Three-phase electric power

1.0

Phase 2

Phase 1

Phase3

0.5
0

90

180

270

360

-0.5
-1.0

120

120

Normalized waveforms of the instantaneous voltages in a threephase system in one cycle with time increasing to the right. The
phase order is 123. This cycle repeats with the frequency of the
power system.

Three-phase transformer with four wire output for 208Y/120

volt service: one wire for neutral, others for A, B and C phases

Three-phase electric power is a common method

of alternating-current electric power generation,
transmission, and distribution.[1] It is a type of polyphase
system and is the most common method used by
electrical grids worldwide to transfer power. It is also
used to power large motors and other heavy loads. A
three-phase system is usually more economical than an
equivalent single-phase or two-phase system at the same
line to ground voltage because it uses less conductor
material to transmit electrical power.[2] The three-phase
system was independently invented by Galileo Ferraris,
Mikhail Dolivo-Dobrovolsky, Jonas Wenstrm and Three-phase electric power transmission lines
Nikola Tesla in the late 1880s.

electric motor and generate other phase arrangements using transformers (For instance, a two phase system using
a Scott-T transformer).

Principle

The symmetric threephase systems described here are

simply referred to as threephase systems because, although it is possible to design and implement asymmetric
threephase power systems (i.e., with unequal voltages or
phase shifts), they are not used in practice because they
lack the most important advantages of symmetric systems.

In a symmetric three-phase power supply system, three

conductors each carry an alternating current of the same
frequency and voltage amplitude relative to a common
reference but with a phase dierence of one third the
period. The common reference is usually connected to
ground and often to a current-carrying conductor called
the neutral. Due to the phase dierence, the voltage on
any conductor reaches its peak at one third of a cycle after one of the other conductors and one third of a cycle
before the remaining conductor. This phase delay gives
constant power transfer to a balanced linear load. It also
makes possible to produce a rotating magnetic eld in an

In a threephase system feeding a balanced and linear

load, the sum of the instantaneous currents of the three
conductors is zero. In other words, the current in each
conductor is equal in magnitude to, but with the opposite
sign of, the sum of the currents in the other two. The
1

3 TRANSFORMER CONNECTIONS

return path for the current in any phase conductor is the direct interconnection between two dierent phases is a
other two phase conductors.
short-circuit.
Compared to a single-phase AC power supply that uses
two conductors (phase and neutral), a three-phase supply
with no neutral, the same phase-to-ground voltage and
current capacity per phase can transmit three times as
much power using just 1.5 times as many wires (i.e., three
instead of two). Thus, the ratio of capacity to conductor
material is doubled. The same (but not the other properties of three-phase power) can also be attained with a
center-grounded single-phase system.[3]
Three-phase systems may also utilize a fourth wire, particularly in low-voltage distribution. This is the neutral
wire. The neutral allows three separate single-phase supplies to be provided at a constant voltage and is commonly used for supplying groups of domestic properties which are each single-phase loads. The connections are arranged so that, as far as possible in each
group, equal power is drawn from each phase. Further
up the distribution system, the currents are usually well
balanced. Transformers may be wired in a way that
they have a fourwire secondary but a threewire primary
while allowing unbalanced loads and the associated secondaryside neutral currents.

2 Generation and distribution

Animation of three-phase current ow

At the power station, an electrical generator converts

mechanical power into a set of three AC electric currents, one from each coil (or winding) of the generator.
The windings are arranged such that the currents vary
Three-phase supplies have properties that make them sinusoidally at the same frequency but with the peaks and
troughs of their wave forms oset to provide three comvery desirable in electric power distribution systems:
plementary currents with a phase separation of one-third
2
The phase currents tend to cancel out one another, cycle (120 or 3 radians). The generator frequency is
summing to zero in the case of a linear balanced typically 50 or 60 Hz, varying by country.
load. This makes it possible to reduce the size of Further information: Mains power systems
the neutral conductor because it carries little or no
current. With a balanced load, all the phase conductors carry the same current and so can be the same At the power station, transformers change the voltage
from generators to a level suitable for transmission minisize.
mizing losses.
Power transfer into a linear balanced load is conAfter further voltage conversions in the transmission netstant, which helps to reduce generator and motor viwork, the voltage is nally transformed to the standard
brations.
utilization before power is supplied to customers.
Three-phase systems can produce a rotating magMost automotive alternators generate three phase AC and
netic eld with a specied direction and constant
rectify it to DC with a diode bridge.[6]
magnitude, which simplies the design of electric
motors.
Most household loads are single-phase. In North American residences, three-phase power might feed a multipleunit apartment block, but the household loads are connected only as single phase. In lower-density areas, only
a single phase might be used for distribution. Some large
European appliances may be powered by three-phase
power, such as electric stoves and clothes dryers.
Wiring for the three phases is typically identied by color
codes which vary by country. Connection of the phases
in the right order is required to ensure the intended direction of rotation of three-phase motors. For example,
pumps and fans may not work in reverse. Maintaining
the identity of phases is required if there is any possibility two sources can be connected at the same time; a

3 Transformer connections
A delta connected transformer winding is connected
between phases of a three-phase system. A wye (star)
transformer connects each winding from a phase wire to
a common neutral point.
In an open delta or V system, only two transformers
are used. A closed delta system can operate as an open
delta if one of the transformers has failed or needs to be
removed.[7] In open delta, each transformer must carry
current for its respective phases as well as current for the
third phase, therefore capacity is reduced to 87%. With
one of three transformers missing and the remaining two
at 87% eciency, the capacity is 58% ((2/3) 87%).[8][9]

3
Where a delta-fed system must be grounded for detection of stray current to ground or protection from surge
voltages, a grounding transformer (usually a zigzag transformer) may be connected to allow ground fault currents to return from any phase to ground. Another variation is a corner grounded delta system, which is a
closed delta that is grounded at one of the junctions of
transformers.[10]

Three-wire and four-wire circuits

Y configuration

L1

L2

L3

L3

L1

L2
N

A transformer for a high-leg delta system; (Assuming a 200

V, 3-phase supply) 200 V 3-phase motors would be connected
to L1, L2 and L3. 200 V single-phase load would be connected
between L1 and L2. Single-phase 100 V supplies (180 degrees
out of phase) would be obtained between either L1 or L2 and
the neutral (N). L3 (wild or high leg) will be 173.2 V with respect
to the neutral.

Neutral (optional)

Delta configuration

L1

L2

L3
Wye (Y) and Delta () circuits

There are two basic three-phase congurations: delta

and wye (star). As shown on the left, a delta conguration requires only 3 wires for transmission but a wye
(star) conguration may utilise a fourth wire. The fourth
wire, if present, is provided as a Neutral and is normally
Grounded. The 3-wire and 4-wire designations do
not count the ground wire used above many transmission lines, which is solely for fault protection and does
not carry current under non-fault conditions.

A four-wire system with symmetrical voltages between

phase and neutral is obtained when the neutral is connected to the common star point of all supply windings. In such a system, all three phases will have the same
magnitude of voltage relative to the Neutral. Other nonsymmetrical systems have been used.
The four-wire wye system is used when ground referenced voltages or the exibility of more voltage selections are required. Faults on one phase to ground will
cause a protection event (fuse or breaker open) locally and
not involve other phases or other connected equipment.
An example of application is local distribution in Europe
(and elsewhere), where each customer may be only fed
from one phase and the neutral (which is common to the
three phases). When a group of customers sharing the
neutral draw unequal phase currents, the common neutral
wire carries the currents resulting from these imbalances.
Electrical engineers try to design the system so the loads
are balanced as much as possible within premises where
3-phase power is utilized.[11] These same principles apply to the wide scale distribution of power to individual
premises. Hence, every eort is made by supply authorities to distribute all three phases over a large number of
premises so that, on average, as nearly as possible a balanced load is seen at the point of supply. For domestic
use, some countries such as the UK may supply one phase
and neutral at a high current (up to 100A) to one property,
while others such as Germany may supply 3 phases and

neutral to each customer, but at a lower fuse rating, typically 32 A per phase, and shued to avoid the eect
that more load tends to be put on the rst phase.
In North America, a high-leg delta supply is sometimes
used, where one winding of a delta connected transformer
feeding the load is center-tapped and that center tap is
grounded and connected as a Neutral, as shown on the
right. This setup produces three dierent voltages. If the
voltage between the center tap (neutral) and each of the
two adjacent phases is 120 V (100%), the voltage across
any two phases is 240 V (200%), and the neutral to high
leg voltage is 208 V (173%).[7]

BALANCED CIRCUITS

I1

+V1
n

I2

Zy
Zy

- V2
-

Zy

V3

I3

The reason for providing the delta connected supply is

Three-phase AC generator connected as a wye source to a wyeusually to power large motors requiring a rotating eld. connected load
However, the premises concerned will also require the
normal North American 120 V supplies, two of which
are derived (180 degrees out of phase) between the
The phase angle dierence between voltage and current
Neutral and either of the center tapped phase points.
of each phase is not necessarily 0 and is dependent on
the type of load impedance, Z . Inductive and capacitive
loads will cause current to either lag or lead the voltage.
5 Balanced circuits
However, the relative phase angle between each pair of
lines (1 to 2, 2 to 3,and 3 to 1) will still be 120.
In the perfectly balanced case all three lines share equivalent loads. Examining the circuits we can derive relation- By applying Kirchhos current law (KCL) to the neutral
ships between line voltage and current, and load voltage node, the three phase currents sum to the total current in
the neutral line. In the balanced case:
and current for wye and delta connected loads.
In a balanced system each line will produce equal voltage magnitudes at phase angles equally spaced from each
other. With V1 as our reference and V3 lagging V2 lagI1 + I2 + I3 = IN = 0.
ging V1 , using angle notation, we have:[12]
V1 = VLN 0 ,
V2 = VLN 120 ,

5.2 Delta

V3 = VLN +120 .
These voltages feed into either a wye or delta connected
load.
I1

5.1

Wye

For the wye case, all loads see their respective line voltages, and so:[12]

+V1
n

- V2
-

I23

V3

I1 =

V1
(),
|Ztotal |

I2 =

V2
(120 ),
|Ztotal |

I3 =

V3
(120 ),
|Ztotal |

I12

I2

I31

I3

Three-phase AC generator connected as a wye source to a deltaconnected load

where Z is the sum of line and load impedances (Z

= ZLN + ZY), and is the phase of the total impedance In the delta circuit, loads are connected across the lines,
and so loads see line-to-line voltages:[12]
(Z ).

6.1

Unbalanced loads

V12 = V1 V2 = (VLN 0 ) (VLN 120 )

= 3VLN 30 = 3V1 (V1 + 30 ),

V23 = V2 V3 = (VLN 120 ) (VLN 120 )

= 3VLN 90 = 3V2 (V2 + 30 ),

V31 = V3 V1 = (VLN 120 ) (VLN 0 )

= 3VLN 150 = 3V3 (V3 + 30 ).

Further:

5
loads are evenly distributed on all three phases, the sum of
the returning currents in the neutral wire is approximately
zero. Any unbalanced phase loading on the secondary
side of the transformer will use the transformer capacity
ineciently.
If the supply neutral is broken, phase-to-neutral voltage is
no longer maintained. Phases with higher relative loading
will experience reduced voltage, and phases with lower
relative loading will experience elevated voltage, up to the
phase-to-phase voltage.

I12 =

V12
(30 ),
|Z |

A high-leg delta provides phase-to-neutral relationship of

VLL = 2 VLN , however, LN load is imposed on one
phase.[7] A transformer manufacturers page suggests that
LN loading to not exceed 5% of transformer capacity.[15]

I23 =

V23
(90 ),
|Z |

Since 3 1.73, dening VLN as 100% gives VLL

100% 1.73 = 173%. If VLL was set as 100%, then
VLN 57.7%.

I31 =

V31
(150 ),
|Z |

where is the phase of delta impedance (Z).

6.1 Unbalanced loads

Relative angles are preserved, so I 31 lags I 23 lags I 12 by When the currents on the three live wires of a three-phase
120. Calculating line currents by using KCL at each system are not equal or are not at an exact 120 phase andelta node gives:
gle, the power loss is greater than for a perfectly balanced
system. The method of symmetrical components is used
to
analyze unbalanced systems.
I1 = I12 I31 = I12 I12 120

= 3I12 (I12 30 ) = 3I12 ()

and similarly for each other line:

I2 = 3I23 (I23 30 ) = 3I23 (120 ),

I3 = 3I31 (I31 30 ) = 3I31 (120 ),

where, again, is the phase of delta impedance (Z).

6.2 Non-linear loads

With linear loads, the neutral only carries the current due
to imbalance between the phases. Devices that utilize
rectier-capacitor front-end such as switch-mode power
supplies, computers, oce equipment and such produce
third-order harmonics that are in-phase on all the supply
phases. Consequently, such harmonic currents add in the
neutral, which can cause the neutral current to exceed the
phase current.[13][16]

Single-phase loads

Single-phase loads may be connected across any two

phases, or a load can be connected from phase to
neutral.[13] Distributing single-phase loads among the
phases of a three-phase system balances the load and
makes most economical use of conductors and transformers.

7 Three-phase loads

An important class of three-phase load is the electric motor. A three-phase induction motor has a simple design,
inherently high starting torque and high eciency. Such
motors are applied in industry for many applications. A
three-phase motor is more compact and less costly than
In a symmetrical three-phase four-wire, wye system, the
a single-phase motor of the same voltage class and ratthree phase conductors have the same voltage to the sysing and single-phase AC motors above 10 HP (7.5 kW)
tem neutral. The voltage between line conductors is 3
are uncommon. Three-phase motors also vibrate less and
[14]
times the phase conductor to neutral voltage:
hence last longer than single-phase motors of the same
power used under the same conditions.

Line frequency icker in light can be reduced by evenly

VLL = 3VLN .
spreading three phases across line frequency operated
The currents returning from the customers premises to light sources so that illuminated area is provided light
the supply transformer all share the neutral wire. If the from all three phases. The eect of line frequency

9 ALTERNATIVES TO THREE-PHASE

icker is detrimental to super slow motion cameras used

in sports event broadcasting. Three phase lighting has
been applied successfully at the 2008 Beijing Olympics
to provide consistent light level for each frame for SSM
cameras.[17] Resistance heating loads such as electric
boilers or space heating may be connected to three-phase
systems. Electric lighting may also be similarly connected.

phase voltages. When properly designed, these rotary

converters can allow satisfactory operation of a threephase motor on a single-phase source. In such a device,
the energy storage is performed by the inertia (ywheel
eect) of the rotating components. An external ywheel
is sometimes found on one or both ends of the shaft.
A three-phase generator can be driven by a single-phase
motor. This motor-generator combination can provide
a frequency changer function as well as phase conversion, but requires two machines with all their expense and
losses. The motor-generator method can also form an
uninterruptable power supply when used in conjunction
with a large ywheel and a battery-powered DC motor
for really constant power, a standby generator set gives
more frequency drop until standby generator kicks in.

Rectiers may use a three-phase source to produce a sixpulse DC output.[18] The output of such rectiers is much
smoother than rectied single phase and, unlike singlephase, does not drop to zero between pulses. Such rectiers may be used for battery charging, electrolysis processes such as aluminium production or for operation of
DC motors. Zig-zag transformers may make the equivalent of six-phase full-wave rectication, twelve pulses
per cycle, and this method is occasionally employed to reduce the cost of the ltering components, while improv- 8.2 Non-mechanical
ing the quality of the resulting DC.
A second method that was popular in the 1940s and
One example of a three-phase load is the electric arc fur- 1950s was the transformer method. At that time, canace used in steelmaking and in rening of ores.
pacitors were more expensive than transformers, so an
In many European countries electric stoves are usually autotransformer was used to apply more power through
designed for a three-phase feed. However, the individ- fewer capacitors. Separated it from another common
ual heating units are often connected between phase and method, the static converter, as both methods have no
neutral to allow for connection to a single-phase circuit moving parts, which separates them from the rotary cone.g. if within an older domestic property a three-phase verters.
feed is not yet available.[19] Other usual three-phase loads Another method often attempted is with a device referred
in the domestic eld are tankless water heating systems to as a static phase converter. This method of running
and storage heater. However, since those references ap- three-phase equipment is commonly attempted with mopeared homes in Europe and the UK have standardised tor loads though it only supplies 2/3 power and can cause
on a single-phase supply with a nominal 230 V (in prac- the motor loads to run hot and in some cases overheat.
tice 240 V in the UK), which is used for all purposes. This method does not work when sensitive circuitry is inMost groups of houses are fed from a three-phase supply volved such as CNC devices or in induction and rectierso that individual premises with above-average demand type loads.
can be fed with a second or third phase connection, although domestic appliances are invariably designed for a Variable-frequency drives (also known as solid-state
inverters and adjustable speed drives) are used to provide
single-phase supply.
precise speed and torque control of three-phase motors.
Some models can be powered by a single-phase supply.
VFDs work by converting the supply voltage to DC and
8 Phase converters
then converting the DC to a suitable three-phase source
for the motor.
Phase converters are used when three-phase equipment
needs to be operated on a single-phase power source. Digital phase converters are designed for xed-frequency
They are used when three-phase power is not available operation from a single-phase source. Similar to a
or cost is not justiable. Such converters may also allow variable-frequency drive, they use a microprocessor to
the frequency to be varied (resynthesis) allowing speed control solid-state power switching components to maincontrol. Some railway locomotives use a single-phase tain balanced three-phase voltages.
source to drive three-phase motors fed through an electronic drive.[20]

9 Alternatives to three-phase

8.1

Mechanical

One method to generate three-phase power from a singlephase source is the rotary phase converter, essentially
a three-phase motor with special starting arrangements
and power factor correction that produces balanced three-

Split-phase electric power is used when three-phase

power is not available and allows double the normal utilization voltage to be supplied for high-power
loads.
Two-phase electric power, like three-phase, gives

7
constant power transfer to a linear load. For loads
that connect each phase to neutral, assuming the
load is the same power draw, the two-wire system has a neutral current that is greater than neutral current in a three-phase system. Also motors
are not entirely linear, which means that despite the
theory, motors running on three-phase tend to run
smoother than those on two-phase. The generators in the Adams Power Plant at Niagara Falls that
were installed in 1895 were the largest generators
in the world at the time and were two-phase machines. True two-phase power distribution is obsolete for new work applications, but still exists for
old work applications, perhaps most particularly
in Bualo and Niagara Falls, NY, Toronto and Niagara Falls, Ontario, Philadelphia and Reading, PA,
and Camden, NJ. New work three-phase installations may be supplied by old two-phase feeders, and
old work two-phase installations may be supplied
by new three-phase feeders using a Scott-T transformer, invented by Charles F. Scott.[21] Specialpurpose systems may use a two-phase system for frequency control.
Monocyclic power was a name for an asymmetrical
modied two-phase power system used by General
Electric around 1897, championed by Charles Proteus Steinmetz and Elihu Thomson. This system
was devised to avoid patent infringement. In this
system, a generator was wound with a full-voltage
single-phase winding intended for lighting loads and
with a small fraction (usually 1/4 of the line voltage)
winding that produced a voltage in quadrature with
the main windings. The intention was to use this
power wire additional winding to provide starting
torque for induction motors, with the main winding
providing power for lighting loads. After the expiration of the Westinghouse patents on symmetrical
two-phase and three-phase power distribution systems, the monocyclic system fell out of use; it was
dicult to analyze and did not last long enough for
satisfactory energy metering to be developed.
High-phase-order systems for power transmission
have been built and tested. Such transmission lines
typically would use six phases or twelve phases.
High-phase-order transmission lines allow transfer
of slightly less than proportionately higher power
through a given volume without the expense of a
high-voltage direct current (HVDC) converter at
each end of the line. However, they require correspondingly more pieces of equipment.

10

Color codes

See also: Electrical wiring Colour code

Conductors of a three-phase system are usually identied by a color code, to allow for balanced loading and
to assure the correct phase rotation for motors. Colors
used may adhere to International Standard IEC 60446
(now merged into IEC 60445), older standards or to no
standard at all and may vary even within a single installation. For example, in the U.S. and Canada, dierent color
codes are used for grounded (earthed) and ungrounded
systems.

11 See also
Three-phase AC railway electrication
Charging station
Frequency converter
Industrial & multiphase power plugs & sockets
International Electrotechnical Exhibition
John Hopkinson
Y- transform

12 Notes
[1] In Australia and New Zealand, active conductors can be
any color except green/yellow, green, yellow, black or light
blue. Yellow is no longer permitted in the 2007 revision of
wiring code ASNZS 3000. European color codes are used
for all IEC or ex cables such as extension leads, appliance
leads etc. and are equally permitted for use in building
wiring per AS/NZS 3000:2007.
[2] The international standard green-yellow marking of
protective-earth conductors was introduced to reduce the
risk of confusion by color blind installers. About 7%
to 10% of men cannot clearly distinguish between red
and green, which is a particular concern in older schemes
where red marks a live conductor and green marks protective earth or safety ground.
[3] In Europe, there still exist many installations with older
colors but, since the early 1970s, all new installations
use green/yellow earth according to IEC 60446. (E.g.
Phase/Neutral+Earth German: black/grey + red France
green/red + White Russia: Red/ Grey + Black; Switzerland: Red/ Grey +Yellow or yellow & red Denmark:
White/Black + Red
[4] See Paul Cook: Harmonised colours and alphanumeric
marking. IEE Wiring Matters, Spring 2006.
[5] In the U.S., a green/yellow striped wire may indicate an
isolated ground. In most countries today, green/yellow
striped wire may only be used for protective earth (safety
ground) and may never be unconnected or used for any
other purpose.

13

[6] Since 1975, the U.S. National Electric Code has not specied coloring of phase conductors. It is common practice
in many regions to identify 120/208 (wye) conductors as
black, red, and blue, and 277/480 (wye or delta) conductors as brown, orange, yellow. In a 120/240 delta system
with a 208v high leg, the high leg (typically B phase) is
always marked orange, commonly A phase is black and
C phase is either red or blue. Local regulations may
amend the N.E.C. The U.S. National Electric Code has
color requirements for grounded conductors, ground, and
grounded-delta 3-phase systems which result in one ungrounded leg having a higher voltage potential to ground
than the other two ungrounded legs.

13

References

[1] William D. Stevenson, Jr. Elements of Power System

Analysis Third Edition, McGraw-Hill, New York (1975).
ISBN 0-07-061285-4, p. 2
[2] Three-phase power systems : Polyphase Ac Circuits Electronics Textbook. Allaboutcircuits.com. Retrieved
2015-05-13.
[3] Cotton, H, Electrical Technology, 6th Ed., Pitman, London, 1950, p. 268
[4] Hawkins Electrical Guide, Theo. Audel and Co., 2nd ed.,
1917, vol. 4, Ch. 46: Alternating Currents, p. 1026, g.
1260.
[5] Hawkins Electrical Guide, Theo. Audel and Co., 2nd ed.,
1917, vol. 4, Ch. 46: Alternating Currents, p. 1026, g.
1261.
[6]
[7] Fowler, Nick (2011). Electricians Calculations Manual
2nd Edition. McGraw-Hill. pp. 35. ISBN 978-0-07177017-0.
[8] McGraw-Hill (1920).
Power 51 (17) http:
//books.google.com/books?id=u91QAAAAYAAJ&
pg=PA673&lpg=PA673. Retrieved 21 December 2012.
Missing or empty |title= (help)
[9] H. W. Beaty, D.G.Fink (ed) Standard Handbook for
Electrical Engineers Fifteenth Edition,McGraw-Hill, 2007
ISBN 0-07-144146-8, p. 1011
[10] Schneider
[11] http://www.rapid-tech.com.au/Fluke-2_Saving%
20energy%20through%20load%20balancing.pdf
[12] J. Duncan Glover; Mulukutla S. Sarma; Thomas J. Overbye (April 2011). Power System Analysis & Design. Cengage Learning. pp. 6068. ISBN 978-1-111-42579-1.
[13] Lowenstein, Michael. The 3rd Harmonic Blocking Filter: A Well Established Approach to Harmonic Current
Mitigation. IAEI Magazine. Retrieved 24 November
2012.
[14] The boy electrician by J W Sims M.I.E.E. (Page 98)

REFERENCES

[15] Federal pacic

[16] Enjeti, Prasad. Harmonics in Low Voltage Three-Phase
Four-Wire Electric Distribution Systems and Filtering Solutions (PDF). Texas A&M University Power Electronics
and Power Quality Laboratory. Retrieved 24 November
2012.
[17] Hui, Sun. Sports Lighting Design Considerations For
The Beijing 2008 Olympic Games (PDF). GE Lighting.
Retrieved 18 December 2012.
[18] IEEE
[19] British and European practices for domestic appliances
compared, Electrical Times, volume 148, page 691,
1965.
[20] Japan Railway & Transport Review (PDF). No. 58: 58.
Oct 2011 http://www.jrtr.net/jrtr58/pdf/51-60web.pdf.
Missing or empty |title= (help)
[21] Brittain, J. E. (2007). Electrical Engineering Hall of
Fame: Charles F. Scott. Proceedings of the IEEE 95 (4):
836839. doi:10.1109/JPROC.2006.892488.
[22] Canadian Electrical Code Part I, 23rd Edition, (2002)
ISBN 1-55324-690-X, rule 4-036 (3)
[23] Canadian Electrical Code 23th edition 2002, rule 24208(c)

14
14.1

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Glogger, Sam Hocevar, Nulzilla, Alistair1978, Mashford, Plugwash, Kgaughan, Meggar, Shenme, Cmdrjameson, Blotwell, Atlant, Pouya,
Wtmitchell, BRW, Wtshymanski, Gene Nygaard, Martian, Evan C, Woohookitty, Linas, DonPMitchell, BillC, Lifung, Dionyziz, Mandarax, Graham87, Ketiltrout, Rjwilmsi, Pdelong, Hezery99, Brighterorange, Paul foord, Ichudov, Wingchi, Roboto de Ajvol, Wavelength,
DMahalko, Perkinma, Ikar.us, Hellbus, Tole, CambridgeBayWeather, Pseudomonas, Bovineone, Salsb, Dhollm, Natkeeran, SFC9394,
Mysid, Donbert, Curpsbot-unicodify, Benandorsqueaks, SmackBot, Incnis Mrsi, Saihtam, SparkyBuzzkill, Jester1983, Antifumo, Bluebot,
Thumperward, AndrewBuck, VMS Mosaic, DMacks, Acdx, P2pauthor, Breadbox, KLLvr283, Mgiganteus1, Codacola~enwiki, Dacium,
Inquisitus, DwightKingsbury, Sandothegrate, Luminaux, Chetvorno, Cydebot, DumbBOT, Oxonhutch, Epbr123, Qwyrxian, Pjvpjv, Electron9, Widefox, Bigtimepeace, Soothsayer2, CPMartin, Standardcomm, UnivEducator, Davken1102, Danger, Mfrisk, Rico402, Magioladitis, BBar, JFine, ElectroTech, Adil zia, I B Wright, Csylcox, MottyGlicksman, Gah4, J.delanoy, James cudahy, Firemansam87, Lajos87,
Mrmalsah, Mrjohns2, Laager, Davidclt, Idioma-bot, Joeinwap, Hugo999, X!, VolkovBot, JohnBlackburne, Seniorsag, Soliloquial, Kyle
the bot, Davehi1, Hqb, Doug2008, Nazgul02, Don4of4, Yeokaiwei, Modal Jig, Spiral5800, Hanjabba, Jhawkinson, Vchimpanzee, Spinningspark, Truthanado, KjellG, Flyer22, A. Carty, Wol377, KoshVorlon, Wiki-ny-2007, Pointbonita, Dolphin51, ClueBot, Alpta, AlptaBot,
Fredquint, SchreiberBike, Dusen189, Wikiuser100, Dthomsen8, Eug.galeotti, Addbot, Cantaloupe2, Michael E Hayes, Gruver777, Tide
rolls, Tenth Plague, Ben Ben, Legobot, Luckas-bot, Yobot, KamikazeBot, AnomieBOT, Fmorgan98, Killiondude, TonyGraySchneiderElectric, V35b, Xqbot, J JMesserly, Garetoo, RibotBOT, IShadowed, Chongkian, Shadowjams, Stiepan Pietrov, Imveracious, Piero71,
FrescoBot, Mfwitten, Interp, Biker Biker, Kukdide, Elmf, Reconsider the static, SchreyP, ElectroDrache, Tbhotch, MegaSloth, John of
Reading, Joshkurien, Ndkl, Noroi, K6ka, AManWithNoPlan, Nudecline, JoeSperrazza, Peterh5322, Vvickky007, Stomar2, Teapeat, Krishna santosh eee, Xanchester, Mikhail Ryazanov, ClueBot NG, MelbourneStar, Historikeren, DieSwartzPunkt, Widr, Helpful Pixie Bot,
Tholme, Lowercase sigmabot, BG19bot, Sjsmith2611, Roadstoroam, Vindarmagnus~enwiki, Klilidiplomus, Pratyya Ghosh, Eatmajor7th,
YFdyh-bot, Dexbot, Rezonansowy, Paresh108, Svjo, Mitchmarsh, AndreCF, GC MathTeacher, Zhao88, Jaredmporter, Monkbot, Chrisfrd,
Frequencydrive, Sn maiti, Mario Casteln Castro, DarkMoon, Wardenclyetower and Anonymous: 399

14.2

Images

File:3-phase_flow.gif Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/4/48/3-phase_flow.gif License: CC-BY-SA-3.0 Contributors: Transferred from en.wikipedia; transferred to Commons by User:Zscout370 using CommonsHelper. Original artist: Original
uploader was BillC at en.wikipedia
File:3_Phase_Power_Connected_to_Delta_Load.svg Source:
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Power_Connected_to_Delta_Load.svg License: CC BY-SA 3.0 Contributors: Own work Original artist: Jaredmporter
File:3_Phase_Power_Connected_to_Wye_Load.svg Source:
https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/4/48/3_Phase_
Power_Connected_to_Wye_Load.svg License: CC BY-SA 3.0 Contributors: Own work Original artist: Jaredmporter
File:3_phase_AC_waveform.svg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/c/cc/3_phase_AC_waveform.svg License:
Public domain Contributors: File:3-fas-spnningar.svg Original artist: User:J JMesserly modication of original svg by User:SiriusA
File:Commons-logo.svg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/4/4a/Commons-logo.svg License: ? Contributors: ? Original
artist: ?
File:Hawkins_Electrical_Guide_-_3phase_Elementary_3wire.jpg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/4/4f/
Hawkins_Electrical_Guide_-_3phase_Elementary_3wire.jpg License: Public domain Contributors: ? Original artist: ?
File:Hawkins_Electrical_Guide_-_3phase_Elementary_6wire.jpg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/d/d0/
Hawkins_Electrical_Guide_-_3phase_Elementary_6wire.jpg License: Public domain Contributors: ? Original artist: ?
File:High_leg_delta_transformer.svg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/4/43/High_leg_delta_transformer.svg
License: CC BY-SA 3.0 Contributors: own work (drawing) Original artist: wdwd
File:Question_book-new.svg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/9/99/Question_book-new.svg License: Cc-by-sa-3.0
Contributors:
Created from scratch in Adobe Illustrator. Based on Image:Question book.png created by User:Equazcion Original artist:
Tkgd2007
File:Tesla-bulb.jpg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/5/50/Tesla-bulb.jpg License: Public domain Contributors:
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File:The_basic_3-phase_configurations.svg Source:
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configurations.svg License: CC BY-SA 3.0 Contributors: Own work Original artist: Svjo
File:Three_Phase_Electric_Power_Transmission.jpg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/e/e0/Three_Phase_
Electric_Power_Transmission.jpg License: CC BY-SA 2.5 Contributors: self-made; along I-5 between Seattle and US/Canada border.
Original artist: Wing-Chi Poon
File:Threephasepolemountclose.jpg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/9/98/Threephasepolemountclose.jpg
License: CC-BY-SA-3.0 Contributors: Own work Original artist: Glogger at English Wikipedia
File:Wikibooks-logo.svg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/f/fa/Wikibooks-logo.svg License: CC BY-SA 3.0
Contributors: Own work Original artist: User:Bastique, User:Ramac et al.

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14

TEXT AND IMAGE SOURCES, CONTRIBUTORS, AND LICENSES

File:Wikiquote-logo.svg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/f/fa/Wikiquote-logo.svg License: Public domain

Contributors: ? Original artist: ?
File:Wikisource-logo.svg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/4/4c/Wikisource-logo.svg License: CC BY-SA 3.0
Contributors: Rei-artur Original artist: Nicholas Moreau

14.3

Content license

Creative Commons Attribution-Share Alike 3.0