Intro into Anatomy Final Examination Notes

Topic 1 BONES
- Study of bones is called osteology
- Skeleton is composed of bones, ligaments and cartilage

CARTILAGE
Occurs only in isolated areas, e.g. nose, parts of the ribs and joints

TYPES OF CARTILAGE
Hyaline frictionless, found mostly in mobile joints knees and elbows
Fibrocartilage pressure and shock absorbers spine
Elastic cartilage flexibility ears

BONE FUNCTION
Support frameworks, and attachment of muscles
Protection internal organs from injury
Movement enable movement of body and enables breathing
Storage of salts, calcium and phosphorus and fat for energy
Haemopoiesis red bone marrow produces new blood cells

BONES
- 2 major types spongy (cancellous) bone and compact bone
SPONGY BONE
- Honey comb appearance and made up of bars (trabeculae) of bone with marrow
spaces in between
- Cavities are filled with red marrow
- Located where bones are not heavily stressed or where stresses arrive from many
directions
- Reduces the weight of the skeleton, making it easier for muscles to move the bones
COMPACT BONES
- Dense with few air spaces and forms the external layer of all bones of the body
- It is the tubular shaft of long bones

CLASSIFICATION OF BONES

FLAT
thin, roughly parallel surfaces.
Roof of the skull, the sternum, the ribs and scapulae
Provides protection

LONG
Relatively long and slender
Femur, humerus, tibia, fibula, ulna, radius
Transmit force

IRREGULAR
Complex shapes with short, flat, notched, or ridged surfaces
Spinal vertebrae, bones of the pelvis
Varied

SHORT
Small and boxy
Carpals and tarsals bones
Support, stability, limited movement

SEASMOID
General flat and shaped somewhat like a sesame seed.
Patella (kneecaps)

LONG BONES
-

2 ENDS (EPIPHYSES)
Articular cartilage
SHAFT (DIAPHYSIS)
Weight bearing
Bone marrow
Nutrient foramen
METAPHYSIS
Narrow region between epiphysis and diaphysis
EPIPHYSEAL LINE
Growth plate

BONE FORMATION
OSSIFICATION
- Two types of bone formation:
Endochondral Ossification
- The bone infiltrates a cartilage model of the final structure.
- Most bones are formed in this way, e.g. femur and humerus
- Ossification commences at a primary centre
- Commence around 6th week of development
- Hyaline cartilage begins transforming to bone at primary centres around 8th week

Intramembranous Ossification
- The bone develops directly on or within the fibrous connective tissue membranes
e.g. skull
- Mesenchymal cells differentiate into osteoblasts within fibrous or connective tissue
- Flat bones of the skull, clavicle, sesamoid bones
BONE MARKINGS
- Bones display distinctive surface markings or features
- that are characteristic to that bone
- Elevations or projections that provide attachment points for
- muscles, ligaments, tendons
- Grooves or depressions for passage of muscles and nerves
- Sites of articulation

Bone Markings (Surface Features)

Elevations and Projections
Process - general term for projection or bump
Ramus - extension of a bone at an angle to rest of bone (body)
Process for Tendons and Ligaments
Trochanter - large, rough projection ( Applies only to the proximal femur.)
Tuberosity - rough projection
Tubercle - a round projection
Crest - prominent ridge
Line - low ridge
Spine - pointed process
Process for Articulations
Head - expanded articular end of epiphysis
Neck - narrow constriction below head
Condyle - smooth, round articular process
Trochlea - smooth, grooved articular process shaped like a pulley
Facet - small flat articular surface
Depressions
Fossa - shallow depression
Sulcus - narrow groove
Openings
Foramen - rounded passageway
Fissure - elongated cleft
Canal - passageway through bone
Sinus - chamber within bone normally filled with air

Appendicular Skeleton

includes the bones of the upper and lower limbs and their supporting elements, the
pectoral girdle and pelvic girdle that attach them the axial skeleton.

Pectoral Girdle
-

The pectoral girdle, or shoulder girdle, consists of the clavicle and scapula. The
pectoral girdle positions the shoulder joint and provides a base for arm movement.

Clavicle
- The clavicle connects the pectoral girdle to the axial skeleton. Features include:

Sternal end roughly pyramidal attachment to the sternum.

Acromial end flatter and broader attachment to the acromion of the scapula.
The superior surface directly underneath the skin is smooth. The inferior surface has
attachment sites for ligaments these are:
Conoid tubercle at acromial end.
Costal tuberosity at sternal end.

Scapula
The body of the scapula forms a broad triangle. The three sides of the triangle
are places where muscles attach and are:
1. Superior border
2. Medial (vertebral) border
3. Lateral (axillary) border
The corners of the triangle are:
1. Superior angle (medial end of superior border).
2. Inferior angle
3. Lateral angle
The lateral angle forms a broad process that supports the cup-shaped glenoid
cavity (fossa). The lateral angle is also called the head of the scapula and is
connected to the body of the scapula by a rounded neck.
The broad flat surfaces on the scapula are called fossa and include:
Subscapular fossa the concave anterior surface on the body of the scapula.
Supraspinous fossa the flat surface superior to the scapular spine.
Infraspinous fossa the flat surface inferior to the scapular spine.

Upper Limb
Humerus
Head smooth and round, superior and medial portion of the epiphysis that articulates with the glenoid
cavity.
Greater tubercle large projection lateral to the head.
Lesser tubercle smaller projection on the anterior and medial surface of the epiphysis.
Intertubercular groove groove separating the greater and lesser tubercles.
Anatomical neck constriction distal to the head of the humerus.
Surgical neck constriction distal to tubercles and head of humerus. Frequent site of fractures.
Deltoid tuberosity - elevated, roughened surface on the lateral side of the shaft. Deltoid muscle attaches
here.
Diaphysis (Shaft) The proximal shaft is cylindrical. The distal shaft flares to form a flatter triangular
portion.
Medial and lateral epicondyles the flared distal ends of the humerus on either side of the articular
surface. Muscles attach here.
Condyle The inferior articular surface of the humerus that articulates with the ulna and the radius. The
articular condylar surface is divided into:
Trochlea (pulley) spool-shaped medial portion that articulates with the ulna.
Capitulum rounded lateral portion that articulates with the head of the radius.
Depressions above the condyle accommodate proximal parts of the radius and ulna when the elbow
joint is fully flexed and extended. These include:
Coronoid fossa accepts coronoid process on the anterior surface during flexion.
Olecranon fossa accepts olecranon of ulna during extension.
Radial fossa accepts head of radius during flexion.

Ulna
The ulna is the medial bone of the forearm. The proximal end of the ulna articulates with the humerus and
has the following features:
Olecranon superior and posterior portion of the epiphysis that forms the point of the elbow.
Trochlear (semilunar) notch anterior portion that interlocks with the groove of the trochlea.
Coronoid process forms the inferior lip of the trochlear notch.
Radial notch lateral to the coronoid process, this notch accommodates the radial head.
The distal end of the ulna narrows and shows the following features:
Ulnar head disc-shaped distal part.
Styloid process short process posterior to the ulnar head.

Radius
The radius is the lateral bone of the forearm. The proximal radius has:
Radial head disc-shaped head articulates with the capitulum of the humerus.
Radial tuberosity the attachment site for the biceps brachii muscle.
The distal radius widens to the:
Distal extremity distal portion of the radius that forms the proximal side of the wrist joint. Features
found here are:
Styloid process process on lateral side of distal extremity stabilizes the wrist joint.

Ulnar notch of radius notch on medial side articulates with the ulnar head.
Carpal Bones
There are eight carpal (wrist) bones, four proximal and four distal. The bones are connected by moveable
joints that permit them to slide and twist.
Proximal carpal bones
From lateral to medial:
Scaphoid (boat-like) bone adjacent to styloid process of radius.
Lunate (moon-like) bone articulate with radius along with the scaphoid.
Triquetrum (triangular) bone shaped like a pyramid.
Pisiform (pea-shaped) bone small bone that lies anterior to the triquetrum.

Distal carpal bones

From lateral to medial:
Trapezium forms a proximal articulation with the scaphoid.
Trapezoid bone wedge-shaped bone that also has a proximal articulation with the scaphoid.
Capitate (having a head) bone largest carpal bone.
Hamate (hooked) bone hook-shaped bone.
Metacarpal Bones
The metacarpal bones are bones that support the palm and articulate with the distal carpal bones. They are
numbered with the Roman numerals (I V) from lateral to medial. Each has a wide proximal base, a
middlebody, and a distal head.

Phalanges
There are 14 finger bones with three in each finger (proximal, middle and distal) with the exception of the
thumb, also called the pollex, which has only two (proximal and distal).
The Pelvic Girdle
The pelvic girdle is more massive than the pectoral girdle because of the greater stresses involved in weight
bearing and locomotion. The pelvic girdle also supports and protects the lower viscera.
The pelvic girdle consists of the sacrum and coccyx and the two ossa coxa (sing. os coxae).
Os coxae
The ossa coxae result from the fusion of the ilium, ischium and pubis. At the place where the three bones
meet there is the:
Acetabulum curved surface that articulates with the head of the femur. Within the acetabulum are
found:
Lunate surface smooth curved, c-shaped surface. An anterior and inferior gap in this surface is
called the acetabular notch.
Acetabular fossa the dished-out space enclosed by the lunate surface.
The anterior and medial portions of the ossa coxae are connected by a pad of fibrocartilage called the pubic
symphysis.
The three bones that form the ossa coxae are:
Ilium
The largest of the three bones contributes to the superior two-fifths of the acetabulum. Features of the
ilium include:
Arcuate line line on the medial side marks the beginning of the broad superior expansion.
Going around the border of the ilium:
Inferior iliac notch notch inferior to anterior inferior iliac spine.
Anterior inferior iliac spine (AIIS) process on anterior border of ilium.
Anterior superior iliac spine (ASIS) process on anterior border of ilium.
Iliac crest curving superior border of ilium.
Posterior superior iliac spine (PSIS) process at the end of the iliac crest.
Posterior inferior iliac spine (PIIS) rounded inferior process on posterior border of ilium.
Greater sciatic notch notch through which the sciatic nerve passes.
On the inner or medial side of the ilium:

Iliac fossa concave medial surface of ilium.

Auricular surface ear-shaped roughened surface that contributes to the sacroiliac joint.
Iliac tuberosity roughened process superior to the auricular surface where the ligaments that
stabilize the sacroiliac joint attaches.

Ischium
The posterior bone that contributes to the posterior two-fifths of the acetabulum. Features of the
ischium include:
Ischial spine process below greater sciatic notch.
Lesser sciatic notch inferior to ischial spine.
Ischial tuberosity roughened projection on which the body weight is borne when seated.
Ischial ramus narrow branch that fuses with the inferior branch of the pubis.
Pubis
The anterior bone that contributes to the anterior one-fifth of the acetabulum. The two bones are joined
anteriorly by a fibrocartilage pad called the pubic symphysis. Features of the pubis include:
Inferior ramus branch that fuses with the ischial ramus.
Superior ramus contributes to the acetabulum. Features on the superior ramus include:
Pubic tubercle process on anterior and superior part.
Pectineal line line that extends from pubic tubercle to arcuate line.
Pubic crest roughened ridge that extends medially from pubic tubercle.
Obturator foramen opening surrounded by ischial and pubic rami and closed by connective
tissue in the living person.
Obturator groove groove on superior ramus that permits passage of blood vessels and nerves.
Pelvis
The pelvis consists of a ring of bones that include the two ossa coxae, the sacrum and the coccyx. The pelvis
is divided into:

False (greater) pelvis the superior part bounded by the expanded, blade-like portions of each ilium
superior to the arcuate line. Encloses organs of the inferior abdominal cavity.
True (lesser) pelvis inferior to iliopectinial line and bounded by both pubic bones, both ischium, the
sacrum and coccyx. The boundaries of the true pelvis are:
Pelvic inlet superior boundary of true pelvis bounded by the pelvic brim which includes the base of the
sacrum, ileopectineal line, and superior margin of the pubic symphysis.
Pelvic outlet inferior opening bounded by coccyx, ischial tuberosities and inferior border of pubic
symphysis.

The Lower Limb

The lower limb is designed to transfer weight from the body to the ground.
Femur
The femur is the longest and heaviest bone in the body. Its features include:
Head proximal, rounded articulation with the acetabulum.
Fovea depression in head where a stabilizing ligament attaches.
Neck constriction distal to the head.
Greater trochanter process that projects laterally from the junction of the neck with the shaft.
Lesser trochanter process on posterior, medial surface of femur.
Intertrochanteric line anterior line between greater and lesser trochanter.
Intertrochanteric crest more prominent ridge on the posterior surface.
Gluteal tuberosity inferior to intertrochanteric crest on lateral side.
Linea aspera prominent rough elevation on posterior side of femoral shaft. Divides inferiorly into
Medial and lateral supracondylar ridges with a flattened, triangular
Popliteal surface in between.
The medial and lateral supracondylar ridges terminate in medial and lateral epicondyles with a rough
projection called the adductor tubercle on the medial epicondyle.
The distal articular surface has smooth and round medial and lateral condyles. The condyles fuse
anteriorly to form the patellar surface but remain separate posteriorly where there is an intercondylar fossa.

Patella
The patella is a large sesamoid bone that forms in the tendon of the quadriceps femoris tendons. Featues
include:
Base broad superior attachment for quadriceps tendon.
Apex inferior somewhat broad point.

Tibia
The large medial bone of the leg. The proximal end has:
Medial and lateral condyles round expanded processes with flat articular surfaces.
Intercondylar eminence ridge between the medial and lateral condyles.
Tibial tuberosity roughened prominence on anterior surface for attachment of patella ligament.
The shaft has a:
Anterior margin a prominent ridge that begins at the tibial tuberosity and extends distally.
Interosseous border the lateral border where a collagenous sheet attaches the tibia to the fibula.
Popliteal line posterior line for the attachment of muscles.
The distal tibia has a

Medial malleolus a large medial process that helps stabilize the ankle joint medially.

Fibula
Slender bone parallel to lateral border of tibia. The features include:
Head articulates inferior and slightly posterior to the lateral tibial condyle.
Lateral malleolus distal epiphysis provides stability to the ankle joint by preventing medial sliding of
tibia across the talus.
Tarsal Bones
The tarsus (ankle) has seven bones:
Talus transmits weight from tibia to foot. Its articulation with the tibia is the smooth superior surface,

the trochlea.
Calcaneus largest tarsal bone forms the heel. Transmits most of the weight while standing.
Cuboid bone articulates with anterior surface of calcaneus.
Navicular bone articulates with anterior surface of talus.
Cuneiform bones three wedge-shaped bones, medial cuneiform, intermediate cuneiform and lateral
cuneiform, articulate with anterior surface of navicular bone.

Metatarsal bones
Five bones numbered with Roman numerals I V proceeding from medial to lateral.
Phalanges
As in the hand, there are 14 phalanges in the five digits with three phalanges (proximal, middle and distal)
in all except the great toe, hallux, which has only two (proximal and distal).