Right to Die: Euthanasia

Sonya Hu
Junior Division
Historical Paper

Late in the night of January 20, 1936, Lord Dawson of Penn, Englands royal physician,
injected King George V with fatal doses of morphine and cocaine as he lay comatose on his
deathbed. The King was urged gently towards his death and the end of his constant suffering.
The next morning, his passing was announced in The Times headline as a peaceful ending at
midnight.1 The King had been in failing health for several months. Days before the Kings
death, Queen Mary had sent for the physician and asked that he ease her spouses anguish. Lord
Dawson believed that waiting for the mechanical end when all that is really life has departed2
would only exhaust the onlookers and keep them so strained that they [could not] avail
themselves to the solace of thought, communion, or prayer;3 thus leading to his decision to
determine the end4 on his own. So, at approximately eleven oclock that night, while
accompanied by the Archbishop of Canterbury, the royal physician sped the Kings death by
introducing two lethal injections. By hastening the Kings passing, rather than taking great
measures to preserve his life, Dawson allowed the King to end his suffering and die with peace
and the dignity and serenity which he so richly merited.5 When his intervention was revealed
in 1986, controversy surrounded it, as it raised the question of whether it had been morally and
ethically correct for the physician to administer the medicament.

1 Lelyveld, Joseph. 1936 Secret Is Out: Doctor Sped George Vs Death. The New York Times. The
New York Times, 28 Nov. 1986. Web. 29 Nov. 2013. <http://www.nytimes.com/1986/11/28/world/1936secret-is-out-doctor-sped-george-v-s-death.html>.
2 (Dawson qtd. in Ramsay, page 1)
3 Ibid 1.
4 Ibid 1.
5 Ibid 1.
1

There is a single word that summarizes this cessation of pain and dying in peace euthanasia,
meaning good death in Greek. As it plays an essential role in ending the pain of those who are
suffering, as well as easing the emotional strains upon the family of the affected party, many
argue, as I would like to argue here, that euthanasia should be a right granted to terminally ill
patients who are suffering and no longer have the will to live.
Euthanasia has been practiced throughout history, as far back as ancient Greece and
Rome, where people were tolerant of euthanasia and suicide. In Sparta, for example, male
infants with signs of disability or sickliness were led to their deaths.6 This was viewed as both a
way to protect society from unnecessary albatross and to save the children from the burden of
existence. This mentality was adopted throughout ancient Greece and Rome. The Hippocratic
Oath, a pledge taken by physicians to vow that they would practice medicine honestly, prohibited
doctors from either giving or suggesting a deadly poison to anybody, not even if asked for. 7
However, few ancient Greek and Roman physicians adhered to the Oath; possibly due to its
initial ill reception, as it had only represented a small fraction of the Greek opinion at the time.8
However, the ascendancy of Christianity, with its views that life is a gift from God, and the fifth
of the eminent Ten Commandments, which states that thou shalt not kill, reinforced the
Hippocratic Oath, causing many to oppose euthanasia.9 As a result, the practice faded away
6 Dowbiggin, Ian Robert. A Merciful End: The Euthanasia Movement in Modern America. Oxford:
Oxford UP, 2003. Print.
7 Tyson, Peter. The Hippocratic Oath Today. PBS. PBS, 27 Mar. 2001. Web. 19 Jan. 2014.
<http://www.pbs.org/whbh/nova/body/hippocratic-oath-today.html>.
8 "The Hippocratic Oath." BBC News. BBC, 20 Nov. 2003. Web. 12 May 2014.
<http://www.bbc.co.uk/dna/place-london/plain/A1103798>.
9 Manning, Michael. Euthanasia and Physician-Assisted Suicide: Killing or Caring? New York: Paulist,
1998. Print.
2

during the twelfth through fifteenth centuries. Then, in the seventeenth century, Renaissance and
Reformation writers began to challenge the churchs authoritative teachings on all matters,
including euthanasia and suicide, and the practices became acceptable again.10 However, by the
late eighteenth century, with the rise of the Second Great Awakening, the temporary toleration of
euthanasia and suicide during the Enlightenment disappeared once more.
In the late 1870s, Samuel Williams, a non-physician often credited as the first modern supporter
of the practice, attempted to revive euthanasia again when he began to publically advocate the
use of morphine and chloroform to both alleviate terminal pain and intentionally end the patients
life. His proposal received a great deal of attention in medical journals and at scientific
meetings, but lost popularity after the Journal of the American Medical Association described it
as an attempt to make the physician don the robes of an executioner.11
The public support for euthanasia slowly began to gain popularity once again during the early
twentieth century. Several bills to legalize euthanasia were proposed; although they failed, the
bills were a sign of the emerging interest in the practice. In an opinion poll in 1937, 53% of
Americans answered that they approved of euthanasia.12 This progression of acceptance was
abruptly halted when the public learned of the Nazis Action T-4. The Nazis use of involuntary
euthanasia, or mercy killings,13 to terminate the life of mentally ill patients and handicapped
children changed the American and European publics perception of euthanasia. The euthanasia
movement found itself on the defensive and was constantly forced to deny that the form of
10 Ibid 10.
11 Ibid 11.
12 Dowbiggin 32.
13 Ibid 61.
3

euthanasia it supported was the same as the Nazis murder. In 1950, only 36% of Americans
answered that they approved of euthanasia in the same opinion poll that was asked in 1937.14
Despite the movements efforts, the practice fell from the public favor and all but disappeared
after World War II. However, the right-to-die debate had not died completely; examination of
court cases in the last forty years can shed light on its current revival.
Euthanasia has two variations: passive and active. Unlike the active examples of Lord Dawson
administering a lethal drug or the ancient Greek and Roman physicians providing their patients
with a deadly poison,15 passive euthanasia is, simply put, letting someone die, and is
commonly associated with the cessation of life-sustaining medical treatment or equipment. Two
famous lawsuits that reintroduced the contentious issue and reshaped the public opinion of
passive euthanasia are re Quinlan 70 N.J. 10 (1976) 355 A.2d 647 and Cruzan v. Director
[Missouri Department of Health].
The first to occur was the 1976 case of re Quinlan. After taking a combination of tranquilizer
pills and alcohol, Karen Ann Quinlan stopped breathing for two fifteen minute periods. She was
hurriedly transported to a hospital, but by the time she arrived, she had already suffered
permanent brain damage and was declared to have fallen into a persistent vegetative state with
no prospect of recovery.16 Karen Anns parents privately requested that the doctors caring for
their daughter disconnect her respirator so that she could die with grace and dignity.17 Their
14Ibid 33.
15 Tyson 1.
16 McFadden, Robert D. Karen Ann Quinlan, 31, Dies; Focus of 76 Right To Die Case. The New York
Times. The New York Times, 12 June 1985. Web. 24 Dec. 2013.
<http://www.nytimes.com/1985/06/12/nyregion/karen-ann-quinlan-31-dies-focus-of-76-right-to-diecase.html>.
17 Ibid 1.
4

request refused, they took their case to the New Jersey Supreme Court. There, Paul W.
Armstrong, the Quinlans lawyer, argued that keeping Karen Ann alive after the dignity, beauty,
promise, and meaning of earthly life have vanished was a cruel and unusual punishment that
violated the Eighth Amendment of the U.S. Constitution.18 Armstrong then further broadened his
argument and pushed for a constitutional right to die based on the rights of freedom of religion,
privacy, and self-determination. As such a petition had never been filed, the Quinlan case
quickly captured the attention of the public, and became the motivation for the rapid expansion
of the euthanasia movement. Finally, the New Jersey Supreme Court, recognizing Karen Ann
Quinlans right to die, decided unanimously that she could be disconnected from her respirator as
long as the medical authorities saw no reasonable possibility that she would recover.19 The
Court also declared that no one would be held criminally liable for her death, because it would
not be homicide, but rather expiration from existing natural causes.20 At her passing, Dr. James
Wolf, the internist who had cared for Karen Ann, commented that no attempt was made to
revive her, on the advice of the family. They felt it was inappropriate. She died unmolested, a
natural death, simply witnessed.21
A second case, similar to Karen Ann Quinlans, occurred in Missouri just seven years after the
New Jersey Supreme Courts ruling. Nancy Cruzan was discovered barely alive after losing
control of her car and crashing. She, too, fell into a persistent vegetative state with no chance of

18 Ibid 3.
19 Ibid 1.
20 Ibid 1.
21 Ibid 1.
5

recovery.22 After the hospital refused their request to remove Nancys medically-assisted
nutrition and hydration, her parents filed a declaratory judgment action to the Missouri Supreme
Court, but once again, their request was denied. The Cruzans took their lawsuit to the U.S.
Supreme Court. A crucial argument was that Nancy had previously told her housemate that if
she were sick or injured, she did not want to continue her life unless she could live at least
halfway normally, suggesting that she would not want to live in her current condition. In
December 1990, the Cruzans persuaded the U.S. Supreme Court that the clear and convincing
evidence that they sought did exist, and in a five-to-four decision, the Court allowed Nancy to
be removed from life support.23
Both the Cruzan and Quinlan cases greatly influenced the widespread practice of judicious
neglect,24 or, passive euthanasia, wherein doctors agree to the requests of relatives of suffering,
terminally ill patients and dont take great measures to preserve their lives. Additionally, the
Cruzan case directly increased the interest in living wills and other such advance medical
directives that allow individuals to describe beforehand what sort of treatment they would want,

22 Greenhouse, Linda. "Right-To-Die Case Gets First Hearing in Supreme Court. The New York Times.
The New York Times, 07 Dec. 1989. Web. 23 Jan. 2014. <http://www.nytimes.com/1989/12/07/us/rightto-die-case-gets-first-hearing-in-supreme-court.html?pagewanted=all&src=pm>.
23 Nancy Cruzan. Sisters of Charity of Leavenworth Health System. Internet Archive Wayback Machine, 18 Nov.
2005. Web. 24 Dec. 2013.
<http://web.archive.org/web/20051118191347/http://www.sclhsc.org/mission_vision_values/ethics/nancy_cruzan.as
p>.

24 Daley, Steve. "True Quinlan Legacy Just A Quiet Story." Chicago Tribune. Chicago Tribune, 14 June 1985. Web.
16 Mar. 2014. <http://articles.chicagotribune.com/1985-06-14/features/8502070924_1_joseph-and-julia-quinlanbaby-fae-frustaci>.

and should they be unable to make such decisions, who would do so. These changes reflect
modern societys slow re-adaption to the historical practice of euthanasia.
The legalization of the termination of life-sustaining treatment or equipment essentially passive
euthanasia caused discord, as it raised the question of whether directly causing the death of a
suffering patient active euthanasia is substantially different from an ethical standpoint.
According to Leslie Burkholder, a Department of Philosophy instructor at the University of
British Columbia in Vancouver, Canada, no such ethical difference exists.25 In an article written
for the Journal of Applied Philosophy, Burkholder cited two examples, Nancy B.26 and Nancy
F., both of whose stories are based on real Canadian cases. Both Nancy B. and Nancy F. were
afflicted with a muscle-wasting disease that destroyed their lungs. Nancy B. was attached to a
medical ventilator, and will die of suffocation without it. Nancy F. will soon require the same
medical ventilator, but for now, her original lungs are functioning, although poorly. Neither have
any prospect of recovery and their conditions will only worsen, leading eventually to slow and
painful deaths. Nancy B. wishes to terminate her life by turning off her mechanical ventilator
and dying naturally, while Nancy F. wishes to be administered a lethal dose of morphine and die
a peaceful death. Neither of them is capable of carrying out these actions by themselves, and
they must seek the assistance of another, likely a certified medical professional. Within the eyes
of the law, the one who terminates the life of Nancy F. will be considered a murderer, while the
end of Nancy B.s life will simply be seen as expiration from existing natural causes.27 The two
25 Harris, Nancy. No Ethical Difference Exists Between Active and Passive Euthanasia. The Ethics of
Euthanasia. San Diego: Thomson/Gale, 2005. 9-12. Print.
26 Nancy B. v. Htel-Dieu De Qubec Et Al. 86 D.L.R. (4th) 385. 31 A.C.W.S. (3d) 160. 69 C.C.C. (3d)
450. Superior Court of Quebec. 6 Jan. 1992. Uottawa.ca. Uottawa, n.d. Web. 20 Jan. 2014.
<aix1.uottawa.ca/~sroders/3375/nancy.rtf>.
27 McFadden 1.
7

actions should not be considered so differently under the eyes of the law, since the difference is
solely in the process of their death, not in the morality or intentions of the physician who assists
in their passing. It is as with passive and active euthanasia merely factual, not ethical.
Perhaps the most famous case of active euthanasia is the 1998 case of Thomas Youk. Dr. Jack
Kevorkian, a physician and well-known apologist for the euthanasia movement in the late
twentieth century, administered a lethal injection to the amyotrophic lateral sclerosis (ALS,
popularly known as Lou Gehrigs Disease) patient, after being asked to do so multiple times by
Thomass brother. His videotaped footage of the event was later featured during his 60 Minutes
interview, wherein Thomass wife, Melody, commented that she was so grateful that someone
would relieve him of his suffering.28 She stated that she did not consider it murder, but rather
humane and the way things should be.29 Despite being asked to wait an extra week to consider
his options, Thomas decided the next night that he wanted the injection that moment; he just
couldnt stand it any longer, despite being a fighter,30 as his family had described him. Dr.
Kevorkians concluding statement in the interview was that euthanasia is part of the American
freedoms. If you dont have liberty and self-determination, youve got nothing this is the
ultimate self-determination; to determine how and when youre going to die, and when youre
suffering.31
In Vacco v. Quill, Dennis C. Quill argued a similar point in the U.S. Supreme Court during 1997.
He asserted that the equal protection clause of the Fourteenth Amendment of the U.S.
28 Dr. Jack Kevorkians 60 Minutes Interview. Interview by Overtime Staff. CBS News. CBS
Interactive, 03 June 2011. Web. 05 Nov. 2013.
29 Ibid.
30 Ibid.
31 Ibid.
8

Constitution was violated because terminally ill patients who are on life support have the right to
medical assistance in shortening their own lifespan, while those who are not on life support are
denied that right. Additionally, he argued that the due process clause of the Fourteenth
Amendment is violated as well, as it ought to protect the right of a terminally ill, mentally
competent patient to make the choice to seek the assistance of a doctor in committing suicide.
Quill then argued that suicide and euthanasia are the same from an ethical perspective, meaning
that, as suicide is legal, euthanasia should be legalized.
However, euthanasia is not only a controversial debate within the courts, but also within
religion. After the fall of Rome and emergence of Christianity, euthanasia had fallen from
popular practice. Today, religious groups, especially Christian sects, still provide some of the
greatest opposition against euthanasia. Euthanasia and suicide are often described as a sin in the
Bible. The Fifth Commandment might also be perceived to encompass suicide and euthanasia.
However, suicide is never specifically prohibited in either the Old or New Testaments. In fact,
there are several suicides throughout the Bible (Samson32, Saul33, Abimelek34, and Judas35) and
none of them have ever been criticized. One of those four suicides can be interpreted as active
euthanasia. Abimelek had said to his armor-bearer, Draw your sword and kill me And the
young man thrust him through, and he died.36 The sole difference between his death and Sauls

32 Judges 16:23-31. The Holy Bible, Todays New International Version. N.p.: Zondervan, 2005. Print.
33 1 Samuel 31. The Holy Bible, Todays New International Version. N.p.: Zondervan, 2005. Print.
34 Judges 9:52-55. The Holy Bible, Todays New International Version. N.p.: Zondervan, 2005. Print.
35 Matthew 27:3-8. The Holy Bible, Todays New International Version. N.p.: Zondervan, 2005. Print.
36 Judges 9:54. The Holy Bible, Todays New International Version. N.p.: Zondervan, 2005. Print.
9

death was that Sauls armor bearer refused to assist him, forcing Saul to die by his own hand,37
while in Abimeleks case, his armor bearer had consented. However, the two cases are not
viewed differently by Christian teachings.
Throughout history, the cessation of physical suffering and alleviation of emotional strains upon
the friends and family of the patient have been two key realities of the argument that euthanasia
is a fundamental right that should be granted to terminally ill patients who are suffering, and no
longer wish to live. Lord Dawson once described euthanasia as a mission of mercy38 a
simple, yet thorough definition. Euthanasia is truly nothing more than a mission to provide
mercy to those who are suffering, and the family of the suffering patient. Although active
euthanasia is still debated today, that may change four39, perhaps soon five40, U.S. states, and
two European countries41 have legalized it. In his concluding statement to a pro-euthanasia
speech delivered in the House of Lords, Lord Dawson explained that one should make the act of
dying more gentle and more peaceful even if it does involve curtailment of the length of life.
That has been increasingly the custom. This may be taken as something accepted.42

37 1 Samuel 31:4. The Holy Bible, Todays New International Version. N.p.: Zondervan, 2005. Print.
38 Lelyveld 1.
39 ProCon.org. "Historical Timeline - Euthanasia." ProCon.org Headlines. ProCon.org, 23 July 2014.
Web. 8 Mar. 2014. <http://euthanasia.procon.org/view.timeline.php?timelineID=000022>.
40 Eckholm, Erik. "New Mexico Judge Affirms Right to Aid in Dying." The New York Times. The New
York Times, 13 Jan. 2014. Web. 08 Mar. 2014. <http://www.nytimes.com/2014/01/14/us/new-mexicojudge-affirms-right-to-aid-in-dying.html>.
41 ProCon.org 1.
42 Lelyveld 1.
10

Works Cited
Primary Sources
"ACLU Amicus Brief in Vacco v. Quill." American Civil Liberties Union. ACLU Foundation, 10
Dec. 1996. Web. 14 Dec. 2013. <https://www.aclu.org/content/aclu-amicus-brief-vaccov-quill>. ACLU's Amicus Brief in the Vacco v. Quill case thoroughly describes Vacco's
argument against outlawing euthanasia, concentrating mainly on how the act of outlawing
it violates the Fourteenth Amendment of the U.S. Constitution, and may cause greater
suffering. The Vacco v. Quill case was an important part of the euthanasia movement that
promoted public interest in the issue. This source was beneficial to me because it
11

allowed me to have general idea of what occurred in the case before reading the actual
Vacco v. Quill Supreme Court Case. Also, unlike the court case itself, the amicus brief
was much easier to understand and follow, allowing an even clearer understanding of the
case.
Cial. "Right-to-Die Case Sent To the Supreme Court." The New York Times. The New York
Times, 14 Mar. 1989. Web. 23 Jan. 2014. <http://www.nytimes.com/1989/03/14/us/rightto-die-case-sent-to-the-supreme-court.html>. Cial's article briefly describes Nancy
Cruzan's situation and announces that the Cruzans are going to take their case to the U.S.
Supreme Court in their attempt to allow her daughter to cease medically-assisted
hydration and nutrition. The Cruzan case was a vital part in the euthanasia movement that
gripped the American public's interest and promoted living wills and other such advance
medical directives. This particular article was useful to me because it provided an insight
to the public feelings and reactions to the Cruzan case before the Supreme Courts
verdict, and allowed me to compare them to the reactions and feelings after the Court
made and publicized their decision, allowing me to make a better analysis of how the
Cruzan case specifically changed the public view on euthanasia.
Cruzan v. Director. U.S. Supreme Court. 25 June 1990. Legal Information Institute. Cornell
University Law School, n.d. Web. 24 Dec. 2013.
<http://www.law.cornell.edu/supct/html/88-1503.ZS.html>. Within this case, Nancy
Cruzan's parents argue that their daughter ought to be allowed to be taken off life support,
after having suffered irreversible brain damage and falling into a persistent vegetative
state, with no chance of recovery. The Cruzan case was a vital milestone in the euthanasia

12

debate because it not only reinforced the court's rulings in the Quinlan case, but it also
promoted interest in living wills and other such advance medical directives. This case
was a particular interest to me in my research because it originated from Missouri,
allowing me to discuss an event that occurred, at least in the beginning, in my home state.
It, paired with the Quinlan case, helped to reform the public view on euthanasia. This
source in particular was helpful because it provided a very complete outlook on the
Cruzan case and assisted in my analysis of it.
"Dr. Jack Kevorkian's "60 Minutes" Interview." Interview by Overtime Staff. CBSNews. CBS
Interactive, 03 June 2011. Web. 05 Nov. 2013. <http://www.cbsnews.com/8301504803_162-20068720-10391709.html>. The "60 Minutes" Interview showed the video
footage that Dr. Kevorkian took while terminating the life of Thomas Youk, and provided
the reactions of both Thomas Youk's family and a medical ethics professional, showing
both the pro side of the argument, as well as the con's side. This was likely Kevorkian's
most popular case of euthanasia, as it was the only instance of active euthanasia. He
described it as a way of raising the limit so that the decision would finally be decided,
saying that either they go or I go, they referring to the prosecutors. This source was
particularly beneficial to my research because it not only showed the original video
footage, but it also provided interviews with the family of Thomas Youk, which served as
a way of showing how the families of other euthanized patients might have felt.
Eckholm, Erik. "New Mexico Judge Affirms Right to Aid in Dying." The New York Times. The
New York Times, 13 Jan. 2014. Web. 08 Mar. 2014.
<http://www.nytimes.com/2014/01/14/us/new-mexico-judge-affirms-right-to-aid-in-

13

dying.html>. Eckholm's article describes a New Mexico judge's court ruling that affirms
a right to physician-assisted suicide, as well as the case surrounding it. This is the U.S.'s
most recent progression in the legalization of euthanasia throughout the nation, followed
by Vermont's legalization of the practice last year. If New Mexico continues down this
path, it will become the fifth state to allow active euthanasia. This article was helpful for
proving how euthanasia is still an ongoing, very current debate, even though it dates very
far back into history.
Greenhouse, Linda. "Does Right to Privacy Include Right to Die? Court to Decide." The New
York Times. The New York Times, 25 July 1989. Web. 23 Jan. 2014.
<http://www.nytimes.com/1989/07/25/us/does-right-to-privacy-include-right-to-diecourt-to-decide.html?pagewanted=all&src=pm>. Greenhouse's article discusses how the
"right to privacy" protected by the U.S. Constitution may or may not encompass the
"right to die," and how that was used within the Cruzan's argument as they fought for
their daughter to be taken off of her medically-assisted nutrition and hydration. This
argument connected the Cruzan and Quinlan case even further, as Paul W. Armstrong, the
Quinlans lawyer, had used the right to privacy in his argument for Karen Ann Quinlans
right to die. The article also included several statements from the Cruzan's themselves
regarding their opinions.
---. "Right-To-Die Case Gets First Hearing in Supreme Court." The New York Times. The New
York Times, 07 Dec. 1989. Web. 23 Jan. 2014.
<http://www.nytimes.com/1989/12/07/us/right-to-die-case-gets-first-hearing-in-supremecourt.html?pagewanted=all&src=pm>. Greenhouse's article briefly discusses the previous

14

occurrences in the Cruzan case and reports that the family of Nancy Cruzan are about to
have their first hearing in the U.S. Supreme Court as they appeal for the Supreme Court
to overturn the ruling of the Missouri Courts. The Cruzan case was a vital milestone in
the euthanasia movement because it promoted public interest in advance medical
directives and reinforced the court's ruling in the Quinlan case.
"Interview with Jack Kevorkian." Interview by HBO. HBO: You Don't Know Jack: Interview:
Jack Kevorkian. HBO, n.d. Web. 05 Nov. 2013. <http://www.hbo.com/movies/you-dontknow-jack/inside/interviews/interview/jack-kevorkian.html>. HBO's interview with Dr.
Jack Kevorkian shows the doctor's thoughts and argument on the matter of euthanasia, as
well as his counter-arguments to those made by the opposing side. Here, he also
references Lord Dawson and his termination of King George V's life. Dr. Kevorkian also
speaks of the people who came to see him, but were ultimately convinced (by the doctor
himself) to not accept his treatment, and states that he had helped them too, as they felt
better afterwards, knowing that there was someone there who could help them pass on if
the suffering ever came to be too much.
Johnson, Constance. Belgium: Euthanasia Opinion May Be Extended to Children. Global
Legal Monitor. Library of Congress, 17 Dec. 2013. Web. 14 May 2014.
<http://www.loc.gov/lawweb/servlet/lloc_news?disp3+1203202792>.
This article discussed Belgium, one of the two European countries to legalize active
euthanasia. It describes how the country now wishes to expand the right to euthanasia to
encompass children as well. If this law passes, Belgium will become the first country to
legalize euthanasia without an age limit. This helped to not only show that euthanasia is

15

not an isolated American problem, but a hot-button issue debated around the globe, but
also that the interest and acceptance of the practice is expanding.
Johnson, Kirk. "Ruling by Montana Supreme Court Bolsters Physician-Assisted Suicide." The
New York Times. The New York Times, 31 Dec. 2009. Web. 08 Mar. 2014.
<http://www.nytimes.com/2010/01/01/us/01suicide.html>. Johnson's article describes the
Montana Supreme Court's decision to allow physician-assisted suicide. It was first
proposed in 2008 when a Montana district judge, Dorothy McCarther, ruled in Baxter v.
State of Montana that Montana residents had a right to physician-assisted suicide. The
Montana Supreme Court affirmed her decision a year later, and Montana officially
became the third U.S. state to legalize the practice. This article helped to show me that,
although euthanasia was a historical practice that dated as far back as the time of the
ancient Greeks and Romans, it still exists as a controversial issue today.
Ledbetter, Les. "California Grants Terminally Ill Right to Put an End to Treatment." The New
York Times. The New York Times, 02 Oct. 1976. Web. 08 Mar. 2014. Ledbetter's article
describes Governor Edmund G. Brown Jr.'s signing of the California Natural Death Act
into the law. With this event, California became the first state in the United States to
allow passive euthanasia, likely motivated by the Quinlan case. In the next year,
California inspires seven other states to follow its footsteps. It is a stepping stone in the
legalization of euthanasia in the U.S. This article helped to show me that, although
euthanasia was a historical practice that dated as far back as the time of the ancient
Greeks and Romans, it still exists as a controversial debate today.

16

Malcolm, Andrew H. "Nancy Cruzan: End to Long Goodbye." The New York Times. The New
York Times, 29 Dec. 1990. Web. 23 Jan. 2014.
<http://www.nytimes.com/1990/12/29/us/nancy-cruzan-end-to-long-goodbye.html>.
Malcolm's article allowed a view into the opinions and statements of Nancy Cruzan's
parents after they won their case and Nancy was allowed to die. The Cruzan case was a
vital part of the euthanasia movement because it promoted the use of living wills. It also
supported the judicial neglect and passive euthanasia that was argued during the Karen
Ann Quinlan case. It described Nancys death, and her parents reactions and feelings
afterwards. Their opinions served as an example to how the friends and family of
euthanized patients may feel.
Nancy B. v. Htel-Dieu De Qubec Et Al. 86 D.L.R. (4th) 385. 31 A.C.W.S. (3d) 160. 69 C.C.C.
(3d) 450. Superior Court of Quebec. 6 Jan. 1992. Uottawa.ca. Uottawa, n.d. Web. 20 Jan.
2014. <aix1.uottawa.ca/~srodgers/3375/nancy.rtf>. Similar to the Quinlan and Cruzan
cases, the Nancy B. case deals with passive euthanasia and permitting a terminally ill
patient to die. However, in this case, Nancy B. was not in a persistent vegetative state,
despite that she had no prospect of recovery. This case provided a bit of information
regarding the views of euthanasia in other countries (Canada), as well the results of cases
not involving a comatose petitioner. This case, paired with the case of Nancy F., was the
center of Leslie Burkholders argument that passive and active euthanasia are not
ethically or morally different form each other. This case helped me to realize that
euthanasia is not a controversial debate in just the United States it also exists within
other countries, including Canada and England.

17

"Opinion 2.20 - Withholding or Withdrawing Life-Sustaining Medical Treatment." AMAASSN.org. American Medical Association, June 1984. Web. 08 Mar. 2014. <
http://www.ama-assn.org//ama/pub/physician-resources/medical-ethics/code-medicalethics/opinion220.page>. The American Medical Association, a long-standing opposer of
euthanasia, published two articles that support withholding and/or withdrawing lifeprolonging medical treatment in certain circumstances. This is the beginning of the
medical acceptance of euthanasia in American. It was the first time that the American
medical society had accepted passive euthanasia as a legitimate method of ending one's
life, and this article helped to express that.
"Potter and Euthanasia." TIME Magazine. TIME Magazine, 31 Jan. 1938. Web. 8 Mar. 2014.
<http://content.time.com/time/magazine/article/0,9171,759045,00.html>. This TIME
article provided information about Charles Francis Potter's creation of the National
Society for the Legalization of Euthanasia (NSLE) in January of 1938. It was helpful in
learning about Potter's organization because he was well-funded and well-backed, and it
seemed like he truly had a good chance in legalizing euthanasia. He created NSLE just
before the changing point of the American public opinion of euthanasia (the turning point
occurred due to the revealing of the Nazis Action T-4).
Robbins, William. "Another State Joins Right-to-Die Issue." The New York Times. The New York
Times, 25 Nov. 1987. Web. 23 Jan. 2014.
<http://www.nytimes.com/1987/11/25/us/another-state-joins-right-to-die-issue.html?
pagewanted=2>. Robbins's article discussed in detail the recent (at that time) occurrences
in the Cruzan's fight to remove their daughter's feeding tubes. It also contains an

18

interview of the parents with their opinion and views. The Cruzan's case was a pinnacle
in the euthanasia movement because it directly caused the passing of the Patient SelfDetermination Act, and greatly increased the public interest in living wills.
---. "Missouri's High Court Bars Life Support Removal." The New York Times. The New York
Times, 17 Nov. 1988. Web. 23 Jan. 2014.
<http://www.nytimes.com/1988/11/17/us/missouri-s-high-court-bars-life-supportremoval.html>. Robbins's article announces the results of the Cruzan v. Director case (in
the Missouri Supreme Court), wherein the Cruzans lost. It also includes the reactions of
the Cruzans after their request was denied. Shortly after their request was denied, the
Cruzans had turned to the U.S. Supreme Court and re-filed their request there. That case
was a milestone in euthanasia in the United States because it lead to the passing of the
Patient Self-Determination Act.
Vacco, Dennis C. "High Court Rejects Constitutional Right To Doctor-Assisted Suicide."
American Civil Liberties Union. ACLU Foundation, 26 June 1997. Web. 03 Dec. 2013.
<https://www.aclu.org/content/high-court-rejects-constitutional-right-doctor-assistedsuicide>. Vacco's article provides the pro-euthanasia argument of himself, and ACLU's
National Legal Director, and their thoughts after the High Court rejected both of Vacco's
arguments that the U.S. Constitution protects the right of terminally ill patients to be
allowed physician-assisted suicide. He argues against the anti-euthanasia viewpoint of
Chief Justice William H. Requist, who had rejected Vacco's petition. This article was
helpful because, it not only provided a brief, concise, and easily understandable summary

19

of the Vacco v. Quill case itself, but it also expressed the opinions of both the pro- and
con- sides, helping me to see both sides of the argument.
Vacco v. Quill. U.S. Supreme Court. 26 June 1997. Legal Information Institute. Cornell
University Law School, n.d. Web. 24 Dec. 2013.
<http://www.law.cornell.edu/supct/html/95-1858.ZO.html>. Within this case, Vacco
thoroughly outlines his argument that terminally ill patients ought to be allowed the
choice of physician-assisted suicide. He argues that this is a right protected by the
Fourteenth Amendment of the U.S. Constitution. He also argued that outlawing
euthanasia may lead to many patients experiencing greater suffering. This case was one
of the major milestones in the euthanasia movement in America.
Washington v. Glucksberg. U.S. Supreme Court. 26 June 1997. Legal Information Institute.
Cornell University Law School, n.d. Web. 8 Mar. 2014.
<http://www.law.cornell.edu/supct/html/96-110.ZS.html>. Washington v. Glucksberg
concerns four physicians who often tend to suffering and terminally ill patients. The four
physicians filed a complaint and went to court, asking for a right to die that allowed
physician-assisted suicide. Their case eventually went to the U.S. Supreme Court, where
it was held that Washington's prohibition of physician-assisted suicide did not violate the
due processes clause of the 14th Amendment. The four physicians ultimately lost their
case. This case was referenced to in the Vacco v. Quill case.
Washington v. Glucksberg. U.S. Supreme Court. 26 June 1997. ProCon.org. ProCon.org, n.d.
Web. 8 Mar. 2014.
<http://euthanasia.procon.org/sourcefiles/WashingtonvGlucksberg.pdf>. This was Chief
20

Justice Rehnquist's delivery of his opinion concerning Washington v. Glucksberg to the

court. He hit several key points that are often used in the opposing side of euthanasia
debate. One of the points that he made was that for most of American history, euthanasia
and suicide have been outlawed; they had been made illegal during the time of the
colonies. He stated that he disagreed with the petitioner's statement that Washington's
prohibition of assisted suicide violated the due processes clause of the Fourteenth
Amendment.
Zeldin, Wendy. "China: Case of Assisted Suicide Stirs Euthanasia Debate." Global Legal
Monitor. Library of Congress, 17 Aug. 2011. Web. 14 May 2014.
<http://www.loc.gov/lawweb/servlet/lloc_news?
Zeldin's article described the events following an assisted-suicide that occurred in China,
where such a practice is illegal. Zhong assisted Zhen in his death (Zhen had asked for
such help), and, after that was discovered, was sent to court. The court debated whether
they ought to sentence Zhong to first degree murder. This article helped to show me that
the euthanasia debate is not constrained to only first world countries or English-speaking
countries such as England, the United States, and Canada. It is a universal issue that is
debated all around the globe.

21

Secondary Sources
1 Samuel. The Holy Bible, Today's New International Version. N.p.: Zondervan, 2005. Print.

Samuel 31 provided information about the suicide of Saul and his armour-bearer. His
suicide can also be interpreted as an attempted euthanasia, as Saul had asked his armourbearer to run him through with his sword, but his armour-bearer had refused. The use of
suicide in the Bible and lack of public criticism for it can be used as an argument against
the Christian anti-euthanasia viewpoint.
Betzold, Michael. "The Eyes of Death." Appointment With Doctor Death. N.p.: Momentum,
1993. N. pag. PBS. PBS, 1995. Web. 05 Nov. 2013.
<http://www.pbs.org/wgbh/pages/frontline/kevorkian/aboutk/drdeathchapters.html>. The
excerpts from Betzold's book provided a good insight to Dr. Jack Kevorkian's past life
and how the many events that occurred lead him to become a major supporter of
euthanasia in 1986. Some of the parts of his past were dark, and suggested mental
instability. A prime example of this is his family history - his parents had been escapees
from the Turks' "final solution." Dr. Kevorkian had once stated that he was not interested
in the Holocaust. During his career life, euthanasia was not the only radical proposition

22

that he made. He also suggested death row experiments and blood transfusions from
corpses.
"The Black Stork: Excerpts From Tomorrow's Children: Dialogue with Dr. Martin S. Pernick."
Interview by Laurie Block. NPR. NPR, 1917. Web. 08 Mar. 2014.
<http://www.npr.org/programs/disability/ba_shows.dir/children.dir/highlights/bsmovsti.ht
ml>. In this interview, Dr. Pernick attacks Dr. Haiselden's judgment two years prior to the
interview, when he allowed a deformed baby to die. Dr. Haiselden's actions sparked great
controversy and for the first time in a long time, caused the American public to speak
openly about euthanasia. Those actions inspired the movie "The Black Stork." Dr.
Pernick claims that the actions from two years ago were caused by insufficient scientific
and medical advances and corrupted values. He claims that Dr. Haiselden was wrong in
his actions, and that the doctor had only done as he had because the saw himself as being
unfit of keeping the badly deformed child alive and living a life fitting of a human being.
"The Black Stork: Movie Ads." NPR. NPR, 1917. Web. 08 Mar. 2014.
<http://www.npr.org/programs/disability/ba_shows.dir/children.dir/highlights/blacksto.ht
ml>. This article discussed "The Black Stork," a film based off of the work of Dr. Harry
J. Haiselden. He greatly contributed to the euthanasia debate in 1915 by allowing a badly
deformed baby boy to die rather than giving him a possibly lifesaving surgery. This
action inspired other American defenders of euthanasia to speak out in favor of the
practice. It began the debate of allowing deformed infants to die for the good of the
society.
Daley, Steve. "True Quinlan Legacy Just A Quiet Story." Chicago Tribune. Chicago Tribune, 14
23

June 1985. Web. 16 Mar. 2014. <http://articles.chicagotribune.com/1985-0614/features/8502070924_1_joseph-and-julia-quinlan-baby-fae-frustaci>. Daley's article

addressed that people ought to see Karen Ann Quinlan as more than just a young woman
left in a coma for nine years; that people ought to see her as someone who suffered and
has a "proper legacy." He also addressed the Quinlan case itself, including the practice
that was born from it judicial neglect. He also mentioned the period of public and
media disinterest between the court case itself and her passing. This newspaper article
was more-so about how the public should view Karen Ann's case from now on, and less
about how her case affected the worlds perception on euthanasia today.
Dowbiggin, Ian Robert. A Merciful End: The Euthanasia Movement in Modern America. Oxford:
Oxford UP, 2003. Print. Dowbiggin's book provided an insight to the historical opinions
about and reactions to euthanasia from different time periods. Two key opinions were the
ancient Greek and Roman general acceptance of the practice during the fifth century to
first century B.C. Another key opinion that he mentioned in his book was the Christian
opposition of euthanasia during the first century to sixteenth century A.D. His book
provided a complete and detailed historical timeline that was beneficial in trying to see
the entire euthanasia spectrum.
Emanuel, Ezekiel J. "The History of Euthanasia Debates in the United States and Britain."
Annals of Internal Medicine 121.10 (1994): 793. Print. Emanuel's article describes the
history of euthanasia in the United States. He touches on several historical topics, some
dating as far back as the Greek and Roman views on the practice, but primarily focuses
on the occurrences in the North American continent. This was helpful to me because, as it

24

focused on America specifically, the book provided more detailed descriptions and
discussions of those events, in comparison to others, such as Dowbiggins book, which
provided a view of the entire timeline globally. As my essay mainly focuses on America,
Emanuels United-States-centered book was beneficial. He also discusses some later
topics, such as Samuel William's petition to use morphine and other drugs for euthanasia,
and the public reaction, both positive and negative.
Engdahl, Sylvia. Euthanasia. Detroit: Greenhaven, 2007. Print. Engdahl's book provided general
information on the topic and various arguments from both sides of the euthanasia debate.
The general information that it provided made it easier to create a thesis statement and
construct an essay that addressed the issue. It also helped by providing general
descriptions and definitions of the term "euthanasia" that assisted in formulating and
writing the paper.
"Euthanasia." Merriam-Webster.com. Merriam-Webster, N.d. Web. 7 Jan. 2014.
<http://www.merriam-webster.com/dictionary/euthanasia>. The Merriam-Webster
dictionary provided a detailed explanation of the term "euthanasia". It described
euthanasia as "the act or practice of killing or permitting the death of hopelessly sick or
injured individuals in a relatively painless way for reasons of mercy." This definition was
useful in sorting out a definition of the term to generally follow throughout the paper.
"A General History of Euthanasia." Life.org.nz. Life Resources Charitable Trust, 2011. Web. 06
Mar. 2014. <http://www.life.org.nz/euthanasia/abouteuthanasia/history-euthanasia1/>.
This article provided a general history of euthanasia, ranging from Mesopotamia to the
twentieth-first century. It described time periods where euthanasia was allowed, and
25

when it was forbidden. It was useful in getting a general overview of the views on
euthanasia that some of the great nations and empires had.
Gumm, Carrie. "The Legacy of Nancy Cruzan." University of Virginia Health System. University
of Virginia, 6 July 2010. Web. 24 Dec. 2013.
<http://web.archive.org/web/20100706145815/http://www.healthsystem.virginia.edu/inter
net/him/nancycruzan.cfm>. Gumm's article briefly describes Nancy Cruzan's accident,
the debate over taking her off of life support, the national reaction towards her case, and
the effects of the case and how it changed the medical view of being taken off life
support. The Cruzan's case was a vital part of the euthanasia movement because of how it
reinforced the Court's ruling in the Quinlan case and promoted public interest in living
wills and euthanasia.
Harris, Nancy. The Ethics of Euthanasia. San Diego: Thomson/Gale, 2005. Print. Nancy Harris's
book provided detailed and useful accounts from various people from both sides of the
argument over euthanasia. Although a few of the chapters could be considered primary
sources - such as Chapter 3, wherein Carol Bernstein Ferry gives her firsthand account
and explains how the allowance of physician-assisted suicide might have changed her
decision within a letter that she wrote prior to her suicide in 2001 the majority of the
book itself is a secondary source. This book provided a good overview that helped in
formulating the outline and paper.
Hilliard, Bryan. "The Moral and Legal Status of Physician-Assisted Death: Quality Of Life and
the Patient-Physician Relationship." Issues in Integrative Studies 18 (2000): 45-63.
Association for Interdisciplinary Studies. Association for Interdisciplinary Studies, 2000.
26

Web. 8 Mar. 2014. <http://www.units.muohio.edu/aisorg/index.shtml>. Hilliard's article

provided descriptions of the history of euthanasia and its moral and legal status. In pages
49-51 he provided a timeline that spanned from 1906 to 1992 that described the changes
in the practice's moral and legal statuses throughout the twentieth century. His article was
useful because it referenced several cases that were both famous and little-known.
Hillyard, Daniel, and John Dombrink. Dying Right: The Death with Dignity Movement. New
York: Routledge, 2001. Print. Hillyard and Dombrink's book provides a detailed account
of several pro-euthanasia movements. This includes the Oregon Death with Dignity Act,
which was passed in 1994 and became the first law in American history to permit
physician-assisted suicide, and the 2000 Maine Death with Dignity Act, which was
defeated by a small margin of 51 to 49 percent. It describes the story of the people
involved in the movements and their stories.
Humphry, Derek. "Chronology of Right-to-Die Events During the 20th Century and into the
Millennium." Euthanasia World Dictionary. N.p., 31 Aug. 2013. Web. 08 Mar. 2014.
<http://www.finalexit.org/chronology_right-to-die_events.html>. This list compiled by
Derek Humphry includes many Right-to-Die events from the 1900's to 2014. As it was
organized in a timeline-manner, it was easy to locate the correct date. The events were
described with enough details to fully understand, but were still one to three paragraph
summaries of the events or historical opinions of euthanasia, which made it easier to get a
general idea of the history behind the practice.
Judges. The Holy Bible, Today's New International Version. N.p.: Zondervan, 2005. Print. Judges
16 provided information about the suicide of Samson. Judges 9 provided information
27

about the [assisted] suicide of Abimelech/Abimelek. Abimelek's death can be interpreted

as active euthanasia. The use of suicide in the Bible and lack of public criticism for it can
be used as an argument against the Christian anti-euthanasia viewpoint.
Koch, K. A. "Patient Self-Determination Act." National Center for Biotechnology Information.
U.S. National Library of Medicine, Apr. 1992. Web. 08 Mar. 2014. Koch's article
provides more in-depth information about the Patient Self-Determination Act (PSDA).
PSDA requires all hospitals that receive Medicaid/Medicare funds to inform their patients
of their options under their state's right-to-die policies, and of their rights to
demand/refuse treatment. The PSDA was a direct result of the Cruzan case.
Lelyveld, Joseph. "1936 Secret Is Out: Doctor Sped George V's Death." The New York Times.
The New York Times, 28 Nov. 1986. Web. 29 Nov. 2013.
<http://www.nytimes.com/1986/11/28/world/1936-secret-is-out-doctor-sped-george-v-sdeath.html>. Lelyveld's article describes the events that occurred before and during the
death of King George V's death, including the "Mission of Mercy" speech made by Lord
Dawson, as well as the public response to his actions on the day the king passed away.
The King's death in 1936 had been hidden from the public eye until it was revealed by a
biographer of George V in 1986. Lord Dawson's actions were an important part of the
euthanasia debate because not only his act of terminating the King's life, but also the act
of concealing it from the public, captured the public attention and caused controversy to
surround the event. Although Lelyvelds article could be considered a resource
document, as it was written at the time that Dawsons actions became known to the
public, making it one of the most primary of sources, as that was about as close to the

28

event itself as a newspaper would be. Even so, the article was not written at the time of
King George Vs death, and cannot be considered primary.
Lewin, Tamar. "Nancy Cruzan Dies, Outlived by a Debate Over the Right to Die." The New York
Times. The New York Times, 27 Dec. 1990. Web. 24 Dec. 2013.
<http://www.nytimes.com/1990/12/27/us/nancy-cruzan-dies-outlived-by-a-debate-overthe-right-to-die.html>. Lewin's article provides a brief description of the Nancy Cruzan
case itself, the effects of the case on the medical society, and the argument an antieuthanasia activist. The Cruzan case was an important milestone in the euthanasia
movement because of its influence on living wills. It also promoted the judicial neglect
that was ruled into the law after the Quinlan case and increased the American public's
interest in passive euthanasia.
Manning, Michael. Euthanasia and Physician-Assisted Suicide: Killing or Caring? New York:
Paulist, 1998. Print. Manning's book provided insightful information about the views of
both sides in the euthanasia debate. One of the key points that he made was the Christian
views of euthanasia in the 1100-1400's A.D., and how it reinforced the Hippocratic Oath.
This is still one of the major issues behind euthanasia (how it may or may not violate the
Hippocratic Oath), and it was helpful to see its roots. However, it, of course, did not
neglect the other side. Manning also discussed Renaissance and Reformation authors'
opposition against the Christian church.
Matthew. The Holy Bible, Today's New International Version. N.p.: Zondervan, 2005. Print.
Matthew 27:5 describes Judas committing suicide by hanging himself. This is one of the
only examples of suicide in the New Testament. The use of suicide in the Bible and lack
29

of public criticism for it can be used as an argument against the Christian anti-euthanasia
viewpoint.
McFadden, Robert D. "Karen Ann Quinlan, 31, Dies; Focus of 76 Right to Die Case." The New
York Times. The New York Times, 12 June 1985. Web. 24 Dec. 2013.
<http://www.nytimes.com/1985/06/12/nyregion/karen-ann-quinlan-31-dies-focus-of-76right-to-die-case.html>. McFadden's article thoroughly describes the debate over
allowing Karen Ann Quinlan to be taken off life support after suffering irreversible brain
damage and falling into a persistent vegetative state with no prospect of ever recovering;
as well as the effects of the case. The Quinlan case was a key point in the euthanasia
movement because it promoted interest in living wills and was one of the first instances
where passive euthanasia was allowed in America. McFaddens article was written at the
time of Karen Ann Quinlans death, and was a way of looking back at her case.
However, it was not a firsthand account of the 1976 Right-to-Die case itself, making it a
secondary, not a primary source.
"Nancy Cruzan." Sisters of Charity of Leavenworth Health System. Internet Archive Wayback
Machine, 18 Nov. 2005. Web. 24 Dec. 2013.
<http://web.archive.org/web/20051118191347/http://www.sclhsc.org/mission_vision_val
ues/ethics/nancy_cruzan.asp>. This article provided a simple explanation and description
of Nancy Cruzan's parent's debate against the Director of the Missouri Department of
Health, in which they argued that she ought to be taken off life support after suffering
irreversible brain damage and having fallen into a persistent vegetative state, with
virtually no prospect of ever recovering.

30

ProCon.org. "Historical Timeline - Euthanasia." ProCon.org Headlines. ProCon.org, 23 July

2014. Web. 8 Mar. 2014. <http://euthanasia.procon.org/view.timeline.php?
timelineID=000022>. ProCon.org provides multiple quotations that pertain to both sides.
These quotes provide examples, opinions, and definitions of terms. It also includes a
historical timeline that tracks the history and progression of euthanasia throughout time.
It is best used for getting a general summary of how, throughout history, the public has
viewed euthanasia; it also provides a general, concise summary of either sides (pro and
con) arguments. Even so, ProCon.org's greatest asset is that it links to many other
sources, some of which are primary. This made it much easier to track down some of my
sources and additional information on the topics that ProCon.org briefly brushed up on.
Ramsay, J.H. R. "A King, a Doctor, and a Convenient Death." (1994): n. pag. BMJ. Web. 7 Jan.
2014. <http://www.bmj.com/content/308/6941/1445.1>. Rolland's article provided a brief
explanation of Lord Dawson's actions when he sped the death of King George V in 1936,
and described, in depth, the effects of those actions, and the reactions towards them.
Rolland attacks the actions of Lord Dawson and describes them as a way for Lord
Dawson to escape his job as the royal physician and return to his former, easier job and
live a more peaceful life.
"Religion and Euthanasia." BBC News. BBC, 2013. Web. 05 Jan. 2014.
<http://www.bbc.co.uk/ethics/euthanasia/religion/religion.shtml>. BBC News' article
provided a brief, general explanation of the religious argument, and the various reasons
that certain religions are opposed to euthanasia. The three main reasons that the major
monotheistic religions (Christianity, Islam, and Judaism) oppose to it is that God has

31

forbidden killing, human life is sacred, and human life is special. It also goes on to
explain additional reasons why other Easter religions, such as Hinduism and Buddhism,
may oppose to euthanasia, most reasons having to do with the idea of karma and trying to
achieve freedom from mortal life.
"Religion and Suicide." Interview by Bob Abernethy and Betty Rollin. PBS. PBS, 21 Oct. 2005.
Web. 23 Jan. 2014. <http://www.pbs.org/wnet/religionandethics/2005/10/21/october-212005-religion-and-suicide/11870/>. The various short interviews shown on PBS allowed
in insight of various religious leaders' and medical officials' views on suicide, with
opinions coming from both sides of the argument. One of the main statements made in
the first argument was that of Father Charles Rubey, who explained why, under the eyes
of religion, suicide should not be viewed as a sin.
Simpson, J. A., and E. S. C. Weiner. "Euthanasia." The Oxford English Dictionary. 2nd ed.
Oxford: Clarendon, 1989. Oxford English Dictionary Online. Sept. 2011. Web. 7 Jan.
2014. <http://www.oed.com>. The Oxford English Dictionary provided various detailed
definitions and explanations of the term "euthanasia". It described euthanasia as a "gentle
and easy death," or the method of bringing around such a death. It also said that, in recent
use, euthanasia can be defined as "the action of inducing a gentle and easy death. Used
especially with reference to a proposal that the law should sanction the putting painlessly
to death of those suffering from incurable and extremely painful diseases."
Singer, Peter. Rethinking Life and Death. N.p.: St. Martin's Griffin, 1996. Print. Singer's book
provided insightful information about euthanasia and the current (in the year 1996)
debate. He references several occurrences and opinions of others throughout history. One
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of the examples he provides is the report the Harvard Medical School Committee
published in the Journal of the American Medical Association in 1968, which redefined
death in favor of passive euthanasia.
Smith, Wesley J. Forced Exit: The Slippery Slope from Assisted Suicide to Legalized Murder.
New York: Times, 1997. Print. Smith's book presents a strong anti-euthanasia argument.
It discusses the dark aspects of euthanasia in history, including the Nazi mercy killings
and infanticide. Smith was very strongly against the euthanasia movement and demeaned
it in his book.
"The Hippocratic Oath." BBC News. BBC, 20 Nov. 2003. Web. 12 May 2014.
<http://www.bbc.co.uk/dna/place-london/plain/A1103798>. This article from BBC News
described the Hippocratic Oath, and included a translated copy of the Oath itself.
Although the Oath could be considered a primary source, the article itself was not written
at the time period of neither the penning of the Oath or any of the cases mentioned in the
essay, thus it is classified as a secondary source. The Hippocratic Oath plays a role in the
argument of the "con" side of the euthanasia debate. It is often considered to be the first
direct objection to euthanasia, but when it was put into place, euthanasia was still
occurring all throughout Greece and Rome.
Times Wire Services. "Controversy Flares Over King's Mercy Killing." Los Angeles Times. Los
Angeles Times, 28 Nov. 1986. Web. 29 Nov. 2013. <http://articles.latimes.com/1986-1128/news/mn-15949_1_mercy-killing>. The article describes the arguments that both sides
of the euthanasia debate made in commentary to Lord Dawson's actions as he sped the
death of King George V. Dawson's actions were key in the euthanasia debate as, although
33

it is a little-known case, the patient in this case was a king. Dr. Jack Kevorkian later
referenced this case in his HBO interview, stating that "if it [euthanasia] is good enough
for a king, isn't it good enough for a garbage collector?" This article is one of the closest
things to a first-hand account of Lord Dawsons interference, but was still not written at
the time of the true event, meaning that it cannot be considered a primary source, and
must be categorized as a secondary source.
Tyson, Peter. "The Hippocratic Oath Today." PBS. PBS, 27 Mar. 2001. Web. 19 Jan. 2014.
<http://www.pbs.org/wgbh/nova/body/hippocratic-oath-today.html>. Peter Tyson's article
concerning the Hippocratic Oath provided additional information about and a translated
version of the Oath, which plays a role in the argument of the "con" side of the euthanasia
debate. The Hippocratic Oath is often considered to be the first direct objection to
euthanasia, but when it was put into place, euthanasia was still occurring all throughout
Greece and Rome.
US Const. Amend. VIII. Print. This amendment was used as an example by Paul W. Armstrong
during the debate over the Quinlan case. He, the Quinlan's lawyer, argued that keeping
Karen Ann Quinlan alive in her circumstances was a "cruel and unusual" punishment,
thus violating the Eighth Amendment.
US Const. Amend. XIV. Sec. 1. Print. The equal protection, life, and liberty described in Section
1 of the Fourteenth Amendment is one of the key factors in many pro-euthanasia debates.
The due process clause was a part of Vacco's primary argument during his lawsuit in
1997. It was also the key argument in Washington v. Glucksberg, wherein Glucksberg
argued for a right to die based on the Fourteenth Amendment.
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"When Death Is Sought - Assisted Suicide and Euthanasia in the Medical Context - New York
State Task Force on Life & the Law." ProCon.org Historical Timeline. ProCon.org, 23
July 2007. Web. 8 Mar. 2014.
<http://euthanasia.procon.org/sourcefiles/taskforcereport.pdf>. This article discussed the
euthanasia debate that occurred in New York after Governor Mario M. Cuomo created the
Task Force on Life and the Law in 1984, which opposed euthanasia and assisted suicide.
It continues to discuss historical happenings and opinions of euthanasia, including the
Jewish and Christian opposition to the practice during the Middle Ages. The article also
goes on to discuss famous cases, such as Vacco v. Quill, and includes additional
information about them.
Zucker, Marjorie B. The Right to Die Debate: A Documentary History. Westport, CT:
Greenwood, 1999. Print. Primary Documents in American History and Contemporary
Issues. Zucker's book discusses the euthanasia debate and includes several historical
examples. One example is the British and American Euthanasia Societies' submission of a
petition to the United Nations Commission on Human Rights to change the UN
Declaration of Human Rights to include and allow euthanasia. Although the book
includes several primary sources, it itself is not a primary source, causing my
classification of this source as secondary.

35