Documente Academic
Documente Profesional
Documente Cultură
J. S. Goodling
Professor.
D. J. Hall
Graduate Student.
Mechanical Engineering Department,
Auburn University,
Auburn, AL 36849
For fully developed flow in closed finned channels used to augment heat transfer,
there exists an optimal geometrical design of the size and number of cooling channels.
In this paper, the problem is generalized with a statement of dimensionless thermal
resistance in terms of
9
the number of channels
9
a fin to channel thickness ratio
8
the length to width {planar dimensions) ratio of the heat source, and
9
a specified fin efficiency or fin length
9
a fluid to fin thermal conductivity ratio
9
the Prandtl Number of the coolant
8
a dimensionless pressure term, which incorporates the maximum allowable pressure
drop through the cooling channels or alternatively,
9
a dimensionless work rate term, which incorporates the maximum allowable coolant pumping power required,
An optimization scheme is described and used for comparison with two previously
published cases wherein both designs were restricted to afixedfin to channel thickness
ratio and laminar flow; one by Goldberg (1984) using air and copper and a second
one only by Tuckerman and Pease (1981) for water-cooled Silicon wafers. Results
from the present optimization scheme show that upon reexamination of the first
study by Goldberg, significant reduction of thermal resistance can be obtained
by using fin/channel dimensions other than unity. A similar reduction is found in
the second instance (Tuckerman and Pease) with the relaxation of the laminar
limitation.
Introduction
For over a decade, efforts have been expended to provide
innovative methods of heat removal from increasingly powerful electronic circuits. The methods used and being investigated are summarized in the recent book by Bar-Cohen and
Kraus (1990).
The present work is inspired by a technique devised by Tuckerman and Pease in 1981, which used very narrow channels
etched onto the backside of a silicon wafer. Designed for optimal performance subject to some constraints (pressure drop,
planar dimensions, fin efficiency, etc.) with laminar flow in
mind and for water as the coolant, these authors made a test
section which achieved a flux level of 790 W/cm2 with a maximum temperature rise of 71 C. Their pioneering work is invariably referenced in successive papers on microchannel
cooling.
Goldberg (1984) built and tested an air cooled narrow channel heat sink. Three different fin thicknesses were considered,
with the channel thickness always made equal to the fin thickness. All cases were restricted to laminar flow. The pressure
drop across each device was adjusted to provide an air flow
rate of 30 liters per minute. The lowest thermal resistance was
Contributed by the Electrical and Electronic Packaging Division for publication in the JOURNAL OF ELECTRONIC PACKAGING. Manuscript received by the
EEPD August 27, 1990; revised manuscript received June 25, 1991. Associate
Editor: W. Z. Black.
found from the design with the smallest channel width and the
highest pressure drop.
Sasaki and Kishimoto (1986) optimized the dimensions of
channels at a given pressure loss through the water cooled fins
in a silicon chip. Again, the criterion of fin to channel thickness
ratio of unity was invoked. The analysis matched the experimental results well, however, the former is not presented. The
optimal channel thickness was found to be at 340 /xm for a
pressure drop of either 200 or 2000 kg/m2.
Hwang et al. (1987) designed a novel cooling package which
places the cooling channels just beneath and parallel to the
heat source. This design, which differs considerably from the
fin concept of Tuckerman and Pease where the channels are
perpendicular to the source, was suggested in an earlier work
by Tuckerman (1984, Fig. 2-7, p. 36). For Hwang's design,
the fluid dynamics of the channel flow dominate the fin effects.
A two-dimensional conduction analysis was performed with
boundary conditions at the solid/liquid interface which used
either laminar or turbulent convective correlations. Channel
dimensions were systematically varied over a limited range of
Reynolds numbers (1100 to 1600 for laminar flow and 12,000
to 13,000 for turbulent flow) and over a large pressure range
from 13.1 to 682.4 kPa (1.9 to 99 psi).
Nayak, Hwang et al. (1987) followed the previous cited work
with experiments using the designs chosen above for a multichip module. Coolant flows were regulated so the convection
Ap
thermal conductivity to present appropriate dimensionless parameters and to examine trends for the simplest of geometries.
This is followed by an analysis for the more realistic case of
finite fins, where the problem cannot be optimized analytically.
/I
insulation
^ ^ ^ ^ ^ ^
Fig. 1
Model
The structure under study is shown in Figs. 1 and 8. It
consists of a flat rectangular energy source whose cooling is
enhanced by the addition of multiple parallel fins closed at the
tips with a cover plate and with a coolant forced through the
array. In a design setting, the size and circuit power are constrained. Therefore, in addition to the physical dimensions of
width (W) and length (L), the rate of thermal energy to be
removed (q) is fixed. Furthermore, the pressure drop across
the fin array (Ap) would be a predetermined value due to
specified pump or air handler. The usual assumptions for this
type of analysis are made (steady state, constant properties,
adiabatic end plate, two-dimensional analysis, and fully developed). It is recognized that the last item is not usually true
for microchannels and that the heat transfer and frictional
losses are larger for developing flow. For very narrow channels
when n is large, the flow could be laminar. Conversely, the
flow could be turbulent. The problem here is to design channel
dimensions so the thermal resistance is a minimum.
The thermal spreader can be analyzed as two-dimensional
flow through narrow channels with the thermal boundaries
held at either constant temperature or constant flux. Figures
2 and 3 display the temperature profiles through the heat sink
for the two cases analyzed here. It is probable that the true
solution lies somewhere between these two boundary conditions. However, results shown later indicate that the two solutions yield quite similar results.
Using standard descriptors and nomenclature of heat exchangers where the wall temperature is constant in the streamline direction, the following equations are applicable (Incropera
and DeWitt, 1990):
q = mcp[Tft0-Tfi,]
(1)
Nomenclature
A
area
cp
constant pressure specific
heat
C\, C->
coefficients defined by
Eqs. (57) and (65)
D = depth of heat sink, see
Fig. 1
D = hydraulic diameter of
fluid flow channel
/ = friction factor, (Ap/L)Dh/
(pU2m/2)
G = a parameter defined by
Eq. (38)
h = heat transfer coefficient
k = thermal conductivity
I = channel width
L = length of heat sink in the
direction of fluid flow
flP,fin 1/2
m =
Kfin^4c,fin
wW/(pvl)
3 1 4 / V o l . 113, SEPTEMBER 1991
7i
mass density
thermal resistance, AT/q
Q = dimensionless thermal reAT
sistance, :
q
P
e=
fcfluidW
Subscripts
c = cross sectional available
for flow
c,fin = cross sectional of fin
/ . ' = fluid inlet
f,o = fluid outlet
h = hydraulic
H = constant flux case
lam = laminar
opt = optimal
optJam = optimal laminar case
opt-turb = optimal turbulent case
^ = surface available for heat
transfer
s,i = surface at the fluid inlet
face
S,0 = surface at the fluid outlet
face
turb = turbulent
T = constant temperature case
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CI)
V
*-
T
s
T
s
crj
1
CD
Q.
CD
fo
CD
*
td
i_
AT
AT
CD
Q.
'f,o
CD
f,i
\i
Length
Fig. 2
Length
Fig. 3
(2)
(4)
(5)
0 = A7 y^
*+J_
(6)
hAs mCp
2.A
AT
AT/q =
(3)
mcp[\ - exp( - fiAs/mcp)]
This heat sink can also be modeled as though the coolant
experiences a nonvarying flux of energy as it progresses through
the channel. Again using the nomenclature of constant flux
heat exchangers,
a.
\2rf
NApPr(D/W)
[l-exp(-12Stian,4)]-'
for constant temperature
(8)
\2n
[1 +1/(12 St l a m 4 )]-'
~'NApPr(D/W)
for constant flux
(9)
la
(10)
12 Stiamn4 = 1.000
(11)
(13)
2.A.2 Turbulent Flow. The procedure above is now repeated for the turbulent analysis. Here the friction factor,/,
for fully developed flow in smooth channels (Incropera and
DeWitt, 1990) becomes
(/ = 0.316 Rej,"
1/4)
(14)
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1.5
Optimal
Laminar Solution
Optimal
/ ^
Turbulent Solution
0.5
Turbulent
'%
Transilion
-10'
20
40
60
Laminar
80
100
120
n
n!?mh-, ^ll^LTil*!nlefs'h0ermal
1.5
Optimal
Turbulent Solution
Optimal
Laminar Solution
~~~~-_!_____
optjaminar
Retrh =
2A
- 4,12/7
^4000
(21)
0.5
Turbulent
N
AP=
Transition
Laminar
10
20
30
40
n
Fig. 5 Ratio of dimensionless thermal resistances as a function of the
number of channels for AVAp= 108
0.045 {L/W)nh
(16)
< 7 Pr 2/3
Again for the sake of notational brevity, Stturb, defined as (L/
W)/(NXH Pr 2/3 ), is introduced and Eqs. (3) and (6) simplify
after non-dimensionalization for constant temperature and
flux, respectively, to:
hAs/mcp
5/7
*~
0.21,1'
[1 - e x p ( - 0.045 St turb H 10/7 )r
N%Vr(D/W)
0.21 5
turb
NfJPr(D/W)
[1 + 1/(0.045 St t u r i y 0 / 7 )]
(17)
(18)
(19)
and
0.045 St turb n 10/7 = 1.000 for constant
flux
(20)
2.A3
Laminar or Turbulent Flow. It is now possible to
combine results from the constant flux cases above and provide
a procedure which minimizes thermal resistance without imposing either the laminar or turbulent flow condition. This
procedure is shown by use of an example in which 7VAp is fixed
at a realistic value of 1010. This value corresponds to the cooling
of a 5 cm by 5 cm heat source with room air at a pressure
drop of about 1 kPa (or 5 inches of water) through the heat
spreader. Equations (9) and (18) for laminar and turbulent
cases are normalized against the thermal resistance occurring
for the optimal laminar case (Eq. (9) with the solution to Eq.
(11) inserted) and plotted as a function of discrete number of
channels in Fig. 4. Several observations are made:
turbulent flow occurs at 63 or fewer channel (n found
from Eq. (21) for Re = 4000)
laminar flow occurs at 90 or greater channels ( found
from Eq. (13) for Re = 2300)
6oPt_turbuient r optimal turbulent thermal resistance occurs
at n = 70 channels (solution of equation (20))
opt_iaminar or optimal laminar thermal resistance occurs
at n = 92 channels (solution of equation (11))
Designing a device for operation in the transition zone of
Reynolds numbers between 2300 and 4000 (63 < n < 90) should
be avoided since the flow is not characterized as being either
laminar or turbulent. For the case at hand, a heat sink with
70 channels should not be used. The best design incorporates
63 channels where the flow is certainly turbulent. Lifting the
constraint of laminar flow from the problem gives a turbulent
thermal resistance which is 12% lower than that for the best
laminar case ( = 92).
Two other examples are presented for the same values of
L/W and Prandtl number but differing NAp. For the case of
a low NAp (108), Fig. 5 shows that the best laminar case (n = 29)
produces a thermal resistance which is 30 percent better than
the best available turbulent case ( = 13). At7V Ap =10 12 , Fig.
6 indicates the best laminar solution is not available. Equation
(12) yields n = 293 for the best laminar case, but Eq. (13) reveals
that this occurs at Re = 6626, well into the turbulent region.
Transactions of the ASME
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1000
1E-03
" " ^
^_^^J 1E-04
^ \
opt lam
100
'opt
/I
500
200
Ap-
insulation
^^^S^^^^^^^m^^^^^
1E-05
20
optjurb
10
y.
^ ^ ^ \ '
Laminar Turbulent
5
1E+08
1E+09
1E+10
1E+11
1E-06
1E+12
W
flow
Fig. 8 Schematic of heat spreader with finite fins
Fig. 7 Optimal number of channels and dimensionless thermal resistances as a function of W4n
The trend here is that for a given L/WanA fluid, there exists
a value of NAp above which turbulent flow thermal resistance
is lower than that for laminar flow and below which the opposite is true. If the design is restrained to laminar flow for
some reason such as noise or erosion, there is an optimal
number of channels which minimizes thermal resistance. If
turbulence is allowed, the optimal design may be either in the
laminar or turbulent regime depending on NAp. This point is
expressed by use of Fig. 7 where the optimal number of fins
is shown as a function of NAp over the realizable range of
values for fixed L/W=\,
D/W=\ and Pr = 0.71. The discontinuity in the nopt line which occurs at about 109 is due to
the avoidance of solution in the transition zone
(2300<Re<4000). Below NAp = 2x 1010, the optimal n found
from the solution of Eq. (20) results in Re< 4000. Hence, Eq.
(21) is solved for opt_tUrb with Re = 4000. For NAp>2x 10fo
Eq. (20) yields the optimal number of channels for Reynolds
number greater than 4000. Here Eqs. (19) and (20) can be
solved to show that 0pt_turb is proportional to NApw,, whereas
it is proportional to NApl when Eq. (21) is used. The best
dimensionless thermal resistance is also plotted on that figure.
It is noted that four orders of magnitude change in NAp results
and only two orders of magnitude change in 9 .
2.B
D =
2W
T(n-\)+W/D
n+
nWD
n + T(n-l)
W/D
l/D =
n + T(n-V)
Ae =
nWL
+
As = n + Y(n-\)
2r,DL(n-l)
(22)
(23)
(24)
(25)
The first term of (25) is the area available for heat transfer at
the base and between the channels; the second is the effective
fin area, with fin efficiency accounted for. The tip ends of the
fins are assumed to be insulated, as are the two outer sides of
the array.
Dimensionless Groups.
group introduced earlier,
NAp =
(Ap/L)W3
(26)
pv1
wW
pv
(27)
knmiW
Ap
WPr
(28)
One Dimensional Fins. Invoking the usual notation associated with one dimensional fins with a constant heat transfer
coefficient, the following relation defining m is useful.
hPn
kfm ^4c,fin
2h
(29)
%rT7
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NUj,, kg
(30)
h=-
Dh
Use of Eqs. (22), (24), and (30) in Eq. (29) yields the following.
n + Tin
imDf^u^
ZT
W/D
kf\n
W/Dn+ {
l TW/D
:^ l)
(3D
[Tbase
Tfluid]
(32)
mc
(6)
mc
(35)
Laminar Flow
2(Ap/L)D
pU2m
(36)
7i
Re Dh
(37)
The value of 71 is determined by the aspect ratio of the rectangular channel. A parameter G is defined as suggested by
Bejan, 1984.
3 1 8 / V o l . 113, SEPTEMBER 1991
Equation (39) yields results which agree with exact values (Kays
and Crawford, 1980) to within 3 percent. For a fixed l/D, Eq.
(38) gives G, (39) gives 71, a n d / i s determined from (37).
Combination of Eqs. (36) and (37) with the definition of
Reynolds number and solution for mean velocity yields the
following relationship.
U =
2ApD,,
(40)
jiLvp
Re
Dh-
(41)
Y(n-l)+W/D
7i
n+
(42)
T(n-l)+W/D
^fiuid^
mc
T(n-\))
(43)
(l/D)2+\
(38)
(i/D+iy
Note that G is invariant to an / to D transformation. This
means that an aspect ratio of l/D gives the same G as an aspect
ratio of D/l, as it should. Performance of least squares fit of
a straight line in G to available values for 71 yields the result
that
(39)
7 l = 18.80 + 78.57 G.
G=
work
7l
N\P(D/W)n
[n + Y(n-\)+W/D]2[n
+ T(n-\)]
L_
W
(44)
(45)
(46)
n+
1
T(n-l)
(mD)2T
2=0
NuflA knuili/kfm[n + T (n - 1)]
(47)
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AW
hAs
2.B.2
HuDh (n + T(n-l)+W/D)[n
n + T(n-\)
+ 2r1(D/W)(n-l)(n
Capacity Term.
factor is given by
2.B.3
1/
(49)
u,=
2W
T(n-l)+W/D
(50)
pv
<
Dh-
1
T(n-l)+W/D
n+
(51)
knuidW
m cp
(52)
^ Mvork
(2V^)'
[n + T(n-l)][n
/7
~.
< n (D/W)
+ T(n \)+W/Df
/ ^ p l / 3
7=73Re^1/
1
Y(n-\)+W/D
n+
hA " "M/2
Pr'
(55)
(mDfT
m
?r
(k
nuii/klin)ln
NTP
T(n-\)\
(57)
1
T(n-\)+W/D
(61)
[n +
T(n-l)][n+T(n-l)+W/D)2n
(2 /yl) N5A/p9Prn(D/W)
,1
i/9
(62)
1
n+
T(n-Y)+W/D
Substitution of Eq. (63) into Eq. (31) yields
NuDft =
<
2"
Pr 1
(63)
=Q
(64)
where
(mD)2T
n U9
hl/2 ] K
P r " 3 ( W * n n ) [n + T (n - 1)]
(65)
The convective component of thermal resistance for high Reynolds number flows can also be found.
T(n-l)])]
(66)
Solution Procedure
Generally, the overall size and configuration of the heat
source to be cooled is known. The material from which the
fins are to be made is usually known, from weight, economic
and other considerations. As discussed above, the fraction of
infinite fin performance can be specified and space or weight
considerations can set a maximum allowable value for fin
length. Identification of a cooling fluid and a nominal oper-
[[n +
V(n~l)]+W/Df
' [y2/29}ulN\npWn(L/W)[7,(n-l)(D/W)+n/(2[n
n+
(56)
where
hAs
N Ap
mc
{[n +
T(n-l)]+W/D]1
(L/W)[v(n-l)(D/W)+n/(2[n
(y\/2y
^ =
knMW
11,1/99 .,4/9p r l i
' N:
2W
T(n-\)+W/D
C2 =
C,=
2_Ap
73 L n +
1
(60)
1/5
pv
From the definition of Reynolds number it is found that ReDh
takes the following form for high Reynolds number flows.
Um =
(59)
(53)
(54)
Nu^-Re^Pr
(48)
/7
Nu Dh~
T(n-l))](L/W)
R e
+ T(n- 1)])]
(58)
SEPTEMBER 1991, Vol. 113 / 319
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Results
The results obtained here are applied to two previous studies:
one by Goldberg (1984) with a copper thermal spreader and
air as the coolant; and another work by Tuckerman and Pease
(1981) with water-cooled silicon fins. In both studies, the fin
to channel thickness ratio was set to unity and only laminar
flow was considered. Use of the present optimization scheme
shows that upon reexamination of the cases studied by Goldberg, significant reduction of thermal resistance can be obtained by using fin/channel dimensions other than unity. A
similar reduction is found to be true for the case investigated
by Tuckerman and Pease with the relaxation of the laminar
limitation.
4.A Goldberg (1984)
Goldberg designed, built and tested systems fashioned from
the design procedure of Tuckerman and Pease (1981). The size
of the square heat source was 0.635 x 0.635 cm (1/4 x 1/4 in.)
with fins fixed at 1.27 cm (1/2 in.) length and a fin to channel
thickness ratio equal to unity. The Nusselt number was chosen
to be constant at 8 and the flow constricted to laminar. Air
was the coolant and the material for the heat spreader was
copper. Properties were evaluated at room temperature. Futher,
the design by Goldberg hinged on a constant volumetric flow
rate of 30 liters/min., thus fixing the capacitance component
of thermal resistance. An "average" value of 0 c a p(=l/
2mcp) was used, whereas the total capacitance value (0CaP= 1/
mcp) is used here. For a fixed flow rate of 30 liters/min,
Goldberg's value of 0cap (0.9 C/W) corresponds to 1.8 C/W
for comparison purposes in this paper. Goldberg did not optimize the design, but rather chose three values of fin and
channel thickness of 0.127, 0.254 and 0.635 mm (5, 10 and 25
mils) for his experiments. In the present study, all conditions
and properties were maintained the same as those of Goldberg;
however, the fin to channel thickness ratio and the nature of
the flow were allowed to vary. Comparisons are shown below
for all the three cases investigated by Goldberg. In each instance, the optimization scheme described above was used by
fixing either the pressure drop through the device or the power
consumed by the fan at the same value set by Goldberg. In
every case for these low pressures, the minimum thermal resistance was found in the laminar regime. NAp varied from
5 . 5 x l 0 6 to 1.34 x10 s for Cases I and III. As identified in
Section 4. A.3, laminar solutions are better than turbulent ones
in this low NAp range. The last column quantifies the improvement in thermal resistance, A6.
Ap
kPa(in H 2 0)
vv,
Watts
V
1/min
25
1.17(4.68)
0.583
30
24
20
0.435
0.39
1.17(4.68)
0.73(2.92)
1.747
0.583
89.9
48.2
12.5
0.29(1.17)
0.146
30
18
20
0.316
0.39
0.29(1.17)
0.26(1.06)
0.239
0.146
49.2
32.8
0.047(0.19)
0.024
30
12
15
0.25
0.32
0.047(0.19)
0.075(0.30)
0.018
0.024
22.4
19.1
Ad,
%
32.4
15.4
18.4
11.4
38.6
46.2
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Constraints
Size, Length (L) by Width (W)
pressure drop, Ap
fin efficiency, 77
Coolant
Fin Material
fin to channel thickness ratio, V
Nusselt Number
type of flow
71, laminar friction factor
Dimensionless Groups
L/W
maximum N&p
maximum jVwork
Calculated Results
n, number of channels
Depth, D, (im
Fin thickness, fim
Channel thickness, y.m
Reynolds Number
Volumetric Flow Rate, cm3/sec
Aspect Ratio
Nusselt Number
Yi, laminar friction factor
NAp
^"work
Tuckerman
and Pease
1 cm x 1 cm
206.8 kPa (30 psi)
76%
water
Silicon
1
6
laminar
96
Present Study
same
same
same
same
same
unrestricted
unrestricted
laminai or turbulent
a funct ion of aspect ratio
1
2.82 X 10'
3.62 x 10'3
same
same
unrestricted
88
365
57
57
730
11
6.4
6
96
2.82 x 10'
3.62 x 10'3
0.022
0.064
0.086
Laminar
83
357
60
61
834
12.4
5.8
5.9
77.8
2.82 X 10'"
4.08 X 10'3
0.019
0.058
0.077
10.5%
Future Work
The authors are currently testing two microchannel heat
spreaders designed along the guidelines of Tuckerman and
Pease; one optimized for performance in the laminar zone and
one for peak performance with turbulent flow. In addition,
the same effort is being made for macrochannel heat spreaders
of dimensions 5 cm by 5 cm using aluminum and water and
large heat sinks designed for optimal use with air. The modeling
equations are also being modified to include entrance effects.
Results will be reported in later publications.
Turbulent
33
319
134
173
4006
27.9
1.85
35.8
not applicable
2.82 x 10'
9.19 x 1013
0.009
0.048
0.057
33.7%
References
Bar-Cohen, A., Kraus, A. D., 1990, Advances in Thermal Modeling of Electronic Components and Systems, Volume 2, ASME Press, New York, N.Y.
Bejan, Adrian, 1984, Convection Heat Transfer, Wiley, New York, N.Y.,
pp. 75-82.
Goldberg, N., 1984, "Narrow Channel Forced Air Heat Sink," IEEE Transactions, Components, Hybrids and Manufacturing Technology, Vol. CHMT,
No. 1, pp. 154-159.
Hwang, L. T., Turlik, I., and Reisman, A., 1987, " A Thermal Module Design
for Advanced Packaging," Journal of Electronic Materials, Vol. 16, No. 5, pp.
347-355.
Incropera, F. P., and DeWitt, D. P., 1990, Fundamentals of Heat and Mass
Transfer, Wiley, New York.
Kays, W. M., and Crawford, M. E., 1980, Convective Heat and Mass Transfer,
McGraw-Hill, New York.
Nayak, D., Hwang, L. T., Turlik, I., and Reisman, A., 1987, "A HighPerformance Thermal Module for Computer Packaging," Journal of Electronic
Materials, Vol. 16, No. 5, pp. 357-364.
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