FURTHER ELECTRICAL POWER

ASSIGNMENT 2

THE MODERN POWER SYSTEM-PART 2-2

JOHN O’CONNOR
04/12/09
 CONTENTS

SUMMARY……………………………………………………2

INTRODUCTION……………………………………………..3

REPORT AND ANALYSIS…………………………………..5

CONCLUSION……………………………………………….11

DISCUSSION…………………………………………………12

REFERENCES………………………………………………..17
 SUMMARY

This report entails information about fault limiting reactors, and my findings
are:

For the circuit shown below, generator voltage is 25kV, resistance is 0.7
Ohms and reactance is 8.5 Ohms.

• RMS fault current is 2.931 kA

• Instantaneous current is 4.337 kA

• Asymmetrical fault current is 3.048 kA

For a current limiting reactor with a Vx of 4%.

• Reactance per phase is 0.19 Ohms / phase

For the 33kV radial circuit.

The type of protection used is based on time delay overcurrent relays and
time-based discrimination.



 INTRODUCTION

This report is a study of symmetrical faults and protection schemes.

The following information is provided:

• Figure 2.1 below shows a series R-L circuit that represents the
impedance of a synchronous generator.

The generator voltage is 25kV, resistance is 0.7Ω and reactance is

0.85Ω.

It is planned to install a current limiting reactor with a Vx of 4%.

The purpose of this report is to find:

• The rms fault current

• The instantaneous current at T = 0.5 cycles (K at 0.5 cycle and I p.u.)
• The asymmetrical fault current, or total current that a breaker would
interrupt T = (0.3 cycles)

• Calculate the reactance per phase

• How can power reactors limit fault current?
• Give an example of how a problem such as switching of capacitor
banks can be solved by using a CLR
The following information is also provided:

• Figure 3.1 below shows a radial 33kV distribution system fed from a Dy
transformer.

The purpose of this report is also to find:

• What protection scheme would typically be, and is in place for this
system?
• Identify the protection strategy
• How does the protection of this system work in terms of function
principles
 REPORT AND ANALYSIS

Solve problems involving the use of fault-limiting reactors

Generator voltage – 25kV

Resistance – 0.7Ω

Reactance – 8.5Ω

The RMS fault current:

V
Iac =
Z

25000
Iac =
€ (0.7) 2 + (8.5) 2

Iac = 2.931kA
€

The instantaneous current at T = 0.5 cycles:

X 8.5
= = 12.14
R 0.7

€ K(0.5) = 1+ 2e−4 π (0.5)/12.14

K(0.5) = 1.48
€

Iinstantaneous = (1.48) × (2.931) = 4.337kA

€

€
 Asymmetrical fault current, T= 3 cycles:

K(3) = 1+ 2e−4 π (3)/12.14

K(3) = 1.04
€

Asymmetrical fault current = (1.04) × (2.931) = 3.048kA

€

Installing a current limiting reactor with a Vx of 4%.

The reactance per phase is given below:

4
Vx in absolute terms = × 25kV = 1kV
100

1×1000
XL per phase €
= = 0.19Ω / phase
3 × 2931.25

Power €reactors are used for a number of different functions, from limiting fault
current to controlling and regulating the reactive power in a system. They are
essentially a winding with either an iron core or an air core.

A reactor has only one winding per phase and different types vary from air-
cooled to oil-immersed. The latter becoming more popular due to its
maintenance advantages and safety factor.
Reactors have different magnetic characteristics according to the intended
use. In the case of current limiting, a linear reactor is used. Reactors that have
linear magnetic characteristics are the air cored type (a.k.a. coreless type).
The lack of an iron core results in a large leakage flux (iron cores are used to
mitigate this loss in transformers). It is therefore necessary to provide some
type of shielding to prevent heat problems and the flux affecting the reactance
of the coil.

The shielding can be either magnetic or non-magnetic. The magnetic

shielding is made up of steel laminations clamped into place and will prevent
stray magnetic fields causing problems to nearby apparatus. The flux density
of the core should not saturate below 150% of the rated current. If the current
increases above the fundamental value by over 150%, then the core could
become saturated and the reactance would reduce. Magnetically shielded
reactors are generally used with higher current systems.

Non-magnetic shielding is made up of a cylindrical shield of a non-magnetic

material such as aluminium or copper. The non-magnetic shielding results in
zero saturation of the core.

When reactors are used for current limiting they are connected in series with a
load, as shown below:

They limit currents by increasing the impedance of the circuit, as in the case
of the switching of high voltage capacitor banks. The inrush current when
carrying out this procedure is controlled by having a near constant reactance
provided by the air cored reactor adding impedance.
 Identify and describe the protection scheme used in the system below

(Figure 1)

The figure above shows a radial 33kV distribution system fed from a Dy
transformer. The protection scheme used in this example is one that uses
circuit breakers and overcurrent relays that have time delays incorporated into
them. The system is designed so that there is minimal disruption in the event
of a fault.

The time delays on the relays are set up so that the circuit breaker closest to
the fault opens and the other upstream breakers remain closed. The strategy
relies on large current to be generated by a fault. The shortest delay times are
set on the furthest breakers from the source. This is because the fault current
will not be as large as a fault current nearer the transformer.

From the diagram shown above, a fault occurring at point P2 should cause
breaker B2 to open, whilst breaker B1 remains closed. Breaker B1 would
have a longer time delay than breaker B2. The next breaker upstream of the
breaker that should open on a fault also provides a back up, if for whatever
reason the first breaker fails to open.

With the radial distribution shown, the largest fault current will be closest to
the source, which is the transformer. Faults occurring further downstream will
have the impedance of the line to limit the fault current.

The grading of a system refers to the delay times decreasing as the distance
from the source increases. The delay settings have to take in to account the
type of breakers used in the system. Older breakers will take longer to trip,
150ms for older oil breakers, whereas modern breakers can operate in 50ms.
 (Figure 2)

The diagram above shows the typical time delays (grading) on overcurrent
relays on a radial feeder.

The overcurrent relays used are inverse definite-minimum-time-lag relays

(i.d.m.t.l). The diagram below shows the inverse time lag characteristics of a
relay.

(Figure 3)

The time delay from when the overcurrent occurs to when the breaker
operates is inversely proportional to the magnitude or size of the fault current.
Relay characteristics can vary from extremely inverse to definite, which
means the more a relay has an inverse characteristic, the faster it will operate
on higher fault currents.

For the protection of the generator and transformer, a current balance

protection scheme would be used. For the generator, an instantaneous
unbiased relay is used (see figure 4). A current balance relay, also known as
a differential relay works by having CTs either side of the generator windings
and having a balanced current circulating around the relay circuit. If there is a
fault, the CTs will detect an imbalance and the breaker will trip.

Each phase has its own CTs and relays and if an imbalance is detected in
one phase the breaker will open all phases and the generator neutral.
(Figure 4)

Generator protection.

The transformer also uses a current balance or differential scheme of

protection. Some smaller transformers can also use fuses.

(Figure 5)
Transformer protection.

Because transformer are subjected to magnetizing inrush currents and tap

changing the CTs are connected in phase opposition to the transformer
connections.
 CONCLUSION

For the calculations of currents involved with a synchronous generator, the

rms fault current was found by dividing the voltage by the impedance. The
impedance was found by the square root of the resistance squared added to
the reactance squared.

The instantaneous current was calculated by first dividing the reactance by

the resistance and then using the formula K(t) = 1+ 2e−4 πt /(X / R )

The values for t was given as 0.5 cycles.

The instantaneous current is then €

found by multiplying the rms fault current by
the K value, which is an asymmetry factor.

The asymmetrical fault current is found in a similar way, using the formula for
the asymmetry factor and using 3 as the value for t. Again multiplying the rms
fault current by the K value gives the asymmetrical fault current.

To find the reactance per phase in the case of the current limiting reactor with
a voltage drop of the reactor phase to phase of 4%, firstly involved finding the
actual value of the 4% of the voltage, which was 25kV.

Next the voltage is divided by the fault current multiplied by the square root of
three to give the reactance per phase in ohms.
 DISCUSSION

The task in the report and analysis section dealing with relay protection
schemes was concerned with a radial system. Grading or the use of time
delay relays is also used with ring feeders as shown in the diagram below.

(Figure 6)

When a system is fed from two sources directional relays can be used. This is
because fault currents can flow in both directions. A directional relay operates
when fault currents are flowing in only one direction. They are often used in
conjunction with over-current relays.

Directional relays contain both a CT element and a VT element, as the relay

needs to have a reference voltage and a current input. The relay can be set to
operate in a forward tripping direction. This means that the fault current will
lag the voltage by up to 90° because of the reactive nature of the line
impedance. The secondary coils of the CT and VT are on a stator. A rotor in
the shape of a rotating disc is also employed. Because of the lagging current
imparting positive torque on the rotating disc, it moves and causes the relay
contacts to close and trip the breaker. Modern directional relays use
microprocessor technology to calculate the direction of fault currents as
opposed to the older electromechanical type.

Capacitor bank switching

The switching of high voltage capacitor banks can produce transients in the
power system. Transients are changes in voltage and/or current that can have
very short time periods. Capacitor switching transients are the result of a
capacitor becoming energised when discharged. In effect a short circuit is
created which results in high inrush currents and thus voltage dips on the
supply.

The high inrush currents can, over time, be detrimental to the switching
equipment and the capacitors themselves. It is important to limit these high
inrush currents as much as possible. There are several methods that can be
employed to do this, using reactors or inductors, pre-insertion inductors, zero-
crossing breakers and pre-insertion resistors.
A technical paper written by Michael Beanland, Thomas Speas and Joe
Rostron was prepared for a conference on relay protection in 2004.

An assessment of different capacitor switching options was carried out with

computer simulations. The results were obtained from the same system for
each method. A first capacitor bank was switched and then a second bank
after the first was already energised.

Using a full-time inductor (reactor) to limit the inrush current to levels below
which any damage could occur to the switching device and the capacitor units
works although there is a trade off as the reactor is continuously energised
and produces heat losses from its resistance.

Figure 7 Transients using a full-time inductor

Another method is to use a pre-insertion inductor (reactor). Two stage
switching is used provide a momentary inductance prior to the main inductor.

Figure 8 Transients using a pre-insertion inductor

A zero-crossing breaker works by controlling precisely the moment at which

the switching contacts close together. If the poles are at zero voltage when
the contacts close there will be no transients. This method requires very
precise timing and control; any drift will result in an increase in transients.
Figure 9 Transients using a zero-crossing breaker

The pre-insertion resistor is similar in idea to the pre-insertion inductor. It

provides inrush current limiting by the momentary insertion of a resistive
device into the circuit before the full energisation of the capacitor. This method
has the advantage of reducing voltage transients by careful selection of the
resistance value.
Figure 10 Transients using a pre-insertion resistor
 REFERENCES

• Figure 1 : Assignment question

• Figure 2 : E.A. Reeves & M.J. Heathcote (2003:353) Electrical Pocket

Book. Newnes.

• Figure 3 : E.A. Reeves & M.J. Heathcote (2003:352) Electrical Pocket

Book. Newnes.

• Figure 4 : E.A. Reeves & M.J. Heathcote (2003:353) Electrical Pocket

Book. Newnes.

• Figure 5 : E.A. Reeves & M.J. Heathcote (2003:360) Electrical Pocket

Book. Newnes.

• Figure 6 : E.A. Reeves & M.J. Heathcote (2003:353) Electrical Pocket

Book. Newnes.

• Figure 7 : M. Beanland, T. Speas, J. Rostron (2004:4) Pre-insertion

Resistors in High Voltage Capacitor Bank Switching

• Figure 8 : M. Beanland, T. Speas, J. Rostron (2004:5) Pre-insertion

Resistors in High Voltage Capacitor Bank Switching

• Figure 9 : M. Beanland, T. Speas, J. Rostron (2004:6) Pre-insertion

Resistors in High Voltage Capacitor Bank Switching

• Figure 10 : M. Beanland, T. Speas, J. Rostron (2004:7) Pre-insertion

Resistors in High Voltage Capacitor Bank Switching

• Class handouts (2009)