Geological and geotechnical

characterization and failure

mechanism of Friable Hematitic
Ore in Vale iron ore mines. West of
Iron Ore Quadrangle, MG Brazil

T. A. V. Costa
Vale
R. P. Figueiredo
UFOP Universidade Federal de
Ouro Preto
P. B. Franca
Vale

Abstract
The main typology in Vales iron ore mines is Friable Hematitic Ore. This typology is the primary focus for geotechnical consideration
due to its abundance and also because it is one type that commonly occurs in final open pits and has a low mechanical
resistance.
Catastrophic slope failures have occurred in iron ore mines leading to either fatalities or loss of production. The main causes of
failure are the shear mechanisms in the pre-existing anisotropy and stress concentrations in the toes of slopes which are commonly
and predominately composed of Friable Hematitic Ore.
To address this issue, it is common practice for geotechnical engineers to leave a buttress of ore at the toe, leaving reserves.
The design for slope stability is based on Limit Equilibrium Elements analysis and in some cases with the aid of numerical analysis.
Parameters are normally derived from lab tests and geomechanical classification.
In this paper, on the other hand, four approaches are used: petrographic and microstructural analysis of thin sections, testing and
characterization of resistance in lab samples; geological and geotechnical characterization and back analyses with computational
models (finite element and limit equilibrium):
Thin sections were analyzed to determine micro-characteristics of the rock and discontinuities and to verify their response
upon deformation. About twenty samples of various mines representing the Friable Hematitic Ore were used.
Laboratory tests were carried out in blocks of various sizes and different directions, to determine strength and deformability
parameters of intact rock, as well as physical and chemical parameters of the rock type.
Geological and geotechnical characterization to macroscopically characterize rock types at bench scale. A rock mass
classification systems adapted to iron ore was also used during mapping.
Finally, the data obtained in previous stages was used in computational back analysis using the softwares PHASE2 and SLIDE
(Rocscience).
This combined approach will best determine deformation and strength parameters, improve the understanding of failure
mechanisms and thus promote a more complete and comprehensive understanding of the behavior of such materials during pit
excavation. From this, pit design can be optimized so that maximum ore can be mined while ensuring necessary safety.

INTRODUCTION
Justification
In Vales ferrous south division, more than 70% of all rich iron ore deposits are composed of Friable Hematitic Ore (FHO). FHO is
one of the lithological ore types of lower geomechanical resistances that occur in final open pits. After mining of FHO, the resistance
characteristics of friability and strain hardening alter and this combined with the relative low strain levels, make typology the target for
geotechnical investigation.
Geological and structural settings impose a stratigraphical position on the FHO and as such, FHO is commonly present at the base of
the slopes and therefore in the highest stress portion. This configuration is very common in Vales open pit mines and some global slope
failures have occurred with low strain conditions but very rapidly leading to either fatalities or loss of production.
Usually geological mapping and geomechanical classification are sufficient to determined the main failure mechanisms while, limited
equilibrium analyses, using Morh Coulomb stress parameters, is efficient to determine the best safety factor.

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Increased world iron ore demand leads to increases in the mining production rate and this effectively leads to increases in the average
depth of mining for open pit operations. For these large open pits, a high level of finite element analyses, structural mapping, correlation with
microscale samples and lab analysis is necessary to ensure good comprehension of slope failure mechanisms and accurate determination
of the safety factor.
Objectives
The main objectives of this paper are: geological and geomechanical characterization in micro and macro scale using triaxial tests
to correlate strength parameters and main failure mechanisms for FHO slopes. Secondly, these approaches will help open pit design
optimization in terms of maximizing mined ore whilst ensuring the necessary level of safety.
Methodology
To obtain the expected results, four approaches were used:
Geological and geotechnical characterization was adopted to characterize rock types at a bench scale. A rock mass classification
system adapted for iron ore was also used during mapping.
Laboratory triaxial tests were carried out on blocks of various sizes and in different directions, to determine strength and deformability
parameters of intact rock, as well as physical and chemical parameters. The software ROCDATA (Rocscience) was used to analyze the
samples in order to evaluate the results for different stress criteria and deformation levels
Thin sections were analyzed to determine the intact rock and discontinuity micro-characteristics and verify their response upon
deformation.
Finally, the data obtained in previous stages was used in computational back analysis using the software PHASE2 and SLIDE
(Rocscience).
Localization
Vales iron ore division is centred in the state of Minas Gerais, Brazil, more specifically in the western side of the Iron Ore Quadrangle.
The main iron ore mines of the southern ferrous division (DIFL), are deposited in a linear group of hills geologically called the Moeda
Syncline and Curral Homocline.
The mines valued in this paper include the guas Claras and Mutuca mines in the north (close to Belo Horizonte) and Tamandu,
Capito do Mato and Pico mines in the south (close to Itabirito town). A map of the mines and their locations can be seen in figure 1.

Figure 1 - Localization map showing the DIFL/ Vale worked mines and the Iron Ore Quadrangle configuration.

Geological Settings
The studied area is localized in the western part of a geotectonic structure called the Iron Ore Quadrangle, which is located in the southern
border of the So Francisco Craton. The structure is delineated by a roughly quadrangular arrangement, with Proterozoic banded iron formations

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(BIFs) of the Minas Supergroup composted with hundreds of meters of metamorphic rocks. Within this formation exists an especially rich
iron ore called Itabirito from the Itabira group, which will be the focus of this paper. The Minas Supergroup comprises, from bottom to top, the
Caraa, Itabira, Piracicaba and Sabar groups, a sequence of psamitic pelitics rocks (Dorr, 1969).
Below this is the Archean greenstone belt terrains of the Rio das Velhas Supergroup and domes of Archean and Proterozoic crystalline
rocks (Machado et al., 1992; Machado and Carneiro, 1992; Noce, 1995).
The regional structure is the result of two main superpositional deformational events (Chemale Jr. et al, 1994). The first produced the
nucleation of regional synclines in the uplift of the gneissic domes during the Transamazonian Orogeneses (2,1 2 Gyr). The second is related
to an east/ west vergent thrust belt of Pan African Brasiliano age (0,8 0,6 Gyr) (Marshak et al., 1992). This event deformed the earlier
structures and was mainly responsible for the deformational gradient. The intensive structuration developed folds, foliation, shear zones and an
eastward increased metamorphic zoning and follows the deformational gradient to greenschist to lower amphibolites facies (Hertz, 1978).
Regionally, the main iron ore deposits of Vales southern division are located in the western low strain domain of the Iron Ore Quadrangle,
most of them in the eastern limb of the Moeda Syncline (Mutuca, Tamandu, Capito do Mato and Pico mines). The main trend of the syncline
is N S but the structure has also been deformed around Bao dome. To the south, the structure is interconnected with the Dom Bosco
Syncline and partially truncated by the Engenho Fault. To the north it is continuous with the Serra do Curral. In this junction, a northwest
verging asymmetric anticline and an interference saddle was developed due to the refolding (Rosiere et al., 2003).
The Moeda Syncline has been partially affected by the younger Brasiliano tectonic plate movement and this affect occurred mainly in the
eastern limb with the local development of ductile brittle to brittle shear zones. These shear zones cut all lithologies or are sub parallel
to the bedding planes. Several strike slip faults cut across the structure dividing it in several segments. The Serra do Curral represents the
overturned southeastern limb of a truncated NW vergent syncline anticline couple. It was highly strained and rotated by a right lateral
movement of the NE SW trending oblique ramp of a thrust fault. In this segment, the northwestward inverted limb of a syncline is truncated
near the contact of the minas Supergroup in the underlying Rio das Velhas Supergroup by shear zones elated to the thrust. This occurrence is
the foundation for the guas Claras mine. All the structures and geological settings can be seen in figure 2.

Figure 2 - Geological map of northwest portion of Iron Ore Quadrangle, lithostatigraphical column and localization of the worked mines

EXPERIMENTAL
Geological and Geomechanical Characterization
The high grade iron ores focused on in this paper, typically have iron (Fe) contents less than 64% and very low proportions of silicon
oxides (SiO2,), aluminum oxides (Al203) and others contaminants. Usually, Vales rich iron ores contain more than 64% Fe and are divided

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by lithotypes. Normally, this division is based on laboratory testing of crushed material resistance. These tests result in three different
classifications; Hard Hematite Ore (more than 50% above 6.35 mm), Medium Hematite Ore (50% to 25% above 6.35 mm) and Friable
Hematite Ore (FHO) (less than 25% above 6.35 mm).
Only hematite mineral and specularite can be identified. In some cases, a cataclatic mass of friable material predominates. The hydroxyl
minerals as goethite are superficially or fault zones restricted. Structural settings are especially hard because of the friability characteristics
which make it difficult to identify the structure. and the hydroxy minerals.
At a slope scale, FHO have a dark metallic gray color and are very friable. In general, the ore bodies in the Minas Supergroup open
pit mines have the following configuration; compact hematite ore is contained within the centre of the fold whilst friable hematitic ore
dominates in the surface, fold limbs, shear zones and brittle failures.
The visual porosity is very high and apparent cohesion is very low but, in most cases, the original (S0) or the tectonical foliation (Sn)
structuring was preserved. Particularly, the meso banding can be determined by the interface between more massive layers with metallic
bright color and low cohesions layers (more friable) with opaque gray color.
Using field evaluations three main different types could be identified in the mines studied, characterized by:

Bedding
Bedding layers with less cohesion interface with more cohesive layers. Higher
lateral extension, present in the folds
limbs, above the itabirite rocks and in low
deformation areas. This is the main type
throughout all open pits.
At a bench scale, shear failure in a
planar surface is the main failure mechanism.
The anisotropy can be easily determined
and controls all failure mechanism.
The resistance parameters are controlled by the thickness and percentage of
more cohesive bedding layers.

Breccia
Visually, as a homogeneous mass and
fine matrix associated with collapsed
structures (non tectonics structures) and
brittles faults. Very low apparent cohesion
and high porosity. Bench scale failure typically occurs through shear mechanisms
usually in circular surfaces.
It is more difficult to determine the anisotropy and the discontinuities in field;
and in the same way, the resulting deformation cracks are only visualized close to
the failure.
Commonly, can be associated with stress
zones and stress failure mechanisms.

Foliated
In field valuations it is easy to determine
the anisotropy by the millimetric foliation,
strong anisotropy, low apparent cohesion
and specularity contained. Geologically
there is low lateral extension associated
with shear zones and ductile faults, concentrated in high deformation areas.
In bench scale, failures are common through planar surfaces in shear mechanisms.
The resistance parameters are determinate by the specularite mineral contents in
the foliation.
Occurs in very restricts portions in the
mines but commonly associated with the
global scale failures.

Even using a geomechanical classification adapted for Vale iron ore mines to characterize the FHO, it is not ease to determine the
three FHO types. The low apparent cohesion of Vales FHOs and a cohesion below 3 (H-3) limited the use of RMR classification (adapted
Bieniawisk, 1989). The best classification possible using RMR is class IV (below 30) for Bedding FHO and class V for Breccia and Foliated
FHO (about 20). The main problem with the use of RMR classifications is the identification and characterization of discontinuities.

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In the same way, for GSI characterization, the use of specific GSI tables (Marinos and Hoek, 2004) provides a range of GSI value from 5 to
45. This range is too large and does not provide enough specific information to accurately determine parameters, in order to determine type.
As a result, Vales geomechanical studies have focused on a way to minimize this problem in order to improve the geomechanical
classification system for friable rocks in iron ore mines.
Laboratory Analyses
The reports from Mutuca, guas Claras, Tamandu and Pico mines were evaluated based on physical analyses, granulometry, density
and humid percentage. Additional tests for triaxial deformation were completed on samples from different directions and with different
sizes of FHO. This evaluation showed:
The granulometric curve shows a fine sand to silt composition with the following parameters;
the specific gravity samples has an average of 3.93 (s.d.=0.38)
humidity percentage of 15% (s.d = 5%)
void ratio equal to 0,75 (e=0.75).
All the triaxial results (35 in total) were grouped in the same graphic using the software, ROCDATA. This resulted in a cluster of points
divided into low and high stress levels using the value 1. An average of about 2 MPa was used as the cut off limit, with values below this
classified as having low stress ratio (1< 2 MPa), and values above classified as having a high stress ratio value (1>2 MPa). This can
be seen in Figure 3. The result parameters from this division are presented in Table I.
These differences were used to consider the anisotropy parameters, using lower values for parameters parallel to anisotropic and
higher values for the parameters perpendicular to anisotropy. This approach was used because it was not possible to determine (in
reports) the real relationship of the test direction and the anisotropy.

Figure 3 - Triaxial texts using Morh Coulomb adjustments, showing the limits used to divide the high and low values.

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Litotype

Frictional Angle

Cohesion

Morh Coulomb Curve

FHO parallel

34

20 Kpa

1<2 MPa

FHO perpendicular

45

70 Kpa

1>2 MPa

FHO isotropic

34

65 Kpa

All 1

Table I - Stress parameters adjusted for high and low stress deformation levels and adapted for anisotropy.

Micro Scale Characterizations

Using a total of 20 thin sections from the mines of guas Claras (5), Tamandu (10) and Capito do Mato (5) the following characteristics
could be defined: mineralogical composition, crystal shape, micro porosity, cementation, discontinuity, granulometry and structural settings.
The petrographic analyses showed a monomineralic composition essentially of hematite crystals in variable shapes and sizes. Secondly,
martite, specularite, magnetite; quartz and clay minerals were present as gangue. The main cementation mineral was goethite which was
especially abundant in surface areas and in fault zones.
Of the porosity observed, 70% of the total porosity was attributed to the intergranular properties whilst the intragranular and fissural porosity
combined was 30%. The anisotropy is easily the determining factor in compounding the banding or the foliation, using the orientation of the crystals
and the void alignments. In some cases it was possible to see two anisotropy directions. The minerals shape, size and content of different mineralogys
determined different types of anisotropy, characterized by microbanding while the micro scale determined three different types of FHO.

Bedding
In total, of the thin sections analyzed, 24%
of hematite crystals were sinuous, granular or
lobular shape. The size analysis showed that the
hematite crystals had the biggest relative mineral sizes (more than 1 mm). The orientations of
crystal were determined by the recrystallization
portion. Anisotropy was largely determined by
the interface layers, the level of porosity and the
tabular shape of hematite. The void percentage
was relatively medium. The bedding had typical
layers of predominately high porosity granular
graniloblastic crystals interfaced with a layer of
tabular lepidoblatsic low porosity layers.
Foliated: Composed of tabular hematites
(37%), the micro plates were oriented with the
0,15 mm size crystals and specularite showing a
lepidoblastic morphology of 11%. The specularite
was substantially lengthened by deformation. The
porosity content was low as a result of the goethitic cementation. The anisotropy is easily determined because specularite is commonly found in
the discontinuities.
Breccia: Have typical bimodal composition: in
clast layers, there was a predominately granular crystal of hematite with a high porosity; in
matrix layers, there was predominately macro
plates of hematite oriented with the flow and with
low porosity content. The anisotropy is less intense but can be determined. This configuration
is a result of brittle deformation.
The anisotropy could be defined by the layers
of fine hematite minerals.

Back Analysis
In order to better understand the failure mechanism, the geological and geomechanical information as well as the lab tests were used
in two back analysis valuations.

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The Morro do Patrimnio rupture, a large scale failure, occured in April, 1992 in the guas Claras mine. This involved a slope failure
of more than 240 meters height and resulted in the mobilization of about 2 millions tonnes of material.
The Mina Velha rupture, a small scale failure, occurred in November, 2006 in the Pico mine when a 75 meter high slope failure
occurred and mobilized about 100.000 tonnes.
In case studies limited equilibrium and finites elements analyses were used to understand the failure mechanisms and check the stress
and strength parameters. The parameters used can be viewed in tables II and III.
Resistance
Parameters

cp//
(Mpa)

cp+
(Mpa)

cr
(Mpa)

p//
()

p+
()

r
()

(KN\m3)

FHO

0,070

0,092

33

34

27

Table II - Stress parameters used in SLIDE analyses.

Table III - Stress and strain parameters used in PHASE2 analyses.

The Patrimonio Failure, largely studied by Franca (1997) and others, occurred in the Serra do Cural Hill and the failure resulted in the
movement of material to a height of 200m, a width of 100m and a reduction in the mountain crest of 30 meters. The failure surface
occurred in the geological contact between FHO and Friable Siliceous Itabirite (or the bedding of FHO) and was typically planar circular with
a base of displacement in the slope toe. Figure 4 A shows the land slide failure that occurred at MAC in 1992 whilst figure 4 B shows
the typical SLIDE cross section used to study the failure mechanism.

Figure 4 - Patrimnio failure in 1992 (guas Claras mine), in B typical SLIDE cross section and geological setting.

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Figure 5 shows the SLIDE analyses. Figure 5 A shows a representation of the slope failure in relation to the geological conditions and
geometry. In figure B the same configuration using a pre existing surface according to the FHO bedding is shown.
For both analyses the geometry was unfavorable for stability for the use of all types of FHO. The factors of safety (SF) values were below
1 and a study of all the possibilities indicated that there were at least two probable types of surfaces for failure. Using SLIDE analyses,
shear failure mechanism was possible in both cases for non circular, (multiple surfaces) and planar surface (using the FHO bedding and
the geological contacts).

Figure 5 - SLIDE analyses, in A multiples surfaces and B pre-existing surface using

the geological contact and the anisotropy parameters, parallel.

Figure 6 shows the PHASE2 analyses. In A using a pre existing surface, the rupture surface and the total displacement evaluation in
field is shown. The concentration of the total displacement at the bottom of the toe cannot be seen as the concentration occurs in the
middle. In B the total displacement is not concentrate in the toe of slope but the displacement portion can easily be determined in the
contact between the FHO and FSI.

Figure 6 - PHASE2 analyses, in A pre existing surface, in B a free stress deformation.

Both cases show the total displacement valuation and a low concentration in the toe.

At the Pico do Itabirito mine, a failure occurred in April 2002 whereby material of 70m high by 40m was released resulting in a
loss of 3m in the 1240m bench. For the Mina Velha slope failure analyses, two different groups of stress parameters were used.
Figure 7 shows in A the land slide just below Itabiritos Peak and in B the typical cross section used in PHASE2 and the geological
composition.

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Figure 7 - shows in A the land slide failure just below Pico do Itabirito and in B
the typical cross section used in PHASE2 and the geological composition.

For SLIDE analyses of the Mina Velha slope failure, two different groups of stress parameters and non circular surfaces were used.
Figure 8 A has non favorable stability parameters, parallel to anisotropy, typically used in Breccia and Bedding FHO types. In this analysis,
it was possible to determine a single surface to represent the failure.
In Figure 8 B for favorable stability parameters, perpendicular to anisotropy and typically used for Foliated FHO type, it was possible to
find a single surface and a conjugated surface could also have been used.

Figure 8 - SLIDE analyses in A global no circular surface, and in B multiple no circular surfaces.

The PHASE2 analyses, as seen in figure 9, shows the differences in displacement between undercut and non undercut slopes. In 9 A,
the total displacement for a shallow (2.5 m) undercut slope can be seen as well as the concentration in the toe of the slope. In figure 9 B,
the level of displacement for a non undercut slope can be seen and this figures shows levels of 3 times less than in A. In both cases a
displacement concentrated in the toe occurs.

Figure 9 - PHASE2 analyses showing the total displacement in A in an undercut slope and the total displacement in `B for non undercut.

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DISCUSSION
It is typical for all types of FHO to have, at least, one strong anisotropy, and this direction can be represented by the orientation of
granuloblastics hematite, tabular hematites, specularite, and the intragranular void orientation. In lower deformation areas the anisotropy
is represented by bedding (Bedding FHO) and in stronger deformation areas by foliation (Foliated FHO). The breccias are associated with
faults or a non tectonic collapse (Breccia FHO).
It is typical for Bedding and Breccia FHO to have bimodal composition in terms of shape, size of hematite crystals and void content. On
the other hand, Foliated FHO is more homogeneous and has a stronger anisotropy.
Figure 10 shows the anisotropy in various scales.

Figure 10 - Various scale valuation of FHO anisotropy.

The FHO lab test shows a high density and high porosity (more than 25% of voids) in a very thin sand composition rock. The triaxial tests
present low average in frictional angle (33 to 34) but in terms of cohesion these average is almost 30 % (0,065 to 0,092 MPa).
Geomechanical characterization, using the classical geomechanical tables (RMR or GSI) appear to be inadequate to determine the
difference between the three FHO types. It is probable that the low matrix resistance and the high anisotropy importance makes the
geomechanical characteristics of this material very close to soil, and as a result, it requires an adjusted rock mass classification.
If the type of FHO can be accurately determined in the field, the resistance parameters can be better understood and used to improve
the understanding of the failure mechanism. The table below shows the mains characteristics of three types of FHO.

Table IV - Summary of more important FHO characteristics.

CONCLUSIONS
The orientation of minerals and void imposes a strong anisotropy in the rock and this information must be taken into consideration
in slope analyses. The stress resistance parallel to foliation is, at least, 30% lower than that when perpendicular and the main failure
mechanisms of FHO are shearing and controlled by anisotropy.
By analyzing the shear mechanism with Limited Equilibrium analyses, it was possible to represent the failure mechanism and valuated

10

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the importance of anisotropy in these mechanisms. This was possible across a range of slopes including very high and very low slopes.
Lower resistance parameters parallel to anisotropy (bedding and foliated) imposes planar failure geometry in a shear mechanism. On
the other hand, higher resistance parameters perpendicular to anisotropy improve circular failure geometry. In these cases the probability
of stress deformation is increased, especially in the higher slopes. Shear failure mechanisms are typical, especially when the anisotropy
is unfavorable for stability. In special cases, the stress caused by geometry changes (under cutting or tridimensional geometry effect) can
predominate.
Higher density and apparent cohesion, especially the high frictional angle of FHO, make this typology a strong fine sand material, with soil
characteristics of a low resistance rock material.
In reality, for Vales iron ore mines in the iron Ore Quadrangle that do not have excessively high slopes, the use of Limited Equilibrium
analyses and Mohr Coulomb resistance criteria is sufficient to understand the failure mechanism. However, in the case of slope undercutting
or high slopes, it is very important to use Finite Elements analysis, especially in slopes where the anisotropy does not control the failure
mechanism or when the Breccia FHO is concentrated in the toe of slopes.
In these cases, the high resistance of FHO could not fail by shear mechanism as usual, but high stress and low deformation could
produce a catastrophic failure.
To reduce the risks, the FHO stress strain parameters have to be well understood for the three types and the use o Finite Elements
analyses has to take part in daily valuations done by the geotechnical team.

ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS
The development of this paper was based on a master degree presented in Ouro Preto Federal University in July 2009 as a part of
the NUGEO program. Acknowledgements are due to Rodrigo Figueredo and Paulo Franca and all the discussions and orientation. Special
thanks to Fabio Magalhes, Milene Sabino for the suggestions, Fabiana Cruz and Hope Adams for his valuable suggestions in reviewing
the text and the support of Vale.

REFERENCES
1. T.V.C. Aquino; P. R. Franca; R. P. Figueiredo and S.N.O. Brito. Tombamento em Filitos, um exemplo da Mina do Pico: Metodologia de Anlise
Computacional utilizada nos taludes da MBR. 5 Simpsio Brasileiro de Aplicaes de Informtica em Geotecnia. Belo Horizonte, Minas
Gerais. 185-191p, 2005
2. Z. T. Bieniawski. Engineering Rock Mass Classifications. John Wiley & Sons, New York, USA, 251 p, 1989.
3. Jr F.Chemale, C. A Rosiere and I.Endo, The tectonic evolution of the Quadriltero Ferrfero, Minas Gerais, Brazil. Precambrian Research,
65, p. 25 54. 1994.
4. J.V.N, Dorr. Physiographic, stratigraphic and structural developmente of the Quadriltero Ferrfero, Minas Gerais, Brazil. USGS. 110 p.
(Professional Paper 641A).1969.
5. P.R.B, Franca. Analysis of Stability Using Limit Equilibrium and Numerical Methods With Case Examples from The Aguas Claras Mine,
Brazil. Master of Science. Queens University. Kingston, Ontario, Canada.203p.1997.
6. N. Hertz. Metamorphic rocks of the Quadriltero Ferrfero, Minas Gerais, Brazil: U. S. Geological Survey Professional Paper 641C,.
p78. 1978.

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