Statistical Process

Control (SPC)
Cp (capability process)
The Cp index describes process capability; it is the number of times the
spread of the process fits into the tolerance width. The higher the value of Cp,
the better the process.
Example: if Cp = 2.5, the spread of the process fits 2 times into the
tolerance width, while Cp = 1 means that the spread is equal to the tolerance
width.
Note that even if the spread is off-centre, it is still the same size (Cp index).
The figure takes no account of where the spread is positioned in relation to
the upper and lower tolerance limits, but simply expresses the relation ship
between the width of the spread and the tolerance width (see Fig. 3).

Cm (capability machine)
The Cm index describes machine capability; it is the number of times the
spread of the machine fits into the tolerance width. The higher the value of
Cm, the better the machine.
Example: if Cm = 2.5, the spread fits 2 times into the tolerance width,
while Cm = 1 means that the spread is equal to the tolerance width.
Note that even if the spread is off-centre, it is still the same size (Cm index).
The figure takes no account of where the spread is positioned in relation to
the upper and lower tolerance limits, but simply expresses the relation ship
between the width of the spread and the tolerance width (see Fig. 1).

Cpk (capability process index)

If you also want to study the position of the process in relation to the
tolerance limits, you use the Cpk index, which describes the process
capability corrected for position. It is not much use having a high Cp index if
the process setting is way off centre in relation to the middle of the tolerance
range.
A high Cpk index means, then, that you have a good process with a small
spread in relation to the tolerance width, and also that it is well centred within
that width. If Cpk is equal to Cp, the process is set to produce exactly in the
middle of the tolerance range (see Fig. 4).
A normal requirement is that Cpk should be at least 1.33.

Cmk (capability machine index)

If you also want to study the position of the machines capability in relation to
the tolerance limits, you use the Cmk index, which describes the capability
corrected for position. It is not much use having a high Cm index if the
machine setting is way off centre in relation to the middle of the tolerance
range.
A high Cmk index means, then, that you have a good machine with a small
spread in relation to the tolerance width, and also that it is well centred within
that width. If Cmk is equal to Cm, the machine is set to produce exactly in
the middle of the tolerance range (see Fig. 2).

A normal requirement is that Cmk should be at least 1.67.

Control limits
Control limits are an important aspect of statistical process control. They have
nothing to do with tolerance limits, because they are designed to call your
attention when the process changes its behaviour.
An important principle is that control limits are used along with the mean
value on the control graph to control the process, unlike tolerance limits,
which are used along with individual measurements to determine whether a
given part meets specifications or not.
The function of control limits is to centre the process on the target value,
which is usually the same as the middle of the tolerance width, and to show
where the limit of a stable process lies. This means, in principle, that you
have no reason to react until the control chart signals certain behaviour.
A commonly used control graph is the XR graph, where the position and
spread of the process are monitored with the help of sub groups and control
limits.
If a point falls outside a control limit on the X graph, the position of the
process has changed (see Fig. 16).
If a point falls outside a control limit on the R graph, the spread of the
process has changed (see Fig. 17).

The six factors

These are the factors that are generally regarded as causing variation in
capability measurements:

Machine (e.g. degree of wear and choice of tooling);

Measurement (e.g. resolution and spread of measuring instrument);
Operator (e.g. how experienced and careful he/she is);
Material (e.g. variations in surface smoothness and hardness);
Environment (e.g. variations in temperature, humidity and voltage);
Method (e.g. type of machining operation).

Centring value for target value

This is the distance from the target value T to the mean value of the machine
or process spread (the hump on the normal distribution curve), expressed as
a percentage of the tolerance width (see Fig. 10).
There is less talk of centring value for target value nowadays, but the
maximum permitted deviation used to be in the region of TO +15%.

Normal distribution curve

Also called the bell curve because of its shape, this is the pattern in which
measurement readings are distributed in most cases as a result of random
variations about the mean value (the highest point on the hump, see Fig. 11).
Note that most of the readings are grouped near the hump; the farther out
toward the edges, the fewer the readings. In other words it is not very likely
that you will find any components at all giving widely deviant readings when
making normal spot-check measurements. So it is not enough that the
components you happen to measure are all within the tolerances.
It takes measurements of a large number of components to determine the
size and shape of the bell curve, and that can be time-consuming. But the
standard deviation offers you a shortcut!

Capability
Machine capability
Machine capability is measured in Cm and Cmk; it is a snapshot picture that
shows how well a machine is performing right now in relation to the tolerance
limits. Figure 6 shows some examples.
When measuring machine capability you must not alter machine settings or
change tools, materials, operators or measurement methods, stop the
machine, etc. In other words: Out of the six factors, only machine and
measurement are allowed to affect the result.

Process capability
Process capability is a long-term study, measured in Cp and Cpk, that shows
how well a process is performing in relation to the tolerance limits while the
study is in progress, as well as indicating likely performance in the immediate
future.

You could say that process capability is the sum of a index of machine
capabilities measured over a period of time (see Fig. 7).
When measuring process capability, you must include everything that affects
the process, i.e. all six factors.

Machine capability

Process capability

Cm and Cmk

Cp and Cpk

Machine &
measurement

All six factors

Stoppages

Not to be included

Included

Adjustments

Not to be included

Included

2050 in succession

50250

Short

Long

Index
Factors influencing result

No. of components
Time

Standard deviation
One standard deviation
This is a statistical function used to calculate the normal distribution curve,
for example. The procedure is that you measure the distance from the mean
value (highest point on the hump) to the point where the curve changes
direction and starts to swing outward. This distance constitutes one standard
deviation (see Fig. 14).
This means that you do not need to measure hundreds of components to find
out how much the machine or process is varying. Instead you can calculate
the spread using the standard deviation (see below).
Six standard deviations
To calculate the normal distribution spread, you simply multiply the standard
deviation by 6 to get the total width of the normal distribution curve. If you
had gone on making measurements you could have plotted the curve, but
now you have calculated it instead (see Fig. 15).
The normal distribution curve is thus derived from one standard deviation and
consists of six of them. These six account for 99.73% of the actual result.
That also means that 0.27% of the outcome is not included in the normal
distribution curve.

Target value
Imagine a shaft fitted in a round hole.
If the diameter of the shaft is on the large side, it leaves less-than-optimum
room for lubricant between the shaft and the hole. This results in poorer
lubrication, faster wear and shorter lifetime.

A smallish diameter, on the other hand, means greater-than-optimum play.

The play tends to increase faster, which also shortens lifetime.
The assembly works best at the target value T, which in this case is in the
middle of the tolerance range (see Fig. 8)
For unilateral properties such as run-out, surface smoothness or mechanical
strength, the target value is zero (see Fig. 9).
Statistical process control lets you centre your process on the target value.

How are control limits determined?

The correct way is to let the control limits adapt to the process. That way, a
smaller spread in the process gives a narrower control zone, while a greater
spread gives a wider control zone (see Fig. 18).
It is a widespread myth that this will cause the operator to adjust the process
more often, but in practice the reverse is true; the process is adjusted less
often compared to operation without SPC. If you let the control limits follow
the process, you will react neither too early nor too late when the behaviour
of the process changes.
Other ways of determining control limits
In some cases there may be difficulties about letting the control limits adapt
to the process. One such case is where the process uses tools that are not
easily adjustable, such as fixed reamers or punches.
Since such tools often produce very little variation in the process and
therefore allow a narrow control zone without the possibility of adjusting the

tool, it may be better to cut the control limits loose from the process and lock
them to a given distance from the tolerance limits instead (see Fig. 19).

PPM (parts per million)

In a quality control context, PPM stands for the number of parts per million
(cf. percent) that lie outside the tolerance limits. Cpk 1.00 means that 2 700
PPM (0.27%) of the manufactured parts are out of tolerance, while Cpk 1.33
means that 63 PPM (0.0063%) are rejects.
Note that the PPM index can be drastically improved by a relatively small
improvement in the capability index (see Fig. 12).

Six Sigma
Six Sigma is a philosophy and a mindset for quality improvement used by
companies and organisations. The method focuses on minimising waste by
minimising variations in processes.
In concrete terms, Six Sigma means that the company's processes maintain
six standard deviations from the mean value of the process to the nearest
tolerance limit. It follows from this that Cpk 2.0 gives 6 sigma, while for
example Cpk 1.33 gives 4 sigma (see Fig. 13).

Target value offset

Normal distribution curve

PPM
Six Sigma
Standard deviation
Control limits
Sub group New

Sub group
A sub group consists of a number of individual measurements (normally
three, four or five) made in sequence from a process. The mean value of
these sub- groups, like the process itself, follows a normal distribution curve
(see Fig. 20).
Mean values show much less variation compared to individual measurements.
This fact, combined with control limits which follow the process in a control
graph, means that the machine operator no longer over reacts compared to
when adjustment of the process is based on individual measurements. The
operator will therefore, as a rule, both measure and adjust the process less
often, while at the same time quality will be better.