size(X)
size(Y)
size(Z)
hold off
set(handle,DefaultTextColor,white)
hAZ=uicontrol(style,slider,position,[.7 .95 .3 .05],units,normalized,min,0,max,360,...
callback,[az,el]=view; az=get(gco,val); view(az,el););
hEL=uicontrol(style,slider,position,[.7 .89 .3 .05],units,normalized,min,0,max,180,...
callback,[az,el]=view; el=get(gco,val); view(az,el););
26.5.2.15
6000
4000
2
2000
1
0
2000
4000
6000
2000
4000
6000
8000
10000
12000
14000
16000
of
of
of
of
of
Nodes: 3
Elements: 2
Load Cases: 1
Restrained dofs: 6
Free dofs: 3
Node Info:
Node 1 (0,0)
Free dofs: none; node is fixed
Node 2 (7416,3000)
Free dofs: X Y Rot
Node 3 (15416,3000)
Free dofs: none; node is fixed
Element Info:
Element 1 (1->2)
Element 2 (2->3)
Victor Saouma
Structural Engineering
2650
Draft
_________________________________________________________________________
Load Case: 1
Nodal Loads:
Node: 2 Fx = 1.875000e+001
Node: 2 Fy = -4.635000e+001
Elemental Loads:
Element: 1
Point load = 0 at 0 from left
Distributed load = 0
Element: 2
Point load = 0 at 0 from left
Distributed load = 4.000000e-003
Displacements:
(Node: 2 delta X) 9.949820e-001
(Node: 2 delta Y) -4.981310e+000
(Node: 2 rotate ) -5.342485e-004
Reactions:
(Node: 1
(Node: 1
(Node: 1
(Node: 3
(Node: 3
(Node: 3
Fx) 1.304973e+002
Fy) 5.567659e+001
M ) 1.337416e+004
Fx) -1.492473e+002
Fy) 2.267341e+001
M ) -4.535573e+004
Internal Forces:
Element: 1
At Node: 1
(Global :
(Global :
(Global :
At Node: 2
(Global :
(Global :
(Global :
Element: 2
At Node: 2
(Global
(Global
(Global
At Node: 3
(Global
(Global
(Global
Fx )
Fy )
M )
1.304973e+002
5.567659e+001
1.337416e+004
(Local : Fx )
(Local : Fy )
(Local : M )
1.418530e+002
2.675775e+000
1.337416e+004
Fx ) -1.304973e+002
Fy ) -5.567659e+001
M ) 8.031549e+003
(Local : Fx ) -1.418530e+002
(Local : Fy ) -2.675775e+000
(Local : M ) 8.031549e+003
: Fx ) 1.492473e+002
: Fy ) 9.326590e+000
: M ) -8.031549e+003
(Local : Fx ) 1.492473e+002
(Local : Fy ) 9.326590e+000
(Local : M ) -8.031549e+003
: Fx ) -1.492473e+002
: Fy ) 2.267341e+001
: M ) -4.535573e+004
(Local : Fx ) -1.492473e+002
(Local : Fy ) 2.267341e+001
(Local : M ) -4.535573e+004
_________________________________________________________________________
Victor Saouma
Structural Engineering
Draft
Chapter 27
COLUMNS
27.1
Introduction
1 Columns resist a combination of axial P and exural load M , (or M = P e for eccentrically applied
load).
27.1.1
Types of Columns
Spiral column
Composite column
Pipe column
27.1.2
3
272
COLUMNS
Draft
P
Spiral
tied
4 bars
6 bars
8 bars
Corner column
10 bars
12 bars
Wall column
16 bars
14 bars
Victor Saouma
Structural Engineering
273
Draft
27.2
Short Columns
27.2.1
Concentric Loading
No moment applied,
Elastic Behaviour
P
= fc Ac + fs As
= fc (Ac + nAs )
Ultimate Strength
Pd
Pn
= Pn
= .85fc Ac + fy As
note:
1. 0.85 is obtained also from test data
2. Matches with beam theory using rect. stress block
3. Provides an adequate factor of safety
27.2.2
5
Eccentric Columns
ML
MR
Assumptions As = As ; =
Victor Saouma
As
bd
As
bd
= fs = fy
Structural Engineering
274
COLUMNS
Draft
Pn
P0
e=0
Compression
failure range
Radial lines show
Mn
constant e=
Pn
e small
Tension failure
range
eb
e=
e large
Mn
M0
Balanced Condition
M
P
1. steel yielding
2. concrete crushing
From the strain diagram (and compatibility of concrete and steel strains), Fig. 27.6
c
y
c
= .003
fy
=
Es
u
=
d=
u + y
(27.1-a)
(27.1-b)
.003
fy
Es
+ .003
(27.1-c)
(27.1-d)
Furthermore,
s
c d
s
c
c
c d
c
c
(27.2-a)
(27.2-b)
thus the compression steel will be yielding (i.e. s = y ) for c = .003 and d = 2 in if c > 6 in
10
Equilibrium:
Pn
fs
As
=
=
=
Pn
= .85f
cb
= 1 c b
= fy.003 d
Es
+.003
.003
fy
Es
+ .003
(27.3)
or
Pnb = .851 fc bd
Victor Saouma
87, 000
fy + 87, 000
(27.4)
Structural Engineering
275
Draft
d
d
h/2
As
As
b
cs
s
A sf y
s
Pn
A sf s
c
A sf s
0.85fc
Asf s
Asf y
a
e
e
Victor Saouma
Structural Engineering
276
COLUMNS
Draft
To obtain Mnb we take moment about centroid of tension steel As of internal forces, this must be
equal and opposite to the externally applied moment, Fig. 27.6.
11
a
Mnb = Pnb eb = .85fc ab(d ) + As fy (d d )
2
M
ext
12
(27.5)
Mint
Note: Internal moments due to As fy and As fy cancel each other for symmetric columns.
27.2.2.2
Tension Failure
Case I, e is known and e > eb In this case a and Pn are unknowns, and for failure to be triggered by
fy in As we must have e > eb .
Can still assume As fy = As fy
Fy = 0 Pn
M = 0 Pn e
= .85fc ab a =
Pn
.85fc b
(27.6-a)
a
= Pn (d ) + As fy (d d )
2
(27.6-b)
Two approaches
1. Solve iteratively for those two equations
(a)
(b)
(c)
(d)
(e)
Assume a (a < h2 )
From strain compatibility solve for fsc , center steel stress if applicable.
Fy = 0 solve for Pn
M = 0 with respect to tensile reinforcement, solve for Pn
If no convergence among the two Pn , iterate by solving for a from Fy = 0
2
d
e
e
e
Pn = .85fc bd ( 1) +
+ 2 1
1
+
d
d
d
d
where
=
=
(27.7)
As
As
bd = bd
fy
.85fc
=
def
=
=
Pn
Mn
1 c
(27.8-a)
fy
(27.8-b)
c d
c Es
c
0.85fc ab
fy
(27.8-c)
(27.8-d)
C + As fs As fy
h
ha
h
+ as f s
d + As fs d
C
2
2
2
(27.8-e)
(27.8-f)
Victor Saouma
Structural Engineering
277
Draft
27.2.2.3
Compression Failure
=
=
fs
Es
dc
u
d fs = Es u
c
+ u
Es u
a
1
(27.9-a)
a
1
.85fc ab + As fy As fs
(27.9-b)
a
Pn e = .85fc ab(d ) + As fy (d d )
(27.9-c)
2
this would yield a cubic equation in Pn , which can be solved analytically or by iteration
Pn
1.
2.
3.
4.
5.
Assume a (a
h)
Solve for M = 0 with respect to tensile reinforcement & solve for Pn
From strain compatibility solve for fs
Check that Fy = 0 & solve for a
If ai+1 = ai go to step 2
In this case
a
= 1 c
fs
= c Es
fs
C
Pn
Mn
27.2.3
(27.10-a)
dc
c
c d
= c Es
c
= 0.85fc ab
fy
(27.10-b)
fy
(27.10-c)
(27.10-d)
As fs
= C + As fs +
h
ha
h
+ As fs
d + As fs d
= C
2
2
2
(27.10-e)
(27.10-f)
ACI Provisions
=
=
=
=
=
1%
8%
A
f
0.45( Agc 1) fyc
0.7 for tied columns
0.75 for spiral columns
ACI 10.9.1
ACI 10.5
(27.11)
2. where
minimum ratio of spiral reinforcement
s
Ag gross area of section
Ac area of core
3. A minimum of 4 bars for tied circular and rect
4. A minimum of 6 bars for spirals(10.9.2)
5. increases linearly to 0.9 as Pn decreases from 0.10fc Ag or P0 , whichever is smaller, to zero
(ACI 9.3.2).
6. Maximum strength is 0.8P0 for tied columns ( = 0.7) and 0.85P0 for spirally reinforced columns
( = 0.75).
Victor Saouma
Structural Engineering
278
COLUMNS
Draft
27.2.4
13
Interaction Diagrams
Tied:
Pn(max)=0.80P0
Spirally reinf: Pn(max)=0.85P0
P0
Pn(max)
Compression
control region
e
ure
Pn-Mn
Pn(max)
(MnPn)
min
Pu-Mu
(MnbPnb)
ed
nc
la
Ba
fail
Tension
control region
eb
0.10fcAg
Mn
Mn
27.2.5
Design Charts
To assist in the design of R.C. columns, design charts have been generated by ACI in term of non
As +As
fy
e
Pn
Mn
and = .85f
dimensionalized parameters = bhf
vs bh2 f = h for various t where t =
bh
14
Balanced Conditions is derived by revisiting the fundamental equations, rather than mere substitution into previously derived equation.
d
cb
h d = 20 2.5 = 17.5 in
.003
.003
d = 50
17.5 = 11.1 in
fy
29,000 + .003
E + .003
(27.12-a)
(27.12-b)
a
fs
=
def
fs
Pnb
Mnb
=
=
Victor Saouma
1 cb = (0.85)(11.1) = 9.44 in
(27.12-c)
fy = 50 ksi
(27.12-d)
cd
11.1 2.5
c = (29, 000)(
(0.003) = 67.4 ksi > fy fs = 50 ksi(27.12-e)
Es
c
11.1
(27.12-f)
0.85fc ab = (0.85)(3.5)(9.44)(12) = 337 k
C + As fs As fs = 337 + (2.0)(50) + (2.0)(50) = 337 k
a
Pnb e = .85fc ab(d ) + As fy (d d )
2
9.44
337 17.5
+ (2.0)(50)(17.5 2.5) = 3, 280 k.in = 273 k.ft
2
(27.12-g)
(27.12-h)
(27.12-i)
Structural Engineering
Draft
eb
279
3, 280
= 9.72 in
337
(27.12-j)
Tension failure, c = 5 in
fs
fs
def
=
=
=
a
fy = 50 ksi
c d
c Es
c
(27.13-a)
fy
(27.13-b)
5.0 2.5
= 43.5 ksi
5.0
1 c = 0.85(5.0) = 4.25 in
(27.13-c)
(0.003)(29, 000)
(27.13-d)
0.85fc ab
=
=
(0.85)(3.5)(4.25)(12) = 152 k
(27.13-e)
(27.13-f)
Pn
C + As fs As fy
(27.13-g)
Mn
=
=
(27.13-k)
2, 598
= 18.69 in
139
(27.13-l)
Compression failure, c = 18 in
a
fs
=
=
fs
=
=
C
Pn
Mn
As fs
(27.14-b)
(27.14-c)
(27.14-d)
(27.14-e)
(27.14-f)
C+
(27.14-h)
546 + (2.0)(50) + (2.0)(2) = 650 k
h
ha
h
+ As fs
d + As fs d
C
about section centroid
(27.14-i)
2
2
2
20
20
20 15.3
2.5 + (2.0)(2.0) 17.5
+ (2.0)(50)
(27.14-j)
(546)
2
2
2
+ As fs
(27.14-a)
1 c = 0.85(18) = 15.3 in
dc
fy
c Es
c
17.5 18.0
= 2 ksi As is under compression
(0.003)(29, 000)
18.0
cd
fy
c Es
c
18.0 2.5
= 75 ksi > fy fs = 50 ksi
(0.003)(29, 000)
18.0
0.85fc ab = (0.85)(3.5)(15.3)(12) = 546 k
(27.14-g)
(27.14-k)
2, 000
= 3.07 in
650
(27.14-l)
Structural Engineering
2710
COLUMNS
Draft
For the following column, determine eb , Pb , Mb fc = 3, 000 psi and fy = 40, 000 psi. The area of each
bar is 1.56 in2 .
12"
20"
3"
3"
24"
c
y
.003
Cc
Balanced Condition:
fy
40
= .001379
=
Es
29, 000
u
(.003)(21)
d=
= 14.4 in
u + y
.003 + .001379
1 cb = (.85)(14.4) = 12.2 in
.85fc ab = (.85)(3)(12.2)(20) = 624 k
.003
(14.4 12) = .0005
14.4
(29, 000)(.0005) = 15 ksi center bars
cb
a
Cc
=
=
sc
fsc
Cs
(27.15-g)
(27.15-h)
Pnb
(27.15-a)
(27.15-b)
(27.15-c)
(27.15-d)
(27.15-e)
(27.15-f)
assuming that both edge bars are yielding and cancel each other.
Alternatively
Pnb = 624 + (2 1.56)[15 (.85)(3)] (4 1.56)(.85)(3) = 647 k
Note the dierence
671647
647
(27.16)
100 = 3.7%
eb
= Pnb e
a
+ Asc fy (9) + As (fy .85fc )(12 d )
= .85fc ab 12
2
12.2
= (.85)(3)(12.2)(20) 12
+ 4(1.56)(9)(40)
2
+4(1.56)(40 .85 3)(12 3)
(27.17-a)
(27.17-b)
(27.17-c)
(27.17-d)
(27.17-e)
8, 020
= 12.4 in
647
(27.17-f)
Victor Saouma
Structural Engineering
2711
Draft
12
h-c-d
.003
23.5
1. Assume a = 20 in
c=
a
20
= 23.5 in
=
1
.85
(27.18)
.003
c
(27.19-a)
sc
(27.19-b)
fsc
c h2
.003
c
Es sc
c
c
(27.19-d)
Es
29, 000
h
2
(27.19-c)
.003
23.5 12
.003 = 42.5 ksi > fy fsc = fy
23.5
(27.19-e)
Pn
= 1, 476 k
(27.20-d)
.003
c
.003
(24 3 23.5)
23.5
.000319
s
h d 23.5
fs
(27.21-a)
(27.21-b)
(27.21-c)
(27.21-d)
e=h
Pn
Mn
(27.22-a)
(27.22-b)
20.4 in
(27.22-c)
(27.22-d)
1, 476 k
(27.22-e)
(27.22-f)
Victor Saouma
Structural Engineering
2712
COLUMNS
Draft
2. Assume a = 7.9 in c =
a
1
7.9
.85
= 9.3 in
12 c
sc
12 9.3
.003 = .00087
=
9.3
= (29, 000)(0.00087) = 25.3 ksi
(27.23-a)
(27.23-b)
(27.23-c)
4. Iterate
F = 0 Pn
(27.24-a)
= (.85)(3)(7.9)(20) 2(1.56)(25.3)
(27.24-b)
= 403 79 = 324 k
(27.24-c)
a
M = 0 Pn (e + h/2 d ) = .85fc ab(d ) + As fy (d d )
2
d d
)
(27.24-d)
Asc fsc (
2
7.9
Pn (24 + 9) = (.85)(3)(7.9)(20)(21
) + 4(1.56)(40)(21 3)
2
+2(1.56)(25.3)(9)
(27.24-e)
Pn (33) = 6, 870 + 4, 493 710 = 10, 653 k.in
Pn = 323 k
(27.24-f)
(27.24-g)
5. Determine Mn
Mn = Pn e = (323)(24) = 7, 752 k.in = 646 k.ft
(27.25)
Victor Saouma
Structural Engineering
Draft
2713
a=a_new;
end
iter
P_n
M_n=P_n*e
%
% e=h; failure by tension
%
e=h;
error=1.;
a=10;
iter=0;
while abs(error) > 0.1
iter=iter+1;
c=a/0.85
epsi_sc=0.003*(c-h/2)/c ;
f_sc=E_s*epsi_sc;
if(f_sc>f_y)
f_sc=f_y;
end
P_n_1=0.85*fp_c*a*b+A_sc*f_sc
P_n_2=(0.85*fp_c*a*b*(d-a/2)+Ap_s*f_y*(d-dp)+A_sc*f_sc*(d-dp)/2)/(e+h/2-dp);
a_new=(P_n_2-A_sc*f_sc)/(0.85*fp_c*b);
error=(a_new-a)/a_new;
a=a_new;
end
iter
P_n_1
M_n=P_n_1*e
%================================
Balanced Conditions
d=21
epsi_y=0.0014
c_b=14.3858
a=12.2280
C_c=623.6256
epsi_sc=4.9754e-04
f_sc= 14.4286
C_s= 90.0343
P_nb= 668.6427
M_nb= 8.0203e+03
e_b= 11.9948
Failure by Compression
e=2.4000
error=1
a=17
iter=0
iter=1
c=20
epsi_sc=0.0012 05
f_sc=34.8000
M_n=1.6454e+04
P_n=1.4433e+03
epsi_s=1.5000e-04
f_s=4.3500
a_new=20.7445
error=0.1805
a= 20.7445
iter= 2
c=24.4053
epsi_sc=0.0015
f_sc=44.2224
f_sc=40
M_n=1.6860e+04
P_n=1.4789e+03
epsi_s=-4.1859e-04
f_s=12.1392
Failure by Tension
e=24
error=1
Victor Saouma
Structural Engineering
2714
COLUMNS
Draft
a=10
iter=0
iter=1
c=11.7647
epsi_sc=-6.0000ef_sc=-1.7400
P_n_1=504.5712
P_n_2=381.9376
a_new=7.5954
error=-0.3166
a=7.5954
iter=2
c=8.9358
epsi_sc=-0.0010
f_sc=-29.8336
P_n_1=294.2857
P_n_2=312.6867
a_new=7.9562
error=0.0453
a=7.9562
iter=2
P_n_1=294.2857
=
=
Pn
Mn
=
=
201
0.7
251
0.7
= 287 k
= 358 k.ft
(27.26)
2. Chart parameters
e
h
e
h
(358)(12)
= 0.75
(287)(20)
20 (2)(2.5)
= 0.75 interpolate between A3 and A4
20
Pn
287
= 0.3
=
bhfc
(12)(20)(4)
(27.27-b)
(0.3)(0.75) = 0.225
(27.27-d)
(27.27-a)
(27.27-c)
=
=
At
bh
fy
.85fc
2
At =
(0.4)(b)(h)(.85)(fc )
1
= 5.45 in2 (27.28-a)
= (0.4)(12)(20)(.85)(4)
fy
(60)
(27.28-b)
Victor Saouma
Structural Engineering
Draft
Chapter 28
DESIGN II
28.1
Frames
28.1.1
The connection between the beam and the column can be, Fig. 28.1:
Flexible
Rigid
)
M=K(
s s b- c
b = c
Semi-Flexible
28.1.2
2 For vertical load across the beam rigid connection will reduce the maximum moment in the beam (at
the expense of a negative moment at the ends which will in turn be transferred to the columns).
3 The advantages of a rigid connection are greater when the frame is subjected to a lateral load. Under
those conditions, the connection will stien the structure and reduce the amount of lateral deection,
Fig. 28.2.
4 Fig. 28.3 illustrates the deformation, shear, moment and axial forces in frames with dierent boundary
conditions under both vertical and horizontal loads.
282
Draft
DESIGN II
PI
PI
PI
PI
PI
PI
PI
PI
Figure 28.2: Deformation of Flexible and Rigid Frames Subjected to Vertical and Horizontal Loads, (Lin
and Stotesbury 1981)
28.1.3
5 A concentric axial force P and moment M , applied on a support sytem (foundation, columns, prestressing) can be replaced by a static equivalent one in which the moment M is eliminated and the force
P applied with an eccentricity
e=
M
P
(28.1)
The induced stresses can be decomposed into uniform (P/L) (assuming a unit width) and linearly
varying one ( = M/S) and the end stresses are
min
max
L
P
= +
L
=
(28.2-a)
(28.2-b)
We note that the linearly varying stress distribution must satisfy two equilibrium requirements: F = 0,
thus the neutral axis (where the stress is equal to zero) passes through the centroid of the section, and
M = 0, i.e. Mint = Mext .
7
If we seek the eccentricity ecr for which max equals zero, then =
P
L
1 L
2 2
(28.3)
If we want this net tensile force to be equal and opposite to the compressive force, then
T = L
T = PL
4
P
= A
applied at 23 L2 from the centroid
(28.4)
Victor Saouma
P 2L
PL
2L
=2
=
32
432
6
(28.5)
Structural Engineering
28.1 Frames
283
Draft
2
Frame Type
L
Moment
Shear
Deformation
w/2
Axial
M
-w/2
w/2
w/2
a
h
P
p
w/2
M
-w/2
w/2
w/2
c
-M/L
p
M/L
-M/L
w/2
M
-w/2
w/2
w/2
e
-M/L
M/L
-M/L
f
p
THREE-HINGE PORTAL
w/2
-w/2
M
M/h
-M/h
M/h
M/2
-M/L
M/2
p/2
THREE-HINGE PORTAL
w/2
0.4M
0.4M
-0.36M/h
w/2
M/2
-M/L
0.4M/h
0.64M
0.36M/h
-w/2
M/2
w/2
0.45M
0.45M
w/2
M/4
-0.5M/L
0.68M/h
0.55M
0.68M/h
-0.68M/h
-w/2
M/L
-M/L
p/2
TWO-HINGE FRAME
w/2
M/4
p/2
RIGID FRAME
M/4
M/4
M/2L
p/2
p/2
-M/2L
w/2
p/2
p/2
M/L
p/2
p/2
w/2
-M/L
w/2
Figure 28.3: Deformation, Shear, Moment, and Axial Diagrams for Various Types of Portal Frames
Subjected to Vertical and Horizontal Loads
Victor Saouma
Structural Engineering
284
DESIGN II
Draft
9 To satisfy the equilibrium equation, this internal moment must be equal and opposite to the external
moment Mext = P ecr hence
PL
= P ecr
(28.6)
6
Mext
Mint
or
ecr =
L
6
(28.7)
in other words to avoid tensile stresses on either side, the resultant force P must be placed within the
midle third kernel, Fig. 28.4
L/2
L/2
L/3
L/3
L/3
L/3
L/6
L/2
L/2
L/3
P
L/3
L/3
L/3
L/3
L/3
L/3
L/3
L/6
L/3
L/3
L/6
P/A
+
M/S
10
28.1.4
Structural Engineering
28.1 Frames
285
Draft
(28.9)
8. Deections will be computed by virtual work, and thus this expression becomes
)
)
M
M
S + HA M
S = 0
EI
EI
(28.10)
9. Since E and S are constant and, for the rst analysis, the moment of inertia is constant, the
nal expression for HA is
*
M M
HA = *
(28.11)
M M
All the computations necessary for the rst evaluation of HA are shown in Table 28.2 yielding
*
2 M M
2 2, 158, 100
= 333.97k
(28.12)
=
HA =
2 6461.9
2M M
10. The moments at the centers of the various segments of the rib, using the approximate value just
determined for HA , are computed in Table 28.3, where a moment is considered to be positive if it
tends to cause compression on the upper surface of the rib.
Victor Saouma
Structural Engineering
286
DESIGN II
Draft
Segment
sin
cos
x =
R sin
(ft)
A
1
2
3
4
5
6
7
8
9
10
Crown
38 34 49
36 39 05
32 47 36
28 56 07
25 04 38
21 13 09
17 21 40
13 30 11
09 38 42
05 47 13
01 55 44
0.62361
0.59695
0.54161
0.48382
0.42384
0.36194
0.29840
0.23350
0.16754
0.10083
0.03367
0.78173
0.80229
0.84063
0.87516
0.90574
0.93220
0.95444
0.97236
0.98586
0.99490
0.99943
100.000
95.725
86.851
77.584
67.966
58.040
47.851
37.443
26.866
16.169
5.399
y =
R cos
(ft)
x =
100 x
(ft)
y =
y 125.36
(ft)
x
(ft)
125.36
128.65
134.80
140.34
145.24
149.48
153.05
155.92
158.09
159.54
160.27
160.36
0
4.275
13.149
22.416
32.034
41.960
52.149
62.557
73.134
83.831
94.601
100.000
0
3.29
9.44
14.98
19.88
24.13
27.69
30.57
32.73
34.18
34.91
35.00
4.275
8.874
9.267
9.618
9.926
10.189
10.408
10.577
10.697
10.770
5.399
Segment
A
1
2
3
4
5
6
7
8
9
10
Crown
*
(2)
(3)
x
(ft)
0.0
4.275
13.149
22.416
32.034
41.960
52.149
62.557
73.134
83.831
94.601
100.00
y = M
(ft k)
0.0
3.29
9.44
14.98
19.88
24.13
27.69
30.57
32.73
34.18
34.91
35.00
(4)
Shear
to
right
(k)
245.650
221.085
196.520
171.955
147.390
122.825
98.260
73.695
49.130
24.565
0.000
(5)
(6)
x
(ft)
M
increment
(ft k)
(7)
M
simple
beam
(ft k)
4.275
8.874
9.267
9.618
9.926
10.189
10.408
10.577
10.697
10.770
5.399
1,050
1,962
1,821
1,654
1,463
1,251
1,023
779
526
265
0
1,050
3,010
4,830
6,490
7,950
9,200
10,220
11,000
11,530
11,790
11,790
(8)
(9)
M M
M M
3,500
28,400
72,400
129,100
191,800
254,800
312,400
360,000
394,100
411,600
10.9
89.2
224.4
395.4
582.2
767.0
934.4
1,071.4
1,168.4
1,218.6
2,158,100
6,461.9
Victor Saouma
Structural Engineering
28.1 Frames
287
Draft
Segment
A
1
2
3
4
5
6
7
8
9
10
Crown
y
(ft)
0
3.29
9.44
14.98
19.88
24.13
27.69
30.57
32.73
34.18
34.19
35.00
M
simple
beam
(ft k)
HA y
(ft k)
Total M
at segment
(ft k)
1,050
3,010
4,830
6,490
7,950
9,200
10,220
11,000
11,530
11,790
11,790
1,100
3,150
5,000
6,640
8,060
9,250
10,210
10,930
11,420
11,660
11,690
50
140
170
150
110
50
+10
+70
+110
+130
+100
Hc
in
Hs
Vc
os
in
Vs
= V cos H sin
(28.13-a)
= V sin + G cos
(28.13-b)
13. Values of S and N are computed in Table . The values of S are included in support of the statement
previously made to the eect that shearing forces are small in the usual arch rib.
14. Inspection of the values for the moment M in Table 28.3 and for the thrust N in Table 28.3 will
indicate that segment 3 is critical in the region of negative moment and segment 10 in the region of
positive moment. The necessary sections for the rib, at the centers of these two segments, must be
determined in accordance with the specications of the American Institute of Steel Construction
before Table 28.5 can be completed.
15. Flanges are 12 in. 1 in., and the allowable stress for bending is FB =20 k/in2 . The web thickness
is 34 in., and the allowable axial stress1 is FA =17,000-0.485 L/r.
1 In
this equation the value of L is 10.798, since ribs are laterally braced at purlin framing points.
Victor Saouma
Structural Engineering
288
Draft
Segment
A
1
2
3
4
5
6
7
8
9
10
Crown
DESIGN II
V (k)
245.6
221.1
196.5
172.0
147.4
122.8
98.3
73.7
49.1
24.6
0.0
V cos
192
177
165
150
133
114
94
72
48
244
0
H sin
-208
-199
-181
-162
-142
-121
-100
-78
-56
-34
-11
=
=
=
=
=
=
=
=
=
=
=
=
S (k)
-16
-22
-16
-12
-9
-7
-6
-6
-8
-10
-11
V sin
153
132
106
83
62
44
29
17
8
2
0
+H cos
+ 261
+268
+281
+292
+303
+311
+319
+325
+329
+332
+334
+334
=
=
=
=
=
=
=
=
=
=
=
=
=
N (k)
414
400
387
375
365
355
348
342
337
334
334
334
(28.15)
20. The revised values for the axial thrust N at the centers of the various segments are computed in
Table 28.7.
21. The sections previously designed at the centers of the segments are checked for adequacy in Table
28.8. From this table it appears that all sections of the rib are satisfactory. This cannot be
denitely concluded, however, until the secondary stresses caused by the deection of the rib are
investigated.
28.1.5
Structural Engineering
Victor Saouma
Segment
A
1
2
3
4
5
6
7
8
9
10
Crown
(3)
Area
(in2 )
39.75
39.75
39.75
39.75
39.05
38.35
37.65
36.95
36.24
35.55
34.85
34.50
(2)
Total
depth
(in.)
23.00
23.00
23.00
23.00
22.07
21.13
20.20
19.27
18.32
17.40
16.47
16.00
I
(in4 )
3483
3483
3483
3483
3172
2865
2585
2329
2071
1838
1631
1527
(4)
50
140
170
150
110
50
10
70
110
130
100
M
(ft k)
(5)
2.0
5.9
6.8
6.3
4.9
2.3
0.5
3.7
6.3
7.9
6.3
(k/in2 )
Allowable
Fa
(k/in2 )
15.88
15.88
15.88
15.88
15.90
15.92
15.94
15.96
15.97
15.99
16.01
16.03
Mc
I
N
A
(k/in2 )
10.4
10.1
9.7
9.4
9.3
9.2
9.2
9.3
9.3
9.4
9.6
9.7
(9)
(8)
fb =
(7)
fa =
Axial
thrust N
(k)
414
400
387
375
365
355
348
342
337
334
334
334
(6)
0.66
0.63
0.61
0.60
0.59
0.58
0.58
0.58
0.58
0.59
0.60
0.60
fa
Fa
(10)
0.10
0.28
0.34
0.32
0.24
0.11
0.02
0.19
0.31
0.40
0.32
fb
Fb
(11)
Decimal
of
capacity
0.66
0.73
0.89
0.94
0.91
0.82
0.70
0.61
0.77
0.90
1.00
0.92
(12)
Draft
28.1 Frames
289
Structural Engineering
2810
Draft
DESIGN II
(1)
(2)
(3)
(4)
Segment
Mn
I
m2
I
1
2
3
4
5
6
7
8
9
10
Crown
*
1.00
8.16
20.79
40.67
66.95
98.57
134.13
173.82
214.41
252.35
0.0031
0.0256
0.0644
0.1247
0.2032
0.2967
0.4012
0.5174
0.6357
0.7472
1010.85
3.0192
Revised
HA y
(ft k)
1,100
3,160
5,020
6,660
8,080
9,270
10,240
10,960
11,450
11,690
11,720
(5)
M
simple
beam
(ft k)
1,050
3,010
4,830
6,490
7,950
9,200
10,220
11,000
11,530
11,790
11,790
(6)
Revised
moment
(ft k)
-50
-150
-190
-170
-130
-70
-20
+40
+80
+100
+70
Table 28.6:
Segment
V sin
A
1
2
3
4
5
6
7
8
9
10
Crown
153
132
106
83
62
44
29
17
8
2
0
H cos
262
269
282
293
303
312
320
326
330
333
335
335
Revised
N
(k)
415
401
388
376
365
356
349
343
338
335
335
335
Table 28.7:
N
A
Segment
A
1
2
3
4
5
6
7
8
9
10
Crown
(k/in2 )
10.4
10.1
9.8
9.5
9.4
9.3
9,3
9.3
9.3
9.4
9.6
9.7
Mc
I
(k/in2 )
2.0
6.0
7.6
7.1
5.7
3.3
1.0
2.1
4.5
6.1
4.4
N/A
FA
0.66
0.64
0.62
0.60
0.59
0.58
0.58
0.58
0.58
0.59
0.60
0.61
Mc /I
FB
0.11
0.30
0.38
0.36
0.29
0.17
0.05
0.11
0.23
0.31
0.23
Decimal
of
capacity
0.66
0.75
0.92
0.98
0.95
0.87
0.75
0.63
0.69
0.82
0.91
0.84
Table 28.8:
Victor Saouma
Structural Engineering
28.1 Frames
2811
Draft
N
(k)
401
388
376
365
356
349
343
338
335
335
Segment
1
2
3
4
5
6
7
8
9
10
*
N = cos
(k)
0.8023
0.8406
0.8752
0.9057
0.9322
0.9544
0.9724
0.9859
0.9949
0.9994
A
(in2 )
39.75
39.75
39.75
39.05
38.35
37.65
36.95
36.24
35.55
34.85
N N
A
8.07
8.21
8.30
8.49
8.68
8.86
9.04
9.22
9.41
9.60
87.88
N
A
0.0162
0.0178
0.0193
0.0210
0.0227
0.0242
0.0256
0.0268
0.0286
0.0278
0.2300
Table 28.9:
displacement of end A, caused by a horizontal force of 1 k acting at A, considering both exural
and axial strains in the rib. The horizontal displacement of A, resulting from the rib shortening
caused by the real loads, is given by
) N N
L
(28.16)
AE
where N is the axial thrust taken from Table 28.7, N is the axial thrust caused by a 1 k ctitious
horizontal force acting at A and equal to cos in Table 28.1, L is the length of each segment,
and A is the right sectional area.
2. The horizontal displacement of A, resulting from the rib shortening caused by a 1 k horizontal
force acting at A, is given by
) N
N L
(28.17)
AE
3. The necessary computations for evaluating these two deections of A are shown in Table 28.9.
4. The horizontal displacement of A, resulting from the rib shortening caused by the real load, is
)
2 87.88 10.798 12
N
L =
= 0.760 in
AE
30, 000
(28.18)
2 0.2300 10.798 12
N
L =
= 0.002 in
AE
30, 000
(28.19)
6. The relative value of the horizontal displacement of A, resulting from the exural strain caused
by a 1 k horizontal force at A, has previously been determined in column (3) of Table ??. The
absolute value for this displacement is
2 3.019 10.798 1728 1728
= 3.755 in .
30, 000
(28.20)
7. The total value for the displacement of A due to both exural and axial strains resulting from a 1
k horizontal force at A is therefore
3.755 + 0.002 = 3.757 in
(28.21)
(28.22)
Structural Engineering
2812
DESIGN II
Draft
9. An additional reduction in HA will result from any drop in the temperature of the rib below
that temperature at which the arch is erected. This occurs, of course, because some additional
shortening of the rib will result. The decrease in the length of the horizontal projection of the rib
resulting from a temperature drop of 100F will be
L = 0.0000065 100 200 12 = 1.56 in
(28.23)
1.56
= 0.42 k
3.757
(28.24)
11. The total decrease in HA due to both rib shortening and temperature drop is
0.20 + 0.42 = 0.62 k
(28.25)
This will have the eect of increasing the moment near the center of the span.
12. Inspection of column (6) in Table 28.8 indicates that segment 10 should be checked for possible
overstress as the result of this increase. The increase in moment at segment 10 will be given by
M = HA (yfor segment10) = 0.62 34.91 = 21.6 ft k
(28.26)
13. The moment of 100 ftk, as previously determined for segment 10, is accurate only in the rst two
places, and hence the revised total moment for segment 10 will be
100 + 20 = 120 ft k
(28.27)
14. The thrust of 335 k, previously determined for segment 10, is accurate to three places. The change
in HA due to rib shortening and temperature change must therefore be rounded to 1 k in order to
determine the corrected thrust in segment 10. This corrected thrust will be
335 1 = 334 k
(28.28)
Mc
120 8.23 12
2
=
= 7.25 k/in
I
1631
(28.29)
(28.30)
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Chapter 30
ELEMENTS of STRUCTURAL
RELIABILITY
30.1
Introduction
C
Traditionally, evaluations of structural adequacy have been expressed by safety factors SF = D
, where
C is the capacity (i.e. strength) and D is the demand (i.e. load). Whereas this evaluation is quite simple
to understand, it suers from many limitations: it 1) treats all loads equally; 2) does not dierentiate
between capacity and demands respective uncertainties; 3) is restricted to service loads; and last but
not least 4) does not allow comparison of relative reliabilities among dierent structures for dierent
performance modes. Another major deciency is that all parameters are assigned a single value in an
analysis which is then deterministic.
2 Another approach, a probabilistic one, extends the factor of safety concept to explicitly incorporate
uncertainties in the parameters. The uncertainties are quantied through statistical analysis of existing
data or judgmentally assigned.
3 This chapter will thus develop a procedure which will enable the Engineer to perform a reliability
based analysis of a structure, which will ultimately yield a reliability index. This is turn is a universal
indicator on the adequacy of a structure, and can be used as a metric to 1) assess the health of a
structure, and 2) compare dierent structures targeted for possible remediation.
30.2
Elements of Statistics
4 Elementary statistics formulaes will be reviewed, as they are needed to properly understand structural
reliability.
When a set of N values xi is clustered around a particular one, then it may be useful to characterize
the set by a few numbers that are related to its moments (the sums of integer powers of the values):
N
1 )
xi
N i=1
(30.1)
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Draft
N odd
N even
=
or
(30.3)
1
N (xi )2
N 1 i=1
(30.4)
1 N
(xi )2
(30.5)Note
Variance: is an indication of the width of the cluster: 2 =
N i=1
that if N is less than 10, it is more appropriate to use the second equation, otherwise use the rst
one.
Standard Deviation: is dened as the square root of the Variance
=
(30.6)
Coecient of Variation: is the standard deviation normalized with respect to the mean:
V=
(30.7)
When insucient data are available to accurately compute the moments, the coecient of variation
is often estimated on the basis of experience.
Covariance: Pairs of random variables may be correlated or independent. If correlated, then the
likelihood of y depends on the likelihood of x. Thus, covariance xy measures the combined eect
of how two variables vary together.
xy =
N
1 )
(xi x )(yi y )
N i=1
(30.8)
xy
x y
(30.9)
A correlation coecient of 1.0 or 1.0 indicates a perfect linear correlation. A positive value
indicates that the variables either increase or decrease together, a negative one indicates that one
value increases while the other decreases. A zero value indicates that there is no linear correlation
between the variables.
Skewness: characterizes the degree of asymmetry of a distribution around its mean. It is dened in a
non-dimensional value. A positive one signies a distribution with an asymmetric tail extending
out toward more positive x
3
xi
1 N
(30.10)
Skew = i=1
N
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30.3
7
30.3.1
8
Uniform Distribution
Uniform distribution implies that any value between xmin and xmax is equaly likely to occur.
30.3.2
9
Normal Distribution
2.0
2.5
3.0
0.40
0.35
0.30
0.25
0.20
0.15
0.10
0.05
0.5
1.0
1.5
2.0
2.5
3.0
0.5
1.0
1.5
2.0
2.5
3.0
CDF
0.00
3.0 2.5 2.0 1.5 1.0 0.5 0.0
1.0
0.9
0.8
0.7
0.6
0.5
0.4
0.3
0.2
0.1
0.0
3.0 2.5 2.0 1.5 1.0 0.5 0.0
x
1 x 2
1
e 2 [ ]
(x) =
2
10
(30.12)
y=
(30.13)
(30.14)
The normal distribution has been found to be an excellent approximation to a large class of distributions, and has some very desirable mathematical properties:
11
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(30.15)
xmax
f (x)dx
(30.16)
xmin
(30.17)
(30.18)
30.3.3
Lognormal Distribution
A random variable is lognormally distributed if the natural logarithm of the variable is normally
distributed.
12
13
30.3.4
Beta Distribution
Beta distributions are very exible and can assume a variety of shapes including the normal and
uniform distributions as special cases.
14
15
16
Beta distributions are selected when a particular shape for the probability density function is desired.
30.3.5
BiNormal distribution
30.4
Reliability Index
30.4.1
Designating F the capacity to demand ratio C/D (or performance function), in general F is a function
of one or more variables xi which describe the geometry, material, loads, and boundary conditions
17
F = F (xi )
(30.19)
and thus F is in turn a random variable with its own probability distribution function, Fig. 30.2.
A performance function evaluation typically require a structural analysis, this may range from a
simple calculation to a detailled nite element study.
18
Victor Saouma
Structural Engineering
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30.4.2
Denitions
Reliability indices, are used as a relative measure of the reliability or condence in the ability of
a structure to perform its function in a satisfactory manner. In other words they are a measure of the
performance function.
19
Probabilistic methods are used to systematically evaluate uncertainties in parameters that aect
structural performance, and there is a relation between the reliability index and risk.
20
21 Reliability index is dened in terms of the performance function capacity C, and the applied load or
demand D. It is assumed that both C and D are random variables.
22 The safety margin is dened as Y = C D. Failure would occur if Y < 0 Next, C and D can be
combined and the result expressed logarithmically, Fig. 30.2.
X = ln
C
D
(30.20)
23
10
140
Demand
8
=300; =50
=150; =30
100
Capacity
80
60
pdf ln(C/D)
120
6
ln(C/D)
4
Failure
40
0
1.00
20
0
0.0
0.50
0.00
0.50
ln(C/D)
1.00
1.50
2.00
Failure
100.0
200.0
300.0 Denition
400.0
500.0
Figure
30.2:
of Reliability
Index
Tensile Stress [psi]
C
If X is assumed to follow a Normal Distribution than it has a mean value X = ln D
and a
m
standard deviation .
24
25
We dene the safety index (or reliability index) as the distance between mean performance value
ln C/D
=
(30.21)
ln C/D
2
and the limit state normalized with respect to the standard deviation
26
ln C/D ln 2C/D
2
ln 1 + C/D
C/D
(30.22)
C
The limit state is dened as a ratio of capacity to demand approaching unity (i.e. ln D
0).
Alternatively, the reliability index can be expressed in terms of the individual means of C and D, and
their respective coecients of variations
27
ln C
= 2 D 2
VC + VD
Victor Saouma
(30.23)
Structural Engineering
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1
For standard distributions and for = 3.5, it can be shown that the probability of failure is Pf = 9,091
4
or 1.1 10 . That is 1 in every 10,000 structural members designed with = 3.5 will fail because of
either excessive load or understrength sometime in its lifetime.
28
30.4.3
In general, some of the analysis parameters are constants, and others are variables. The variables will
be characterized by a mean and a standard deviation, and a distribution function.
29
The objective is to determine the mean and standard deviation of the performance function dened
in terms of C/D.
30
31
Those two parameters, in turn, will later be required to compute the reliability index.
30.4.3.1
Direct Integration
32 Given a function random variable x, the mean value of the function is obtained by integrating the
function over the probability distribution function of the random variable
[F (x)] =
g(x)f (x)dx
(30.24)
33
(30.25)
34 Note that in practice, the function F (x) is very rarely available for practical problems, and hence this
method is seldom used.
30.4.3.2
35
The performance function is evaluated for many possible values of the random variables.
Assuming that all variables have a normal distribution, then this is done through the following algorithm
36
37
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Victor Saouma
Structural Engineering
program nice
parameter(ns=100000)
real x(ns), mean, sd
write(*,*)enter mean, standard-deviation and n
read(*,*)mean,sd,n
c initialize
tmp=gasdev(-1)
do i=1,n
c obtain gausian distribution and adjust for mean and standard deviation
x(i)=gasdev(1)*sd+mean
end do
c compute mean and standard deviation
call moment(x,n,ave,adev,sdev,var,skew,curt)
c sort and print results
call sort(n,x)
write(*,*)(x(i),i=1,n)
write(*,*) average standard deviation,ave,sdev
stop
end
c----------------------------------------------------------------------------function gasdev(idum)
c*** Function to produce a normally distributed variable with zero
c
mean and unit ariance.
data iset/0/
if (iset.eq.0) then
1
v1=2.*ran1(idum)-1.
v2=2.*ran1(idum)-1.
r=v1**2+v2**2
if(r.ge.1..or.r.eq.0.)go to 1
fac=sqrt(-2.*log(r)/r)
gset=v1*fac
gasdev=v2*fac
iset=1
else
gasdev=gset
iset=0
endif
return
end
c----------------------------------------------------------------------------function ran1(idum)
c *** Returns a uniform random variable between 0.0 and 1.0,
c
set idum to any negative value to initialize, or reinitialize the sequence
dimension r(97)
parameter (m1=259200,ia1=7141,ic1=54773,rm1=3.8580247e-6)
parameter (m2=134456,ia2=8121,ic2=28411,rm2=7.4373773e-6)
parameter (m3=243000,ia3=4561,ic3=51349)
data iff /0/
if (idum.lt.0.or.iff.eq.0) then
iff=1
ix1=mod(ic1-idum,m1)
ix1=mod(ia1*ix1+ic1,m1)
ix2=mod(ix1,m2)
ix1=mod(ia1*ix1+ic1,m1)
ix3=mod(ix1,m3)
do 11 j=1,97
ix1=mod(ia1*ix1+ic1,m1)
ix2=mod(ia2*ix2+ic2,m2)
r(j)=(float(ix1)+float(ix2)*rm2)*rm1
11
continue
idum=1
endif
ix1=mod(ia1*ix1+ic1,m1)
ix2=mod(ia2*ix2+ic2,m2)
ix3=mod(ia3*ix3+ic3,m3)
j=1+(97*ix3)/m3
if(j.gt.97.or.j.lt.1)pause
ran1=r(j)
r(j)=(float(ix1)+float(ix2)*rm2)*rm1
return
end
c-----------------------------------------------------------------------------
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Victor Saouma
Structural Engineering
subroutine moment(data,n,ave,adev,sdev,var,skew,curt)
c given array of data of length N, returns the mean AVE, average
c
deviation ADEV, standard deviation SDEV, variance VAR, skewness SKEW,
c
and kurtosis CURT
dimension data(n)
if(n.le.1)pause n must be at least 2
s=0.
do 11 j=1,n
s=s+data(j)
11
continue
ave=s/n
adev=0.
var=0.
skew=0.
curt=0.
do 12 j=1,n
s=data(j)-ave
adev=adev+abs(s)
p=s*s
var=var+p
p=p*s
skew=skew+p
p=p*s
curt=curt+p
12
continue
adev=adev/n
var=var/(n-1)
sdev=sqrt(var)
if(var.ne.0.)then
skew=skew/(n*sdev**3)
curt=curt/(n*var**2)-3.
else
pause no skew or kurtosis when zero variance
endif
return
end
c-----------------------------------------------------------------------------subroutine sort(n,ra)
dimension ra(n)
l=n/2+1
ir=n
10
continue
if(l.gt.1)then
l=l-1
rra=ra(l)
else
rra=ra(ir)
ra(ir)=ra(1)
ir=ir-1
if(ir.eq.1)then
ra(1)=rra
return
endif
endif
i=l
j=l+l
20
if(j.le.ir)then
if(j.lt.ir)then
if(ra(j).lt.ra(j+1))j=j+1
endif
if(rra.lt.ra(j))then
ra(i)=ra(j)
i=j
j=j+j
else
j=ir+1
endif
go to 20
endif
ra(i)=rra
go to 10
end
309
Draft
As an example, using the above program, and assuming a normal distribution with a mean of 100.
and a standard deviation of 20, results shown in Table 30.1 are obtained.
38
n
10
100
1,000
10,000
100,000
100.33
100.49
100.123
99.964
100.029
7.17
9.73
9.73
9.88
9.97
xmin
91.05
77.01
72.54
66.20
53.65
xmax
111.29
120.92
131.43
134.31
145.39
39
30.4.3.3
As noted above, even for the simplest problem a successful Monte-Carlo simulation can be computationally very expensive. This is even more though when the evaluation of the performance function can
only be achieved through a nite element analysis.
40
Whereas in the Monte Carlo simulations numerous random analyses had to be performed, in this
method we select only few points such that they match the mean, standard deviation, and coecient of
skewness of the distribution1 , (Harr 1987, Wol 1985).
41
42
43
Mean and standard deviation of the logarithmic values are then determined from the 2n analyses,
and then is the ratio of the mean to the standard deviation.
44
30.4.3.4
In the previous method, we have cut down the number of deterministic analyses to 2n , in the following
method, we reduce it even further to 2n + 1, (Anonymous 1992, Anonymous 1993, Bryant, Brokaw and
Mlakar 1993).
45
This simplied approach starts with the rst order Taylor series expansion of Eq. 30.19 about the
mean and limited to linear terms, (Benjamin and Cornell 1970).
46
(30.26)
F = F (i )
where i is the mean for all random variables.
47
1 Such
V ar(F ) = F2
F
xi
) F
xi
2
i
Fi+ Fi
2i
(30.27-a)
(30.27-b)
a simplication is behind the development of the Whitney stress block in the ACI code; a complex stress
distribution is replaced by a simpler one (rectangular), such that both have the same resultant force and location.
Victor Saouma
Structural Engineering
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Fi+
Fi
= F (1 , , i + i , , n )
= F (1 , , i i , , n )
(30.27-c)
(30.27-d)
) F+ F
i
(30.28)
48
ln F
F
(30.29)
30.4.4
Reliability indices for a number of components, or a number of modes of performance may be used
to estimate the overall reliability of a structure.
49
50
Series System: Such a system will perform poorly if any one component perform unsatisfactorily. If
a system has n components in series, the probability of unsatisafcatorily performance of the ith
component is pi and its reliability Ri = 1 pi , then the reliability of the system, or probability
that all components will perform satisfactorily is
R =
=
R1 R2 Ri Rn
(1 pi )(1 p2 ) (1 pi ) (1 pn )
(30.30-a)
Parallel Systems: Such a system will only perform unsatisfactorily if all component perform unsatisfactorily. Hence the reliability is
R = 1 p1 p2 pi pn
30.4.5
(30.31)
Reliability indices are a relative measure of the current condition and provide a qualitative estimate
of the structural performance.
51
Structures with relatively high reliable indices will be expected to perform well. If the value is too
low, then the structure may be classied as a hazard.
52
53
Target values for are shown in Table 30.2, and in Fig. 30.3
Victor Saouma
Structural Engineering
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10
Good
10
Poor
10
Unsatisfactory
10
Above Average
Below Average
10
Hazardous
1/(Probability of Failure)
10
10
10
0.0
0.5
1.0
1.5
2.0
2.5
3.0
3.5
4.0
4.5
Victor Saouma
Structural Engineering
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5
4
3
2.5
2.0
1.5
1.0
Failures
3/10 million
3/100,000
1/1,000
6/1,000
2.3/100
7/100
16/100
30.5
Reliability Analysis
Victor Saouma
Structural Engineering
Draft
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