Grade 10 Biology Notes

Jason F.

Prokaryote:
Single celled organism without a nucleus, or membrane bound organelles.

Eukaryote:
Organism made up of one or more cells. There are two types: single celled and multicellular organisms. Then
there are two types of multicellular organisms; plant and animals. All eukaryotic cells have a nucleus, and they
are surrounded by a thin membrane.

Cell Organelles:
Cytoplasm:
Mostly made of water, and other stored nutrients. The organelles in the cell are suspended in the cytoplasm.
Many reactions take place in the cytoplasm. The cytoplasm can change its viscosity to move the organelles
around.

Cell Membrane:
A semi-permeable, flexible, and doubled layered membrane that surrounds cells, and most organelles in
eukaryotic cells.

Nucleus:
A spherical structure that contains genetic information that controls the cell. The genetic information is stored
on chromosomes, which contains DNA. DNA is the substance that carries the coded instructions for all cell
activity. DNA is short for deoxyribonucleic acid.

Mitochondria:
Makes energy for the cell using cellular respiration. Enzymes in the mitochondria convert stored energy
(glucose), and oxygen into carbon dioxide, water, and useable energy. Cells that are more active require more
cells than inactive cells.

Endoplasmic Reticulum:
A branch that spreads through the cytoplasm, from the nucleus to the cell membrane. It is fluid filled, and
transports materials throughout the cells. Rough ER contains ribosomes to help make proteins, while smooth
ER contains no ribosomes.

Golgi Apparatus:
Secretes mucus, and collects/prepares materials to be moved from the cell. More golgi bodies are found in
cells that secrete a lot of mucus.

Vacuoles:
A layer of membrane enclosing fluid in a sac. Has many functions, depending on the type of cell. Animal cells
contain many small vacuoles, while plant cells that have matured usually have one large vacuole.

Plant Cell Organelles:

Cell Wall:
Outside of the cell membrane, supports and protects the cell. It is made of cellulose.

Vacuole:
Is used to store water. When full, the water pressure makes the cell plump, and the plant firm. When the water
levels drop, the pressure drops, the cells become soft, and the plant droops.

Chloroplasts:
The chloroplasts contain chlorophyll, and makes the plant green. They absorb light energy, which is used in
photosynthesis. The glucose that comes from the photosynthesis is turned to useful energy by the
mitochondria.

Cell Theory:
-All living things are made of cells.
-The cell is the simplest unit that can carry out all life processes.
-All cells come from preexisting cells.

Field of View:
Take a transparent ruler at low power, and place one millimeter marking right at the edge. Most high power
lenses have a field of view smaller than 1mm.

Size of Object:
Estimate the number of times the object could fit across the field of view. The width of the object is; the width of
view (mm), divided by the number of times the object can fit across the field of view.

Size of Object at High Power:

Find the ratio of high to low power, by using high power magnification divided by low power magnification.
Then, the field of view, is the low power field of view divided by the ratio.

Microscope Parts and Functions:

Stage:
Supports the microscope slide, and allows light to pass through the slide.

Clips:
Holds the slide in position on the stage.

Diaphragm:
Controls the amount of light reaching the object.

Revolving Nosepiece:
Holds the objective lenses, and rotates to change the lenses.

Body Tube:
Contains eyepiece, and supports the objective lenses.

Eyepiece: Where you look at the object , and magnifies it.

Coarse Adjustment Knob:
Moves the body tube up and down to focus the object, only used with low power.

Fine Adjustment Knob:

Moves the body tube to focus the object, after the object is found and focused with the coarse adjustment
knob.

Light source:
Is either a light bulb or sometimes a mirror that directs light.

Diffusion:
A transport mechanism for moving chemicals in/out of the cells, from an area of high concentration to an area
of lower concentration.

Osmosis:

The movement of water across a membrane towards an area of high solute concentration.

Concentration:
The amount of substance/solute present in an amount of a given solution.

Permeability:
There are three levels of permeability.
-Permeable: Allows all substances to pass through.
-Semi permeable: Allows some substances to pass through.
-Impermeable: No substances can pass through.

Cell Division:
The process in which cells reproduce by asexual reproduction.

Asexual Reproduction:
The process of producing an offspring with a single parent, that is genetically identical to the parent.

Sexual Reproduction:
The process of reproducing by fusion of two gametes, that has genetic information from both parents.

Cell Cycle:
The process of eukaryotic cells growing and dividing. There are three stages. Interphase, mitosis, and
cytokinesis.

Interphase:
The longest phase of the cell cycle. The cell performs all functions, except divide. Cells will not divide, if
surrounding cells tell it not to, if there are insufficient nutrients, if the DNA is not yet replicated, or if the DNA is
damaged.

Phases of Mitosis:
Prophase:
The DNA condenses, becomes shorter and thicker, and becomes chromosomes. Each chromosome is made
of two identical chromatids. The nuclear membrane dissolves for the chromosomes to release into the
cytoplasm. The spindle fibres form between the centrioles.

Metaphase:
The nuclear membrane completely dissolves, chromosomes line up in the middle of the cells, and the spindle
fibres form completely and attach to the centromeres.

Anaphase:
The chromatids separate and move to opposite sides of the cell. The chromatids are now called daughter
chromosomes.

Telophase:

The chromosomes separate to opposite sides and start to lengthen. Two nuclear membranes start to form
around each group of daughter chromosomes.

Cytokinesis:
The cytoplasm and organelles divide, the cell is pinched/cell wall forms, and two new cells are
formed.

Function of DNA:
Provides directions that guide the cell in how to operate. The information is sent from the DNA within the
nucleus to organelles in the cytoplasm using chemical signals.

The Code:
DNA is made of chemicals called nitrogen bases, which is held in a long, winding helix. The nitrogen bases are
used like letters. DNA uses four letter characters; Adenine, Thymine, Cytosine, and Guanine. The code is
arranged in three character sequences.

Genes:
Genes are long sections of DNA that determines a characteristic. There are six billion nitrogen bases, 100,000
genes, and 46 chromosomes. The 46 chromosomes are divided from your mother and father.

DNA Replication:
The DNA molecule unzips, and each side is a template where a new half is built. Adenine always pairs with
Thymine, and Cytosine always pairs with Guanine. By the end of the process, there are two identical helixes.

Biology Hierarchy:
Molecules-Cells-Tissue-Organ-Organ System-Organism-Population-Community-Ecosystem.

Cell:
The smallest structural and functional unit of an organism. They group together to form tissues.

Tissue:
Made up of specialized cells, and forms organs. They preform one specific task. There are four types of
tissues.

Types of Tissue:
Epithelial:
Thin sheets of cells that are packed tightly to over surfaces and line internal organs. They offer protection from
dehydration, and make low friction surfaces.

Connective:
Many cells and fibres held together by a matrix. It acts as a support, and insulates.

Muscle:
Long bundles of cells called muscle fibres that contain specialized proteins, that are capable of contracting for
movement.

Nervous:
Long and thin cells with end branches that conduct electrical pulses to coordinate and communicate with the
body.

Organ:
A part of a body system, and performs a single complex task, and is made up of tissues.

Organs System:
Made up of many organs working together to perform a vital living task.

Organism:
A form of life composed of multiple organ systems working together to keep the organism alive.

Stem Cells:
An undifferentiated cell that can turn into a specialized cell. There are two types of stem cells.

Embryonic:
A stem cell that can differentiate into any type of cell. It is taken from an egg four days after fertilization.

Tissue:
Adult stem cells that are taken from tissue, and can only differentiate into a certain number of cells. It can
either turn into a specialized cell, or it can reproduce.

Cellular Differentiation:
The process of a cell becoming specialized to perform a specific function.

Circulatory System:
Made up of the heart, blood, and blood vessels. Transports oxygen and other nutrients throughout the body,
and carries away waste.

Blood:
A type of connective tissue. There are four parts.
-Red Blood Cells: Makes up half of the bloods volume, and contains hemoglobins that carry oxygen and turn
the blood red.
-White Blood Cells: Only blood cell with a nucleus, and fights infections. Makes up less than 1% of the blood.
-Platelets: Makes up less than 1% off the blood, helps prevent blood clotting.
-Plasma: Protein rich liquid that carries blood cells. Makes up half of the bloods volume.
Oxygen is carried by hemoglobins, while carbon dioxide binds to hemoglobin to form carboxyhemoglobin,
which is soluble in plasma.

Heart:
Made up of three tissues. Cardiac muscle, nervous, and connective. Cardiac muscle tissue is only found in the
heart, and contracts to pump blood. The heart is covered with epithelial tissues, which is soft, and protects the

heart from the expanding/contracting of the lungs. The right side of the heart collects deoxygenated blood, and
the left side of the heart collects oxygenated blood.
-Left Atrium: Chamber that collects oxygenated blood, by diffusion from the lungs.
-Left Ventricle: Pumps blood from the left atrium to the body.
-Right Atrium: Chamber that collects deoxygenated blood.
-Right Ventricle: Pumps blood from the right atrium out.

Blood Vessels:
Transports the blood throughout the body. There are three types.
-Arteries: Carries blood away from the heart and into the capillaries. It is thicker, due to the pressure of the
heart pumping the blood.
-Veins: Carries blood back to the heart from the capillaries.
-Capillaries: Tiny blood vessels with thin walls so that substances can diffuse between the capillaries and the
body. Oxygen diffuses out of the blood, and carbon dioxide diffuses back into the blood to be removed.

Digestive System:
Takes in food, digests it, and excretes the remaining waste. Made up of the digestive tract and accessory
organs.

Digestive Tract:
A long tube with two openings. Contains the mouth, esophagus, stomach, small and large intestine, and anus.
The entire length is lined with epithelial tissue which contains goblet cells.

Mouth:
Breaks up the food physically by chewing it, and chemically by using enzymes and saliva.

Esophagus:
Muscular tube that contracts/relaxes to move food down to the stomach.

Stomach:
Holds the food and churns it. The tissue contracts to mix the contents of the stomach.

Small Intestine:
About six meters long, and narrow, and is where most of the digestion occurs. Goblet cells release mucus, and
nutrients diffuse through the wall of the small intestine and into the bloodstream.

Large Intestine:
About 1.5 metres in length, but wider than the small intestine. It extracts the water from the indigestible food.

Anus:
Excretes the indigestible food from the large intestine.

Tissues of the Digestive Tract:

In the stomach, the innermost layer is epithelial tissue with goblet cells, than muscle tissue, than connective
and epithelial.
In the intestine, the epithelial tissue has goblet cells with mucus which protects the digestive tract from the
stomach acids. The muscular tissue moves the food along the digestive tract. The connective tissue connects
it all. Small branches called Villi provides more surface area for diffusion.

Accessory Organs:
Liver:
Provides bile to break down fats.

Gall Bladder:
Stores bile to be released into the small intestine.

Pancreas:
Produces insulin.

Peristalsis:
The involuntary constriction and relaxation of the intestine muscles, to push food forward.

Respiratory System:
Provides oxygen for the body, and removes carbon dioxide. It is made up of the nose, mouth, trachea, bronchi,
lungs, bronchioles, alveoli, and ciliated epithelial cells. It work closely with the circulatory system.

Nose and Mouth:

Where the air enters.

Trachea:
Where air comes from the pharynx, separates into two branches called bronchi. Contains goblet cells and cilia,
and is supported by rings of cartilage.

Bronchi:
Delivers air to and from the lungs. Contains goblet cells and cilia. Goes into the bronchioles.

Bronchioles:
Smaller branches from the bronchi.

Lungs:
Where air is diffused into the bloodstream.

Alveoli:
Where the bronchi end, in tiny air sacs, surrounded by capillaries.

Ciliated Epithelial Cells:

Contains goblet cells.

Gas Exchange:
Where oxygen and carbon dioxide diffuse through two walls, the capillaries and alveoli. The concentration of
oxygen in the blood is always lower than the concentration in the alveoli, so the oxygen always diffuses. Blood
comes back with carbon dioxide, and goes into the air in the alveoli, where it is exhaled out.

Breathing:
When you breath in, the diaphragm flattens, the muscles contract, and the air is pushed in due to the high
volume and low pressure. When you breath out, your muscles relax, and the diaphragm becomes dome
shaped. The volume decreases, there is a high pressure, and the air comes out.

Difference Between Cellular Respiration and Breathing:

Breathing involves physically bringing air in. Cellular respiration is done chemically with the oxygen from
breathing being used.