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By Nagaraj.S.Anavekar

INTRODUCTION TO OFFSHORE STRUCTURES & DESIGN

(FOR OIL & GAS - EXPLORATION & PRODUCTION)

1.0 TYPES OF OFFSHORE STUCTURS

FIXED OFFSHORE STRUCTURES
a)
b)
c)
d)

Jacket or Template structures ( up to 300m)

Compliant Towers ( up to 600m)
Concrete gravity Platforms ( up to 100m)
Jack-up Rigs ( float during towing) ( up to 80m )

FLOATING OFFSHORE STRUCTURES (up to 2500m)

a)
b)
c)
d)

Tension Leg Platforms (TLP)

Semi-submersibles rigs (FPU)
Spar platforms (SPAR)
Ship shaped (FPSO)

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2.0 OIL & GAS PROD. PROCESS OVERVIEW

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3.0 DESIGN OF FIXED OFFSORE STRUCTURS

3.1 DESIGN CODES

(Related to all types of offshore structures )

a) AMERICAN PETROLEUM INSTITUTE

1. API RP2A-WSD (21st edition) Recommended practice for Planning, Designing and
constructing Fixed Offshore Platforms-Working Stress Design.
2. API RP2A-LRFD (21st edition) Recommended practice for Planning, Designing
and constructing Fixed Offshore Platforms-Load &Resistance Factor Design.
3. API RP2L (4th edition) - Recommended practice for Planning, Designing and
constructing Heliports for Fixed Offshore Platforms
b) AISC WSD 9th Edition.
Manual of steel construction Allowable stress design (AISC American Institute of
steel construction, Inc. Specification for Structural steel buildings, Chicago, IllinoisUSA)
c) CAP 437 (Civil Aviation Publication 437)
Offshore Helicopter Landing Areas- Guidance on Standards - Published by Safety
Regulation group of CIVIL AVIATION AUTHORITY, United Kingdom (UK).
d) DNV Det Norske Veritas (Norway)
Following are the DNV offshore codes:
Recommended Practices
1
2
3
4
5

DNV RP C201
DNV RP C202
DNV RP C203
DNV RP C204
DNV RP B401

2002
2002
2001
2004
2005

Buckling Strength of Plates

Buckling Strength of Shells
Fatigue Strength Analysis of Offshore Steel Structures
Design Against Accidental Loads
Cathodic Protection Design

Offshore Service Specifications

1
2
3

DNV OSS 101 2001

Rules for Classification of Offshore Drilling and Support units
DNV OSS 102 2001
Rules for Classification of Floating Production and Storage Units
DNV OSS 103 Draft 2001 Rules for Classification of LNG/LPG Floating Production
and Storage Units

Offshore Standards
1
2
3
4
5
6
7

DNV OS C101
DNV OS C102
DNV OS C103
DNV OS C104
DNV OS C105
DNV OS C106
DNV OS C201

2000
2000
2000
2001
2001
2001
2002

Design of Offshore Structures, General

Structural Design of Offshore Ships
Structural Design of Column-stabilised Units (LRFD Method)
Structural design of self-elevating Units (LRFD-method)
Structural Design of Tension-leg units (LRFD Method)
Structural Design of Deep-draught Units (LRFD Method)
Structural Design of Offshore Units (WSD method)

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8
9

DNV OS C401
DNV OS E401

2001
2001

Fabrication of Offshore Structures

Helicopter Decks

Classification Notes
1
2
3
4
5
7
9
10
11
12
13
14

Note No. 30-1

Note No. 30-2
Note No. 30-3
Note No. 30-4
Note No. 30-5
Note No. 30-7
Note No. 31-1
Note No. 31-2
Note No. 31-3
Note No. 31-4
Note No. 31-5
Note No. 20-2

July 1995
Aug 1984
Oct 1987
Feb 1992
Mar 2000
June 2001
June 1999
May 1980
Jan 1999
Sep 1987
Feb 1992
Feb 1990

Buckling Strength Analysis

Fatigue Strength Analysis for Mobile Offshore Units
Spherical Shells subjected to Compressive Stresses
Foundations
Environmental Conditions and Environmental Loads
Fatigue Assessment of Ship Structures
Strength Analysis of Hull Structures in Bulk carriers
Strength Analysis of Hull Structures in Roll on / Roll off Ships
Strength Analysis of Hull Structures in Tankers
Column stabilised Units (Semi submersible Platforms)
Strength Analysis of Main Structures of Self Elevating Units
Ships - Inclining Test & Lightweight Survey

e) British codes (BSI) ( Mainly for British offshore sector).

1. BSI BS EN ISO 19900 01/01/2002 - Petroleum and natural gas industries General
requirements for offshore structures2. BSI BS EN ISO 19901-1 01/25/2006 Petroleum and natural gas industries Specific
requirements for offshore structures Part 1: Metocean design and operating
considerations.
3. BSI BS EN ISO 19901-2 04/07/2005 Petroleum and natural gas industries - Specific
requirements for offshore structures - Part 2: Seismic design procedures and criteria.
4. BSI BS EN ISO 19901-4 08/26/2003 Petroleum and natural gas industries Specific
requirements for offshore structures Part 4: Geotechnical and foundation design
considerations.
5. BSI BS EN ISO 19901-5 08/11/2003 Petroleum and natural gas industries Specific
requirements for offshore structures Part 5: Weight control during engineering and
construction.
6. BSI BS EN ISO 19901-7 01/23/2006 Petroleum and natural gas industries Specific
requirements for offshore structures Part 7: Station keeping systems for floating
offshore structures and mobile offshore units-AMD 16988: March 30, 2007.
7. BSI BS EN ISO 19902 01/31/2008 Petroleum and natural gas industries Fixed
steel offshore structures ACTV-CURR
8. BSI BS EN ISO 19903 01/31/2007 Petroleum and natural gas industries Fixed
concrete offshore structures-AMD 16926: March 30, 2007.
9. BSI BS EN ISO 19904-1 12/29/2006 Petroleum and natural gas industries
Floating offshore structures Part 1: Monohulls, semi-submersibles and spars-AMD
16927: March 30, 2007.

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3.2 TYPES OF ANALYSIS & DESIGN REQIURED

INPLACE CONDITION
a) Global In-place analysis (Operating & Extreme storm case). (3.2.1)
b) Corrosion protection (anode design for jacket structure/piles) (3.2.2)
c) Miscellaneous member local analysis. (3.2.3)
d) Fatigue analysis. (3.2.4)
e) Pushover or collapse analysis (Intact & Damage). (3.2.5)
f) Earthquake (Seismic) analysis. ( 3.2.6 )
INSTALLATION CONDITION
a) Lift analysis
b) Load-out analysis (including set-down)
c) Jacket launching & upending analysis
d) Barge transportation analysis.
3.2.1 GLOBAL INPLACE ANALYSIS (OPERATING & EXTREME STORM)
The purpose of this analysis is to check jacket & Deck structure strength adequacy for
operating and extreme storm waves. The SACS analysis & design includes following steps.
a)
b)
c)
d)
e)
f)
g)
h)

Structural modelling of jacket & Deck members.

Specifying LDOPT, OPTIONS, LCSEL, Section name, Group name (Ky,Kz) etc.
Specifying support conditions at mud-line (Pile head , fixed, pinned etc)
Specifying wind areas / drag areas, wind shielding etc.
Specifying Drag coefficient (Cd) & Inertia coefficient (Cm).
Specifying Marine growth
Specifying Group/Member overrides
Specifying Dummy members ( Non structural members - Risers, Riser guards, Boat
landing, Fenders etc)
i) Gravity Loading (Basic or primary ):
i) Generated self weight with buoyancy
ii) Generated self weight no buoyancy
iii) Jacket non Generated loads (pile sleeves, Anodes, Boat landing /Fender
walkway loads, Pile grout etc.)
iv) Non modelled dead load of Deck ( Stair, ladder, handrail, non modelled members,
joint/node stiffeners, Safety net & plating of helideck ,
v) Riser content weight
vi) Conductor content weight.
vii) Bridge loads (on Deck)
viii) Bridge Friction loads (on Deck)
ix) Equipment Operating loads (on Deck)
x) Piping operating loads (on Deck)
xi) Wireline rig operating loads (on Deck)
xii) Open area live loads (define separate load case for each deck).
xiii) Open area loads on Helideck (Storage).

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j) Environmental loads :
i) Wave loads. (act from direction as per environmental survey)
ii) Current loads. (act to direction as per environmental survey)
iii) Wind loads. (act from direction as per environmental survey)
Operating & Extreme environmental loads to be applied in 8 or 12 directions
depending on shape of the Jacket.
k) Load combinations (sample case , rectangular jacket ) :
201) Total Gravity load with contingency
202) Total Deck load
203) Total Live load on Decks
204) Total Bridge load

301) 201+203+204+ (Operating Wave + Current + Wind) 0 deg , Min W.D

to
308) 201+203+204+ (Operating Wave + Current + Wind) 330 deg , Min W.D
311) 201+203+204+ (Operating Wave + Current + Wind) 0 deg , Max W.D
to
318) 201+203+204+ (Operating Wave + Current + Wind) 330 deg , Max W.D
401) 201+203+204+ (Extreme Wave + Current + Wind) 0 deg , Min W.D
to
408) 201+203+204+ (Extreme Wave + Current + Wind) 330 deg , Min W.D
411) 201+203+204+ (Extreme Wave + Current + Wind) 0 deg , Max W.D
to
418) 201+203+204+ (Extreme Wave + Current + Wind) 330 deg , Max W.D

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l) Platform pile foundation properties: Pile structural & soil properties are specified
in a separate file and is called PSI input file in SACS. Pile Structure Interaction (PSI)
module of SACS analyze the behaviour of a pile supported structure subject to one or
more static load conditions. Finite deflection of the pile (P-Delta effect) and
non-linear soil behaviour both along and transverse to the pile axis are accounted for.
The program uses a finite difference solution to solve the pile model which is
represented by a beam column on non-linear elastic foundation. The structure resting
on the pile is represented as a linear elastic model.
PSI first obtains the pile axial solution, then uses the resulting internal axial forces to
obtain the lateral solution of the piles. In general, soil exhibits non-linear behaviour
for both axial and transverse loads, therefore an iterative procedure is used to find the
pile influence on the deflection of the structure.
Features of PSI module are
i) Tubular & H pile cross sections with variable properties.
ii) Soil axial behaviour may be represented by adhesion data, non-linear T-Z data, or
as a linear spring.
iii) End bearing effects may be accounted for. Represented by Q-z curves.
iv) Soil lateral behaviour represented by non-linear P-Y curves.
v) Basic soil properties may be used to generate the soil axial properties in the form
of T-Z curves or adhesion data, end bearing T-Z data and/ or lateral soil properties
in the form of P-Y curves, based on API-RP2A recommendations.
vi) Creates up to two equivalent linearized foundation super-elements to be used by
dynamic analysis in lieu of pile stub (equivalent pile stub that yields the same
deflections and rotations as the soil/pile system).
vii) Creates foundation solution file containing pile stresses to be used for fatigue
analysis.

3.2.1.1 UNDERSTANDING CALCULATION OF WAVE & CURRENT FORCES

Wave load on structure is computed based on following methods;

1) Morrison equation if L/D >5 ( L- wave length , D-member dia.)
2) Diffraction theory if L/D <5
For jacket structures, wave force is computed based on Morrison equation and is briefly
described below (Extracted from API RP 2A-WSD 21st Ed.);

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Following flow chart describes the procedure for calculation of Wave plus Current forces for
Static analysis ;
(Note: For deep waters or where platform tend to be more flexible, the static analysis
may not adequately describe the true dynamic loads induced in platform. Correct
analysis of such platforms requires a load analysis involving the dynamic action of
structure (i.e. Wave response analysis in SACS));

Parameters required for wave force calculation.

1) Apparent Wave period : A current in the wave direction tends to stretch the wave
length, while an opposing current shortens it ( called Doppler effect of the current on the
wave). SACS calculates apparent period based on basic inputs.
2) Two-Dimensional Wave Kinematics: Two dimensional wave kinematics are determined
from appropriate wave theory ( Stream function / Stokes-V / Airy ) for specified wave
height, Storm water depth, and apparent period.
3) Wave Kinematics Factor : Two dimensional regular wave kinematics from Stream
function or Stoke-V wave theory do not account for wave directional spreading or
irregularity in wave profile shape. To account for this, horizontal velocities and
accelerations are multiplied by wave kinematics factor( 0.85 to 1.0)
4) Current Blockage factor : The current speed in the vicinity of the platform is reduced
from the specified free stream value by blockage. To account for this, current velocity
is multiplied by current blockage factor ( 0.80 to 1.0)

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5) Combined Wave / Current Kinematics : Wave kinematics adjusted for directional
spreading and irregularity, should be combined vectorially with current profile adjusted
for blockage. Since the current profile is specified to storm mean water level in the design
criteria, some way to stretch (or compress) it to local wave surface must be used.
Methods used are linear stretching & non-linear stretching.
6) Marine growth : All structural members, conductors, risers and appurtenances should be
increased in cross sectional area to account for marine growth thickness. SACS calculates
forces considering member as rough, if marine growth is specified, otherwise member
is treated as smooth.
7) Drag & Inertia Coefficients : For a typical design situations, global platform wave
forces can be calculated using the following values for unshielded circular cylinders;
Smooth Cd=0.65, Cm=1.6
Rough

Cd=1.05, Cm=1.2

8) Conductor Shielding Factor: If the conductors are closely spaced, the force on them
may be reduced due to hydrodynamic shielding. A wave force reduction factor need to be
applied to the drag & inertia coefficients for the conductor array. (based on S/D ratio)
9) Critical Crest Position: Typically a wave is stepped through the structure so that wave
loading is calculated at various crest positions. Wave crest position information may be
specified in terms of wave length L, Time period T or angle of wave cycle D .
Wave loading in SACS is generated for crest position that is critical based on one of the
following criteria.
MM Maximum overturning moment
MS Maximum Base shear
MU Maximum upward force
MD Maximum downward force
NM Minimum overturning moment
NS Minimum base shear

CORROSION PROTECTION (Anode design for jacket structure/piles)

Corrosion protection is required for an offshore structure in Atmospheric zone, Splash zone
and Submerged zone.
The steel work in Atmospheric zone is protected by corrosion protective paints.
The steel work in Splash zone is usually protected by sacrificial wall thickness of about
10mm to 12mm to the members
The steel work in Submerged zone is protected by cathodic protection using sacrificial
anodes. Cathodic protection (CP) can be defined as e.g. electrochemical protection by
decreasing the corrosion potential to a level at which the corrosion rate of the metal is
significantly reduced or a technique to reduce corrosion of a metal surface by making

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that surface the cathode of an electrochemical cell . Cathodic protection can be achieved by
following two methods;
a) Galvanic anode or Sacrificial anode CP system : The anode of the electrochemical
cell is an electrochemically active alloy ( normally aluminium, zinc or magnesium based)
cast about a steel tube and welded to the structure to be protected. Approximately about 5%
of the jacket weight is applied as anodes.
Usually anode design is carried out using code DNV RP B401 2005. [ Input parameters
required are - Design life, Design current density (mA/m2), Coating breakdown (%), Anode
material performance, Sea water resistivity (ohm cm), Anode utilization factor, Design
protective potential (volt), Drained current per well (ampere), Surface area to be protected in
m2(Coated & uncoated steel, bare steel in soil-piles), Number of wells, Anode description
(size & wt.), Number of anodes etc.]
b) Impressed current CP system : An inert anode ( non-consuming, i.e. high silicon cast
iron or graphite) is used and the current is supplied by a rectifier. Mainly used for floating
structures and submerged steel pipelines.
The main difference between galvanic and impressed current systems is that the galvanic
system relies on the difference in potential between the anode and structure, whereas the
impressed current system uses an external power source to drive the current.

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MISCELLANEOUS MEMBER LOCAL ANALYSIS
Member design not covered in global in-place analysis needs to be separately designed with
local modelling. Basically include equipment supports, stair supports, access platforms, boat
landings, riser supports etc.

FATIGUE ANALYSIS
Fatigue is a phenomenon of failure under cyclic loads. Fatigue in offshore structures is
caused by the cumulative effect of all variable loads experienced by the structure during its
life. Both global loading on structure and the local loading on individual members contribute
to the fatigue damage.
Two basic approaches to fatigue analysis are currently in use.
1. Deterministic fatigue analysis
2. Spectral ( or Statistical) fatigue analysis.
(Note: under certain conditions API-RP 2A permits simplified fatigue analysis and is
contained in SACS joint can program)
Deterministic fatigue analysis does not use wave spectra or transfer function, but instead
performs a relatively few discrete wave analyses to determine stress range values. An
appropriate number of wave heights with corresponding periods must be selected to define
the relationship between wave height and stress range. The stress range for each wave and
the number of occurrences are then used to determine fatigue damage. The drawbacks of
deterministic analysis are that it cannot account for the actual distribution of energy over the
entire wave frequency range.
Spectral fatigue is a statistical approach for calculating the fatigue damage to a structure. The
spectral fatigue approach utilises wave spectra and transfer functions, thus allowing the
relationship of the ratio of structural response to wave height as a function of wave frequency
to be developed for the wave frequency range. Spectral fatigue accounts for the actual
distribution of energy over the entire wave frequency range.
To generate a transfer function for a particular fatigue case (wave direction), several waves of
various heights but constant steepness are used to load the structure. These waves need not
necessarily be the waves from the fatigue environment, but waves chosen based on the
dynamics of the structure. The difference between the maximum and minimum stress, called
the stress range, is determined for each wave.
Dividing these stress ranges by one-half of the corresponding wave height produces stress
ranges for waves of unit amplitude (for sinusoidal waves, wave height equals twice the wave
amplitude). The relationship between the stress ranges of unit amplitude and the
corresponding wave frequency for all waves considered is the transfer function.

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The first 20 natural periods and vibration modes of the platform are calculated considering
the mass for operating conditions. For the spectral analysis, stress range transfer functions are
generated for each joint, for 8 wave directions and about 18 to 20 wave periods per direction.
Cumulated damage is then calculated for the given sea-states probabilities and considering
Pierson-Moscowitz Spectrum.
The flow chart of spectral fatigue analysis is as shown below:

Pile Foundation

PILE

Super element ANALYSIS

SEASTATE

single load case

ANALYSIS

generation

generation

(zk95-sac-dyn.inp)

(For center of damage w ave)

DYNAMIC

vibration modes

SEASTATE

transfer functions

ANALYSIS

calculation

ANALYSIS

calculation

(dyninp.inp)

to be investigated)

dynmod

(zk95-sac-stf.inp)

w vrinp.csp
(zk95-w rs-0.inp

(w ave f requencies

dynmas

WAVE
to

RESPONSE

8 analyses for

zk95-w rs-315.inp)

ANALYSES

8 directions

( saccsf.tf1 to saccsf.tf8 )
FATIGUE

( zk95-ftginp )

ANALYSES
f tglst

PUSHOVER OR COLLAPSE ANALYSIS

The main objective of this analysis is:
To establish the residual strength and redundancy of the jacket for extreme
environmental storm loading (RSR-Reserve strength ratio).
To find energy absorption capacity of a boat landing/fender for boat impact.
A static inelastic pushover analysis is carried out using the SACS COLLAPSE module.
This program uses a large deflection, iterative, tangent direct stiffness solution technique
to solve for the geometric and material non-linearities associated with the ultimate load
capacity of a structure.
Gravity loadings are applied first to the model. The storm load case has been applied by
factoring the environmental loading until the structure turn into a mechanism or any of
defined failure criteria occurs.

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The environmental loading is applied to the structure incrementally. The sequence of
analysis adopted by the SACS COLLAPSE module is performed by calculation of nodal
displacements and element forces for each load step and updating the stiffness matrix.
When the stress in the member reaches the yield stress, plasticity is introduced. The
introduction of plasticity reduces the stiffness of the structure and additional loads due to
subsequent load increments will be re-distributed to adjacent members, to the members
that have gone plastic. This procedure (progressive collapse of the members) is continued
until the structure, as a whole collapse or pushed over.
EARTHQUAKE ( SEISMIC) ANALYSIS
The seismic analysis consists of the following major steps. They are:
Linearized foundation system (Pile stub model or foundation super element).
Static analysis.
Dynamic analysis
Earthquake response spectrum analysis and;
Combination of Static and Earthquake results
These are explained below :
Linearized foundation system :
The non-linear foundation model represented by T-Z, Q-Z and P-Y curves of soil have
been converted to linearized foundation system in the form of equivalent pile stub (using
PILE module of SACS software) or foundation super element.
Static analysis :
This static analysis has been carried out for gravity loads with equivalent pile stub model
or foundation super element for evaluating member static stresses.
Dynamic analysis :
The purpose of Dynamic analysis is to obtain the dynamic characteristics of the structure
like the natural period, mode shapes and mass matrix of the platform for subsequent use in
earthquake response spectrum analysis.
The structural model for the static inplace analysis is modified to specify the retained
degree of freedom for the selected joints. DYNPAC uses a set of master (retained) degrees
of freedom to extract the Eigenvalues (periods) and Eigenvectors (mode shapes). The
stiffness matrix is reduced to the master degrees of freedom using standard matrix
condensation method. The three translational degrees of freedom for these master joints
have been kept by specifying 222 as joint fixities as per SACS. The joints have been
selectively chosen so as to obtain the true dynamic characteristics of the platform.
The following are actual masses to be considered for the analysis to calculate the dynamic
characteristics:
Mass of structural and non-structural elements due to all dead loads.
Mass of conductor casings.
Mass of marine growth.
Added mass of seawater participating in the vibration.

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Entrapped mass of seawater in flooded members.

Mass of mechanical and piping loads in operating condition.
Open deck area live loads.
Bridge reactions.

The DYNPAC module of SACS program is used for the dynamic analysis. The consistent
mass approach is selected for computing the natural frequencies and mode shapes.
Earthquake response spectrum analysis :
According to API RP 2A, Cl. 2.3.6.b, for areas where the SLE ground acceleration is in
the range of 0.05g to 0.10g, inclusive, all of the earthquake requirements are considered
satisfied if the strength requirements are met using the ground motion intensity and
characteristics of the rare intense earthquake in lieu of the strength level earthquake. The
Rare Intensity Earthquake (RIE) value is used for Seismic analysis with Strength level
check. No Rare Intensity Earthquake (RIE) or Ductility level Earthquake (DLE) analysis
is required separately. If SLE < 0.05 g , no earthquake analysis required. If SLE > 0.10,
earthquake analysis shall be performed as per API RP 2A Cl. 2.3.6d.
Accordingly, the response spectrum analysis is carried out using API RP 2A-WSD
response spectrum based on soil type. This response spectrum is applied equally along
both principal horizontal axes of the platform and 50% of horizontal ground accelerations
applied in the vertical direction simultaneously. An overall damping ratio of 5% is
generally considered.
Response spectrum analysis is carried out using SACS-DYNAMIC RESPONSE module.
The CQC (Combined Quadratic Combination) method has been used for combining the
responses from the different modes in each direction while SRSS (Square Root of the Sum
of the Squares) method has been used for combining the responses from different
directions as per API RP 2A-WSD.
Combination of static & Earthquake results:
The results of response spectrum analysis needs to be combined with the results of static
analysis assuming the earthquake axial stresses are either tensile or compressive using
COMBINE module. In either case, all other stresses are assumed to have the same sign as
the corresponding static stresses.