Fourier Transformations - Prelab questions

1. The general (one-dimensional) form of a Fourier transform and its inverse. What exactly is represented by F(k) and f(x)? What does k represent and what are its dimensions?
2. What are two applications of a discrete Fourier series? And a continuous Fourier
series?
3. Consider a rectangular aperture as shown below:

b/2
-a/2

a/2
-b/2

Figure 1: A rectangular aperture.

This aperture can be described using the function:

1
if |x| a/2, |y| b/2
f (x, y) =
0
otherwise
(a) Substitute this function into equation 9 to obtain an expression describing the
Fraunhofer diffraction pattern.
(b) Compute the diffraction pattern produced by this aperture. Note that the x and y
dimensions can be treated separately as the integral is separable.
(c) Show that the equation describing the intensity,
I(k) = F (k)F (k)

(1)

of the Fraunhofer pattern is given by:

a
b
I(kx , ky ) = a2 b2 sinc2 (kx )sinc2 (ky )
2
2
where sinc() = sin()/
(d) Provide a sketch of the expected diffraction pattern.

(2)

Fourier Transformations - Theory

The Fourier transform and its inverse
Fourier analysis is the method by which any function can be expressed as an infinite sum
of sines and cosines. An example of this process of addition of trigonometric functions to
approximate another function is shown in figure 2 below.

(a) Example square pulse

(b) Sum of 2 cosine terms overlaid

(c) Sum of 5 cosine terms

(d) Sum of 10 cosine terms

Figure 2: These graphs illustrate the Fourier series sum for a square wave. An aural version
of this can be found at http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=y6crWlxKB_E
For an infinite non-periodic function the Fourier integral is used to calculate the sum of
periodic functions. This is written as:
Z

Z
1
f (x) =
A(k) cos kxdk +
B(k) sin kxdk
(3)
0
0
A discrete version of Fourier integral also exists, known as the discrete Fourier series:
f (x) =

where |k| =

X
A0 X
+
Am cos m|k|x +
Bm sin m|k|x
2
m=1
m=1

(4)

2
.

In both representations, A(k) and B(k) are functions for weighting the sine and cosine components. They are defined by:
2

Z
A(k) =

f (x) cos kxdx

(5)

f (x) sin kxdx

(6)

and

B(k) =

These two transforms can be combined into a single complex integral equation:
Z
f (x)eikx dx
F (k) =

(7)

Its corresponding/reciprocal integral known as the inverse Fourier transform and is given
by:
Z
1
f (x) =
F (k)eikx dk
(8)
2
In two dimensions the complex and inverse transforms generalise to:
Z Z
F (kx , ky ) =
f (x, y)ei(kx x+ky y) dxdy

1
f (x, y) =
(2)2

F (kx , ky )ei(kx x+ky y) dkx dky

(9)

(10)

Although the exact mathematical representation of the Fourier transform varies across the
literature, all forms are equivalent (this definition is from Hechts Optics). Another term
commonly used for the function F (k) is the spatial frequency spectrum, or more simply
the frequency spectrum.

Physical discussion of Fourier transforms

Consider a photographic slide (such as the one shown in figure 3(a)) illuminated by a monochromatic plane wave. The incoming plane wave is scattered by the image and rays emerge from
it in a wide range of directions. Each scattered ray has a direction ~ki , corresponding to a
spatial frequency component of the Fourier transform. The relative strength of each of the
scattered rays leaving the slide is given by the Fourier transform of the electric field just after
the slide. The light transmitted through the image is the sum of all of the individual scattered
rays.
Very close to the slide, the image formed on a viewing screen will look very much like the
slide because the scattered rays have not yet spread and interfered with each other. As the
distance to the viewing screen increases the scattered rays will increasingly overlap and the
observed image will no longer resemble the original. The wave in the region beyond the
slide is called the diffraction pattern.
Depending on the distance from the slide, two different mathematical approximations can be
used to describe the diffraction pattern. The Fresnel approximation describes the diffraction
pattern close to the slide but is mathematically complicated. When the distance between
3

Incident
Photographic
plane wave
slide
Screen

(a) Photographic slide

(b) Amplitude of Fourier

transform of the image (log
scaled)

(c) Scattered plane waves

Figure 3: Example of Fourier transforming an image.

the slide and the viewing screen is extremely large then the Fraunhofer approximation
describes the diffraction pattern. In this case the sharp points of light on the viewing screen
each correspond to a specific Fourier spatial frequency component.
Strictly speaking, a true Fraunhofer diffraction pattern is only produced when the screen is
an infinite distance from the object. We can achieve this condition by placing the object at
the focal point of a lens and the viewing screen at the back focal point of the lens. A quick
ray tracing diagram should convince you that a lens produces the image of an object at its
focal point at infinity. So a lens physically performs a Fourier transform (it is a Fourier
transformer).
We will use two Fourier transforming lenses, one to produce the diffraction patterns from
our objects and the other to invert diffraction patterns to recreate images of the original
objects.
It is worth noting that although the wave field is in general a complex function, we only
observe the intensity (see equation 1), while the phase remains unknown. Obtaining phase
information in a reliable fashion remains an ongoing question in research.

Example Fourier transformation - Spatial filtering

If you look back at figure 2, note that the sharp edges of the pulse become more defined as
larger numbers of cosines are summed. Adding ten cosines produces a much sharper pulse
than adding five or two. We say that the high spatial frequencies of a Fourier transform
produce the edges in an image. Meanwhile the lower order frequencies smooth out the
centre of the square pulse, and give it its magnitude.

LOW-PASS FILTER

f(x)

F(k)

INPUT IMAGE

F(k)

f(x)
HIGH-PASS FILTER

Figure 4: An image Fourier transformed, then filtered with a low- or high-pass filter, and
this filtered image is recovered. If the two filtered images are added, the original image is
recovered.
Low-pass filters cut out the high frequency components of the Fourier transform. In the top
middle image above, the edges of the Fourier transform are removed. In the inverse Fourier
transform the edges and sharp contours have been lost - the image now is blurred.
High-pass filters block the centre of the Fourier transform, as in the bottom row of images
above. In this case the inverse Fourier transform contains the edges of the image, but has lost
the bright and dark regions.
The low-pass filtered and high-pass filtered images are complementary; summing the two
images will return the complete inverse Fourier transform. High and low pass filters can
be used for a variety of applications, depending on the physical meaning of the Fourier
frequency. Audio equivalents of both Fourier transforms and filters would also exist. (Remember, Fourier transforms arent specially reserved for electromagnetic waves.)

Fourier Transformations - Procedure

Remember to always be very careful using any lasers.
Minimise stray reflections and NEVER place your head in the path of laser beams.

Fraunhofer diffraction
1. There are a number of optical components in use in this experiment. Do not to touch
their surfaces as oil and dust are very hard to remove. If you think any component
needs cleaning please ask your demonstrator.
2. Start by determining the focal lengths of the provided lenses. Do this using the laser,
a screen and optical track, but DO NOT ALTER THE OPTICAL TRACK as alignment is very time consuming.
Question 1 How will you accurately measure the focal length of the lenses? Discuss with
your partner.
3. You need to make sure the laser beam is parallel to the optical track for the entire
distance. Use a piece of paper with a crosshair and run this along the track.
4. Place the crossed polarisers in front of the laser to prevent saturation of the camera.
5. Place the microscope objective on the track and make sure the beam is still aligned.
6. Place a collimating lens just after the crossed polariser. This produces an effective
plane wave incident on the object.
7. Place the sample mount on the track and make sure it is centered in the laser beam.
8. Place a second lens on the track a single focal length from the object as in figure 5.
You should now be able to see the diffraction pattern by eye, and on the camera.

Microscope
objective

LASER

O
B
J
E
C
T

f
CAMERA

Diffracting
Crossed
lens
polarisers
Collimating lens
Figure 5: Fraunhofer diffraction experimental setup. f represents the focal length of the
diffracting lens.

9. Make sure to draw a diagram showing the values for the placement of each of the
components once you have obtained your pattern.
Question 2 Does inserting the second lens after the collimating lens effectively Fourier
transform the light leaving object? Draw your observations.
10. Place each of the objects listed below in place of the object. Note your observations
about each.
Single slit
Double slit. How does it compare to the single slit?
Two dimensional rectangle. Which features correspond to corners and which to
straight lines?
Adjustable slit. Observe and comment on the change in diffraction pattern as you
open the slit. Record the size of the central peak with aperture opening.
Single circle.
Question 3 What features do you observe in each diffraction pattern? Include a sketch or
print out of the diffraction patterns and explain the relationships between each object and its
diffraction pattern.

Inverse Fourier transformations

Microscope
objective

LASER

O
B
J
E
C
T

fd

fd

Diffracting
Crossed
lens
polarisers
Collimating lens

fi

fi

Imaging
lens

Screen

Figure 6: Inverse Fourier transformations experimental setup. fd is the focal length of

diffracting lens and fi is the focal length of the imaging lens.

We now want to reproduce an image of the original object. Use figure 6 as a guide, and
remember that the focal lengths and component spacings are critical to this experiment. If
you are successful youll see a clear, regular image on the screen.
Question 4 Where did you place the third lens to produce an inverse Fourier transform on
the imaging screen? Draw a diagram.
7

Question 5 What differences do you notice between the original object and the image? Are
differences a limitation of Fourier transforms or problems with the optical components?
Question 6 What happens to the recovered image if you block part of the object? How does
the image change as you block more of the object?

Filtering the diffraction pattern

As mentioned in the theory, we can introduces filters just after our Fourier transform to alter
the recovered image. In the first case, you will be blocking the outer edges of the diffraction
pattern.
1. Use an array of eight slits as your object to be transformed, and make sure you have a
clear image of this object in the imaging plane.
2. Next, place the adjustable iris (or slit) in the focal plane of the diffracting lens.
Question 7 How are you making sure the adjustable slit is centered on the object? Why is
this important?
3. Adjust the slit so that the edge of the diffraction pattern is blocked, and note changes
between the complete and blocked diffraction patterns.
4. Slowly decrease the size of the iris/slit and note changes you observe.
5. Remove the eight slit object and put in the semitone object, the one marked 1/2 tone.
6. Repeat the same process as above with the adjustable slit and note your observations.
7. As a final step, offset the iris/slit from the centre of the image. Note your observations.
Question 8 Which type of filtering is this? High- or low-pass? Can you suggest anything to
improve your filtering methods?
Question 9 Did this filtering work as you expected? Explain, without maths, how only including the centre of the diffraction pattern alters the resulting image.
Filtering, part 2
Now we want to investing blocking the centre of the diffraction pattern. There are a number
of dots that can be positioned so they block mainly the centre of the pattern. Use these and
record your observations for the semitone image.
Again, which type of filtering is this? How could you improve this particular filtering
method?
Question 10 Use both a dot and the adjustable iris/slit, until you have a nice diffraction
pattern ring. What do you see?