Matlab Programs

SIGNAL PROCESSING
%program to find inverse of matrix

clc;clear all;close all;
n=input('enter the n value');
m=input('enter the m value');
if(n~=m)
display('not a square matrix,inverse cant be found');
else
for i=1:n,
for j=1:n,
A(i,j)=input(' enter the elements one by one');
end
end
display('Given matrix A is');
A
if det(A)==0
display('cannot find inverse as determinent is zero');
else
for i=1:n,
for j=1:n,
B=A;
B(:,j)=[];
B(i,:)=[];
C=B;
D(i,j)=((-1)^(i+j))*det(C);
end
end
display('Adjoint of matrix A is');
D
display('Inverse of matrix A is');
Inverse=D'/det(A)
end
end
OUTPUT
enter the n value3
enter the m value3
enter the elements one by one5

Given matrix A is
A=
5
9
5
6
6
6
3
7
2
Adjoint of matrix A is
D=
-30 17 24
6 -5 0
24 -8 -24
Inverse of matrix A is
Inverse =
-1.2500 0.2500 1.0000
0.7083 -0.2083 -0.3333
1.0000
0 -1.0000
WAVE FORMS
PROGRAM 1
x = 0:0.01:pi;
y = sin(x);
plot(x,y)
t=0:0.1:5;
y=cos(t)
plot(t,y)
OUTPUT
1
0.8
0.6
0.4
0.2
0
-0.2
-0.4
-0.6
-0.8
-1
0.5
1.5
Program 2:
%TO Generate a UNIT step Sequence
N=21;
x=ones(1,N);
n=0:1:N-1;
subplot(2,2,1);
stem(n,x);
xlabel('n')
ylabel('x(n)');
title('UNIT STEP SEQUENCE');
OUTPUT
2.5
3.5
4.5
UNIT STEP SEQUENCE
x(n)
0.5
10
n
15
20
%Addition of two sinusoidal sequences

x1=sin(.1*pi*n)+sin(.2*pi*n);
subplot(2,2,2);
stem(n,x1);
xlabel('n')
ylabel('x1(n)');
title('Aiddition of two sin sequences');
OUTPUT
Aiddition of two sin sequences
x1(n)
1
0
-1
-2
%Exponential sequence
x2=.8.^(n);
subplot(2,2,3)
stem(n,x2);
xlabel('n');
ylabel('x2(n)');
title('Exponential sequences');
OUTPUT
10
n
15
20
Exponential sequences
x2(n)
0.5
10
n
% SInusoidal sequence
x3=sin(.1*pi*n);
subplot(2,2,4)
stem(n,x3);
xlabel('n');
ylabel('x3(n)');
xlabel('n');
ylabel('x3(n)');
title('Sinusoidal sequences');
OUTPUT
15
20
Sinusoidal sequences
x3(n)
0.5
0
-0.5
-1
% Con volution OF two sequences

clc;
clear all;
close all;
x=[1,0,-1,1,2,1];
N1=length(x);
h=[1,1,1,1,1]
N2=length(h);
y=conv(x,h)
n=0:1:N1+N2-2;
stem(n,y);
title('Convolution of Two sequences');
xlabel('n');
ylabel('y(n)');
OUTPUT
10
n
15
20
Convolution of Two sequences
4
3.5
3
y(n)
2.5
2
1.5
1
0.5
0
COS WAVE FORM

clc;clear all;close all;
t=0:0.1:5;
y=cos(t*pi/2);
subplot(2,2,4);
plot(t,y)
ylabel('----AMPLITUDExlabel('-----t');
title('COS WAVE FORM ');
OUTPUT
COS WAVE FORM
------->Amplitude
1
0.5
0
-0.5
-1
%SIN WAVEFORM
t=-5:0.1:5;
y=sin(t*pi/2);
subplot(2,2,2);
plot(t,y)
xlabel('-----t');
ylabel('----AMPLITUDE');
title('SIN WAVE FORM ');
OUTPUT
------->t
----AMPLITUDE
1
0.5
0
-0.5
-1
-5
%TAN WAVEFORM
t=0:0.1:5;
y=tan(t*pi/2);
subplot(2,2,3);
plot(t,y)
xlabel('-----t');
title('tan WAVE FORM ');
OUTPUT
SIN WAVE FORM
0
-----t
16
----AMPLITUDE
x 10
tan WAVE FORM
1
0
-1
-----t
%COT WAVEFORM
t=0:0.1:5;
y=cot(t*pi/2);
subplot(2,2,4);
plot(t,y)
xlabel('-----t');
title('COT WAVE FORM ');
OUTPUT
15
----AMPLITUDE
x 10
cot WAVE FORM
0
-5
-10
-----t
% TRiangular Pulse Wave Form

clc;
clear all;
close all;
t=-20:0.10:20;
y=tripuls(t,25);
%Subplot(2,1,1);
plot(t,y,'k');
xlabel('------->t');
ylabel('------->Amplitude')
title('Triangular Pulse');
OUTPUT
Triangular Pulse
1
0.9
0.8
------->Amplitude
0.7
0.6
0.5
0.4
0.3
0.2
0.1
0
-20
-15
-10
-5
%swept Frequency Cosine Waveform

n=0:100;
a=pi/2/100;
b=0;
arg=a*n.*n+b*n;
x=cos(arg);
subplot(2,1,1);
plot(n,x,'k');
axis([0 50 -1.5 1.5]);
xlabel('------>t')
ylabel('------>amplitude');
title('SWept Frequency cosine');
OUTPUT
0
------->t
10
15
20
------>amplitude
SWept Frequency cosine

1
0
-1
0
10
15
20
25
------>t
30
35
% To Plot the Frequency Response of the First order System

clear all;
b=[1];
a=[1,-.8];
w=0:.01:2*pi;
[h]=freqz(b,a,w);
subplot(2,1,1),plot(w/pi,abs(h));
title('frquency response of first order systemh(n)=0.^nu(n)');
xlabel('Normalised frequency')
ylabel('magnitude');
subplot(2,1,2);
plot(w/pi,angle(h));
xlabel('normalised frequency');
ylabel('phase in Radians');
OUTPUT
40
45
50
frquency response of first order systemh(n)=0. nu(n)
magnitude
6
4
2
0
0.2
0.4
0.6
0.8
1
1.2
Normalised frequency
1.4
1.6
1.8
0.2
0.4
0.6
0.8
1
1.2
normalised frequency
1.4
1.6
1.8
phase in Radians
1
0.5
0
-0.5
-1
%To plot the frequency response of the system

clear all;
b=[1,0,.9];
a=[1,0,.4];
d=[1,-1];
f=[1,0,.4];
[h,ph]=freqz(b,a);
[h1,ph1]=freqz(d,f);
subplot(2,2,1);
plot(ph/pi,abs(h));
grid;
ylabel('magnitude');
subplot(2,2,2);
plot(ph1/pi,abs(h1));
grid;
ylabel('Magnitude');
subplot(2,2,3);
plot(ph/pi,angle(h));
grid;
ylabel('phase in radians');
subplot(2,2,4);
plot(ph1/pi,angle(h1));
grid;
ylabel('phase in Radians');
1.5
Magnitude
magnitude
OUTPUT
0.5
0
0.5
0.5
0
-0.5
0
0.5
% TRIANGULAR PULSE WAVE FORM

t=linspace(-5*pi,5*pi);
y=tripuls(t,10);
Subplot(2,1,1);
plot(t,y,'k');
xlabel('------->t');
ylabel('------->Amplitude')
title('Triangular Pulse');
OUTPUT
0.5
0.5
2
phase in Radians
phase in radians
-1
1
0
-1
------->Amplitude
0.5
0
-20
% RECTANGULAR PULSE WAVEFORM

t=linspace(-5*pi,5*pi);
y=rectpuls(t,10);
subplot(3,2,1);
plot(t,y,'k');
xlabel('------>t');
ylabel('----->Amplitude');
title('Rectangulart Pulse');
OUTPUT
Triangular Pulse
-10
0
------->t
10
20
----->Amplitude
Rectangular Pulse
0.5
0
-20
-10
0
------>t
10
20
3) % PERIODIC SINC WAVE FORM

x=-pi:0.05:pi;
y=sinc(x);
subplot(2,1,1);
plot(x,y);
xlabel('------>t');
ylabel('----->Amplitude');
title('Periodic Sinc');
OUTPUT
Periodic Sinc
----->Amplitude
1
0.5
0
-0.5
-4
-3
-2
-1
0
------>t
%SWEPT FREQUENCY COSINE WAVEFORM

n=0:100;
a=pi/2/100;
b=0;
arg=a*n.*n+b*n;
x=cos(arg);
subplot(2,1,1);
plot(n,x,'k');
axis([0 50 -1.5 1.5]);
xlabel('------>t')
title('SWept Frequency cosine');
OUTPUT:
------>amplitude
SWept Frequency cosine

1
0
-1
0
10
%SQUARE WAVE FORM

z=linspace(-3*pi,3*pi);
y=Square(z);
subplot(2,1,2);
plot(z,y,'k');
xlabel('------>t')
title('Square wave form');
OUTPUT
15
20
25
------>t
30
35
40
45
50
Square wave form
------>amplitude
1
0.5
0
-0.5
-1
-10
-8
-6
-4
-2
0
------>t
PROGRAM TO GENERATE A SAW TOOTH WAVEFORM

clc;
clear al;
close all;
t=(-5*pi:0.05:5*pi);
y=sawtooth(t);
subplot(2,1,1);
plot(y)
OUTPUT:
10
1
0.5
0
-0.5
-1
100
200
300
400
%UNIT STEP SEQUENCE

clc;
clear all;
N=input('Enter the length of unit step sequence:');
t=0:1:N-1;
y=ones(1,N);
subplot(2,1,1);
stem(t,y,'k','filled');
axis([0 N 0 2]);
xlabel('----------->t');
ylabel('----------->amplitude');
title(' Unit step sequence');
OUTPUT:
500
600
700
Unit step sequence
----------->amplitude
2
1.5
1
0.5
0
3
----------->t
%DESCREATE TIME SIGNAL

fs=input('Enter the Sampling Rate')
ts=1/fs;
n=25:25;
nts=n*ts;
dt= 0.00005;
t=-.005:dt:.005;
xa=exp(-1000*abs(t));
xn=exp(-1000*abs(nts));
subplot(3,1,1);
plot(t*1000,xa);
xlabel('----->t in msec');
ylabel('x(t)');
title('Continuous Time Signalx(t)');
subplot(3,1,2);
stem(xn);
xlabel('----->n');
ylabel('x(n)');
title('discreate Time SIgnal x(t)');
title('ts=0.1 msec');
%reconstruction of the signal from its sample
xa=xn*sin(fs*ones(length(n),1)*t-nts*ones(1,length(t)));
subplot(3,1,3);
plot(t,xa);
xlabel('----->t in msec');
ylabel('x(t)');
title('Reconstructed signalx(t)fromx(n)');
OUTPUT:
Enter the Sampling Rate8

fs =
8
Continuous Time Signalx(t)
x(t)
1
0.5
0
-5
-4
-3
-2
-1
0
1
----->t in msec
ts=0.1 msec
0.2
0.4
0.6
0.8
x(n)
1.4
1.6
1.8
0
-1
1
----->n
1.2
%FINDING REAL AND IMAGINARY PARTS OF COMPLEX NUMBER

%inputs: comp_number------complex number
%outputs re and img-----real and imaginary numbers respectively
function[Re,img]=reimg(comp_number);
comp_number=3+4i;
N=length(comp_number);
for i=1:N
re(i)=abs(comp_number(i))*cos(angle(comp_number(i)));
img(i)=abs(comp_number(i))*sin(angle(comp_number(i)));
end
subplot(2,2,1)
stem(1:1:N,comp_number);
title('input signal');
xlabel('time');
ylabel('amplitude')
subplot(2,2,2)
stem(1:1:length(re),re);
title('real part of signal')
xlabel('time');
ylabel('amplitude')
subplot(2,2,3)
stem(1:1:length(img),img)
title('imaginary part of signal')
xlabel('time');
ylabel('amplitude')
OUTPUT:
input signal
2
1
0
amplitude
real part of signal
4
amplitude
amplitude
0.5
1
1.5
time
imaginary part of signal
3
2
1
0
0.5
1
time
1.5
3
2
1
0
0.5
1
time
1.5
FUNCTION TO CALCULATE CONVOLUTION OF TWO SEQUENCES.

% INPUTS: x1 & x2 are two input sequences
%OUTPUT: Y CONVOLUTION OF x1 & x2.
%usage:[a]=convolve(x1,x2) at mat lab prompt.
function y=convolve(x1,x2)
x1=5;
x2=6;
m=length(x1);
n=length(x2);
k=m+n-1;
x1=[x1 zeros(1,n-1)];
x2=[x2 zeros(1,m-1)];
y=zeros(1,k);
for i=1:k
for j=1:i
if i==1
y(i)=x1(1)*x2(1);
else
y(i)=y(i)+x1(i-j+1)*x2(j);
end
end
end
subplot(2,2,1)
stem(1:1:m,x1)
title('first Input signal')
xlabel('time')
ylabel('Amplitude')
subplot(2,2,2)
stem(1:1:n,x2)
title('Second Input signal')
xlabel('time')
ylabel('Amplitude')
subplot(2,2,3)
stem(1:1:k,y)
title('Convolved signal')
xlabel('time')
ylabel('Amplitude')
OUTPUT:
% length of first input sequence.

%length of second input sequence.
% length of convolved sequence.
%append zeros for ease of computation.
% append zeros for ease of computation.
% initialisation of response of thwe system.
first Input signal
4
2
0
0.5
0.5
Amplitude
30
1
1.5
time
Convolved signal
Second Input signal
6
Amplitude
Amplitude
4
2
0
0.5
1
time
1.5
20
10
0
1
time
1.5
% FUNCTION TO CALUCLATE THE OUTPUT A SEQUENCE USING

HAMMING WINDOW
%INPUTS: rp-----pass band ripple
%
fp-----pass band frequency
%
fs-----stop band frequncy
%
f-----Sampling frequency
%outputs: Magnitude and phase response of LPF,HPF,BPF
function x=hamm(rp,rs,fp,fs,f)
rp=0.02;
rs=0.01;
fp=1200;
fs=1700;
f=9000;
wp=2*fp/f;
% Width of pass band Frequency
ws=2*fs/f;
% Width of Stop band Frequency
num=-20*log10(sqrt(rp*rs))-13;
%caluclate the Number of Numerator Coeff
dem=14.6*(fs-fp)/f;
% caluclate the number denominator Co efficients
n=ceil(num/dem);
%no of window terms considered
if rem(n,2)~=0
n=n-1;
end
for i=1:n+1
wn(i)=0.54-.46*cos(2*pi*i/(n-1));
end
% LOW PASS FILTER
b=fir1(n,wp,wn);
[h,o]=freqz(b,1,256);
m=20*log10(abs(h));
subplot(2,2,1);
plot(o/pi,m);
title('Lowpass filter')
ylabel('gain in db')
xlabel('(a)Normalized Frequency ---->');
%HIGH PASS FILTER
b=fir1(n,wp,'high',wn);
[h,o]=freqz(b,1,256);
m=20*log10(abs(h));
subplot(2,2,2);
plot(o/pi,m);
title('High pass Filter')
%BAND PASS FILTER
bw=[wp ws];
b=fir1(n,bw,wn);
[h,o]=freqz(b,1,256);
m=20*log10(abs(h));
subplot(2,2,3);
plot(o/pi,m);
title('band pass filter')
%BAND STOP FILTER
b=fir1(n,wp,'stop',wn);
[h,o]=freqz(b,1,256);
m=20*log10(abs(h));
subplot(2,2,4)
plot(o/pi,m);
title('band stop Filter')
OUTPUT OF THE HAMMING WINDOW
50
Lowpass filter
gain in db
gain in db
0
-50
-100
-20
-40
-60
-80
0
0.5
1
(a)Normalized Frequency ---->
High pass Filter
0
-20
-40
-60
0
0.5
1
band pass filter
50
gain in db
gain in db
20
0
0.5
1
band stop Filter
0
-50
-100
0
0.5
1
%FUNCTION TO CALCULATE THE IMPULSE RESPONSE OF BLACKMAN

(HANNING) WINDOW
%inputs : rp--pass band ripple
%
fp---stop band frequency
%
fs---stop band frequency
%
f--- sampling freqency
% outputs : magnitude and phase response of lpf,hpf, bpf
function x=hann(rp,rs,fp,fs,f)
rp=.03;
rs=.01;
fs=2000;
fp=1400;
f=8000;
wp=2*fp/f;
ws=2*fs/f;
dem=14.6*(fs-fp)/f;
n=ceil(num/dem);
n1=n+1;
if rem(n,2)~=0
n=n-1;
end
%BLACKMAN WINDOW CO-EFFICIENTS
for i=1:n+1
wn(i)=0.54-.46*cos(2*pi*i/(n-1));
end
%LOW PASS FILTER
bw=[wp ws];
b=fir1(n,bw,wn);
[h,o]=freqz(b,1,256);
m=20*log10(abs(h));
subplot(2,2,2);
plot(o/pi,m)
xlabel('(a)normalized freqency----->');
b=fir1(n,bw,'stop',wn);
[h,o]=freqz(b,1,256);
m=20*log10(abs(h));
subplot(2,2,3);
plot(o/pi,m)
title('bsf')
b=fir1(n,wp,wn);
[h,o]=freqz(b,1,256);
m=20*log10(abs(h));
subplot(2,2,1);
plot(o/pi,m)
[h,o]=freqz(b,1,256);
m=20*log10(abs(h));
subplot(2,2,4);
plot(o/pi,m)
OUTPUT OF THE HANNING WINDOW
gain in db
gain in db
20
-20
-40
-60
-5
-10
0
0.5
(a)normalized freqency----->
0.5
0.5
20
-15
-40
-60
gain in db
gain in db
0.5
bsf
-20
%INOUT PLOTS
income = [3.2 4.1 5.0 5.6];
outgo = [2.5 4.0 3.35 4.9];
subplot(2,1,1); plot(income)
subplot(2,1,2); plot(outgo)
0
-20
-40
-60
6
5
4
3
1.5
2.5
3.5
1.5
2.5
3.5
5
4.5
4
3.5
3
2.5
%CALCULATION OF POWER SPECTRAL DENSITY (PSD)

function sx=psd(x);
x=100;
n=length(x);
u=2*n-1;
x=[x zeros(1,n-1)];
rx=zeros(1,1);
%length of the input sequence

%insert %extra zeros to compensate extra length
% initialize auto corellation
%CALUCLATE THE AUTO CORRELATION OF A SEQUENCE

for i=1:u
for j=1:i
if i==1
rx(i)=rx(i)+x(i-j+1)*x(j);
end
end
end
%COMPUTE PSD
sx=fft(rx,1024);
% PLOTS
subplot(2,2,1);
plot(x);
title('inputsignal');
xlabel('Time');
ylabel('Amplitude');
subplot(2,2,2);
plot(10*log10(abs(sx)));
title('magnitude spectrum');
xlabel('Frequency');
ylabel('power in db');
subplot(2,2,3);
plot(angle(sx));
title('phase spectrum');
xlabel('Frequency');
ylabel('phase');
%original input signal
%Magnitude spectrum of psd
%phase spectrum of psd
OUT PUT OF POWER SPECTRAL DENSITY

inputsignal
100.5
100
99.5
99
0.5
1
1.5
Time
phase spectrum
500
1000
Frequency
1500
phase
0.5
0
-0.5
-1
magnitude spectrum
41
power in db
Amplitude
101
40.5
40
39.5
39
500
1000
Frequency
1500
% IMPULSE RESPONSE OF THE SYSTEM

function y=outsys(x,h)
x=2;
h=10;
m=length(x);% Length of excitation
n=length(h);% Length of impulse response of system
k=m+n-1;%length of response
x=[x zeros(1,n-1)];% Append zeros for ease of computation
h=[h zeros(1,m-1)];% Append zeros for ease of computation
y=zeros(1,k);% Initialisation of response of the system
%compute the output of the system
for j=1:i
if i==1
y(i)=x(1)*h(1);
end
end
subplot(2,2,1)
stem(1:1:m,x);
xlabel('time');
ylabel('ampltue');
subplot(2,2,2);% impulse response of the system
stem(n,h);
title('impulse response of system');
xlabel('time');
ylabel('ampltude');
subplot(2,2,3);%output of the system
stem(k,y);
title('response of system');
xlabel('time');
ylabel('ampltude');
OUTPUT:
ampltude
ampltue
1.5
1
0.5
0
1
1.5
time
response of system
0.5
ampltude
impulse response of system
10
0.5
0.5
1
time
1.5
0.5
0
-0.5
-1
1
time
1.5
%FUNCTION TO CALCULATE THE DFT OF A GIVEN SEQUENCE

%INPUTS: x---Input sequence
%OUTPUT: X---DFT of a given sequence
%**********************************************************
function[X]=DFT2(x)
%***********************************************************
x=5;
N=length(x);%length of input sequence
for k=0:N-1
for n=0:N-1
wn(k+1,n+1)=exp((j*2*pi/N)*k*n);
end
end
%DFT of a given sequence
X=wn*x';
subplot(2,2,1)
stem(1:1:N,x)
title('Input Signal')
xlabel('Time')
ylabel('Amplitude')
subplot(2,2,2)
stem(10*log10(abs(X)))
title('MAGNITUDE RESPONSE OF PSD')
xlabel('Frequency')
ylabel('Amplitude')
subplot(2,2,3)
stem(angle(X))
title('PHASE RESPONSE OF PSD')
xlabel('Frequency')
ylabel('Phase')
OUTPUT
Input Signal
MAGNITUDE RESPONSE OF PSD

8
Amplitude
Amplitude
2
0
0.5
1
1.5
2
Time
PHASE RESPONSE OF PSD
Phase
0.5
0
-0.5
-1
0.5
1
1.5
Frequency
%BLACKMAN WINDOW
function x=blackman1(rp,rs,fp,fs,f)
rp=0.03;
rs=0.01;
fp=2000;
6
4
2
0
0.5
1
1.5
Frequency
fs=2500;
f=7000;
wp=2*fp/f;
ws=2*fs/f;
dem=14.6*(fs-fp)/f;
n=ceil(num/dem);
n1=n+1;
if rem(n,2)~=0
n1=n;
n=n-1;
end
for i=1:n+1
wn(i)=0.42-0.5*cos(2*pi*i/(n-1))+0.08*cos(4*pi*i/(n-1));
end
%low pass filter
b=fir1(n,wp,wn);
[h,o]=freqz(b,1,256);
m=20*log10(abs(h));
subplot(2,2,1)
plot(o/pi,m)
title('low pass filter')
xlabel('(a) Normalised Frequency------>');
%HPF
[h,o]=freqz(b,1,256);
m=20*log10(abs(h));
subplot(2,2,2)
plot(o/pi,m);
title('high pass filter')
xlabel('(a) Normalized Frequency------->');
OUTPUT OF THE BLACK MAN WINDOW
low pass filter
0
-20
-40
-60
g a in in d b
g a in in d b
20
0
0.5
1
(a) Normalised Frequency------>
high pass filter
-20
-40
-60
-80
0
0.5
1
(a) Normalized Frequency------->
RESPONSE OF A DIGITAL FILTER(FIR FILTER)

% Frequency response of a digital filter
%y(n)=x(n)-x(n-1)
%Filter Definition
b=[1 -1];
a=[1 0];
% Frequency response implementation
[h,th]=freqz(b,a,32);
% Frequency response plot
clf
subplot(2,2,1);
plot(th,abs(h));
title('maginitude Response');
subplot(2,2,2);
plot(th,angle(h));
title('phase Response');
xlabel('Radians');
% IMPULSE RESPONSE CALCLATION AND PLOT
x=[1 zeros(1,10)];
y=filter(b,a,x);
subplot(2,2,3);
stem(y);
xlabel('seconds');
title('impulse response');
%POLE-ZERO PLOT
[z,p]=tf2zp(b,a);
subplot(2,2,4);
zplane(z,p);
OUTPUT OF THE FIR FILTER RESPONSE

maginitude Response
2
1.5
1.5
0.5
0.5
impulse response
2
Radians
1
Imaginary Part
0.5
0
-0.5
-1
phase Response
seconds
10
15
0.5
0
-0.5
-1
-1
RESPONSE OF A DIGITAL FILTER(IIR FILTER)

% Frequency response of a digital filter
%y(n)=x(n)-x(n-1)
%Filter Definition
-0.5
0 0.5
Real Part
b=[.0013 .0064 .0128 .0128 .0064 .0013];

a=[1.0 -2.9754 3.8060 -2.5453 0.8811 -0.1254];
% Frequency response implimentation
[h,th]=freqz(b,a,128);
% Frequency response plot
clf
subplot(2,2,1);
plot(th,abs(h));
title('maginitude Response');
subplot(2,2,2);
plot(th,angle(h));
title('phase Response');
xlabel('Radians');
% IMPULSE RESPONSE CALCLATION AND PLOT
x=[1 zeros(1,20)];
y=filter(b,a,x);
subplot(2,2,3);
stem(y);
xlabel('seconds');
title('impulse response');
%pole-zero plot
[z,p,k]=tf2zp(b,a);
subplot(2,2,4);
zplane(z,p)
OUTPUT OF THE IIR FILTER RESPONSE
maginitude Response
1.5
phase Response
4
2
0
0.5
0
-2
0
impulse response
0.3
2
Radians
1
Imaginary Part
0.2
0.1
0
-0.1
-4
10
20
seconds
30
0.5
0
-0.5
-1
-1
0
Real Part
% ksdensity -Compute density estimate using kernel-smoothing method

x = [randn(30,1); 5+randn(30,1)];
[f,xi] = ksdensity(x);
plot(xi,f);
OUTPUT:
0.12
0.1
0.08
0.06
0.04
0.02
0
-8
-6
-4
-2
%CHEBYCHEV TYPE-1 LOW PASS FILTER

clc;
clear all;
format long
rp=input('Enter the pass band ripple');
rs=input('Enter the stop band ripple');
wp=input('Enter the pass band freq');
ws=input('Enter the stop band freq');
fs=input('Enter the Sampling Frequency');
w1=2*wp/fs;
w2=2*ws/fs;
[n,wn]=cheb1ord(w1,w2,rp,rs,'s');
[b,a]=cheby1(n,rp,wn,'s');
w=0:.01:pi;
[h,om]=freqs(b,a,w);
m=20*log10(abs(h));
an=angle(h);
subplot(2,1,1);
plot(om/pi,m);
ylabel('Gain in db--->');
xlabel('(a)Normalised Frequency--->');
title('magnitude of the system');
subplot(2,1,2);
plot(om/pi,an);
10
12
ylabel('Phase in radians-->');
xlabel('(b) Normalised Frequency--->');
title('phase of the system');
OUT PUT OF THE %CHEBYCHEV TYPE-1 LOW PASS FILTER
Enter the pass band ripple0. 2
Enter the stop band ripple45
Enter the pass band freq1300
Enter the stop band freq1500
Enter the Sampling Frequency10000
magnitude of the system
Gain in db--->
0
-100
-200
-300
-400
0.1
0.2
0.3
0.4
0.5
0.6
0.7
(a)Normalised Frequency--->
phase of the system
0.8
0.9
0.1
0.2
0.3
0.4
0.5
0.6
0.7
(b) Normalised Frequency--->
0.8
0.9
Phase in radians-->
4
2
0
-2
-4
%CHEBYCHEV TYPE-1 HIGH PASS FILTER

clc;
clear all;
format long
w1=2*wp/fs;
w2=2*ws/fs;
[b,a]=cheby1(n,rp,wn,high,'s');
w=0:.01/pi:pi;
m=20*log10(abs(h));
an=angle(h);
subplot(2,1,1);
plot(om/pi,m);
title('magnitude of the system');
subplot(2,1,2);
plot(om/pi,an);
title('phase of the system');
OUTPUT OF THE CHEBYCHEV TYPE-1 HIGH PASS FILTER
Enter the pass band ripple0.3
magnitude of the system
Gain in db--->
0
-50
-100
-150
-200
0.1
0.2
0.3
0.4
0.5
0.6
0.7
phase of the system
0.8
0.9
0.1
0.2
0.3
0.4
0.5
0.6
0.7
0.8
0.9
Phase in radians-->
4
2
0
-2
-4
%CHEBYCHEV TYPE-1 BAND PASS FILTER

clc;
clear all;
format long
w1=2*wp/fs;
w2=2*ws/fs;
wn=[w1,w2];
[b,a]=cheby1(n,rp,wn,bandpass','s');
w=0:.01/pi:pi;
m=20*log10(abs(h));
an=angle(h);
subplot(2,1,1);
plot(om/pi,m);
subplot(2,1,2);
plot(om/pi,an);
CHEBYCHEV TYPE-1 BAND PASS FILTER
Gain in db--->
0
-200
-400
-600
0.1
0.2
0.3
0.4
0.5
0.6
0.7
0.8
0.9
0.1
0.2
0.3
0.4
0.5
0.6
0.7
0.8
0.9
Phase in radians-->
4
2
0
-2
-4
%CHEBYCHEV TYPE-1 BAND STOP FILTER

clc;
clear all;
format long
w1=2*wp/fs;
w2=2*ws/fs;
wn=[w1,w2];
[b,a]=cheby1(n,rp,wn,stop','s');
w=0:.01/pi:pi;
m=20*log10(abs(h));
an=angle(h);
subplot(2,1,1);
plot(om/pi,m);
subplot(2,1,2);
plot(om/pi,an);
CHEBYCHEV TYPE-1 BAND STOP FILTER
Gain in db--->
50
-50
0.1
0.2
0.3
0.4
0.5
0.6
0.7
0.8
0.9
0.1
0.2
0.3
0.4
0.5
0.6
0.7
0.8
0.9
Phase in radians-->
4
2
0
-2
-4
%CHEBYCHEV TYPE-2 LOW PASS FILTER

clc;
clear all;
format long
w1=2*wp/fs;
w2=2*ws/fs;
[b,a]=cheby2(n,rp,wn,'s');
w=0:.01:pi;
m=20*log10(abs(h));
an=angle(h);
subplot(2,1,1);
plot(om/pi,m);
subplot(2,1,2);
plot(om/pi,an);
OUTPUT OF THE CHEBYCHEV TYPE-2 LOW PASS FILTER

Enter the pass band ripple.0.35
Gain in db--->
0
-20
-40
-60
0.1
0.2
0.3
0.4
0.5
0.6
0.7
0.8
0.9
0.1
0.2
0.3
0.4
0.5
0.6
0.7
0.8
0.9
Phase in radians-->
2
1
0
-1
-2
%CHEBYCHEV TYPE-2 HIGH PASS FILTER

clc;
clear all;
format long
w1=2*wp/fs;
w2=2*ws/fs;
[b,a]=cheby2(n,rp,wn,'high','s');
w=0:.01/pi:pi;
m=20*log10(abs(h));
an=angle(h);
subplot(2,1,1);
plot(om/pi,m);
subplot(2,1,2);
plot(om/pi,an);
CHEBYCHEV TYPE-2 HIGH PASS FILTER
Gain in db--->
10
0
-10
-20
-30
0.1
0.2
0.3
0.4
0.5
0.6
0.7
0.8
0.9
0.1
0.2
0.3
0.4
0.5
0.6
0.7
0.8
0.9
Phase in radians-->
2
1
0
-1
-2
%CHEBYCHEV TYPE-2 BAND PASS FILTER

clc;
clear all;
format long
w1=2*wp/fs;
w2=2*ws/fs;
wn=[w1,w2];
[b,a]=cheby2(n,rp,wn,'high','s');
w=0:.01/pi:pi;
m=20*log10(abs(h));
an=angle(h);
subplot(2,1,1);
plot(om/pi,m);
subplot(2,1,2);
plot(om/pi,an);
CHEBYCHEV TYPE-2 BAND PASS FILTER
Gain in db--->
50
0
-50
-100
0.1
0.2
0.3
0.4
0.5
0.6
0.7
0.8
0.9
0.1
0.2
0.3
0.4
0.5
0.6
0.7
0.8
0.9
Phase in radians-->
2
1
0
-1
-2
%CHEBYCHEV TYPE2 BAND STOP FILTER

clc;
clear all;
format long
w1=2*wp/fs;
w2=2*ws/fs;
wn=[w1,w2];
[b,a]=cheby1(n,rp,wn,stop','s');
w=0:.01/pi:pi;
m=20*log10(abs(h));
an=angle(h);
subplot(2,1,1);
plot(om/pi,m);
subplot(2,1,2);
plot(om/pi,an);
CHEBYCHEV TYPE-2 BAND STOP FILTER
Gain in db--->
5
0
-5
-10
-15
0.1
0.2
0.3
0.4
0.5
0.6
0.7
0.8
0.9
0.1
0.2
0.3
0.4
0.5
0.6
0.7
0.8
0.9
Phase in radians-->
2
1
0
-1
-2
% BUTTER WORTH LOW PASS FILTER

clc;
clear all;
format long

w1=2*wp/fs;
w2=2*ws/fs;
[n,wn]=buttord(w1,w2,rp,rs,'s');
%[b,a]=zp2tf(z,p,k);
[b,a]=butter(n,wn,'s');
w=0:.01:pi;
m=20*log10(abs(h));
an=angle(h);
subplot(2,1,1);
plot(om/pi,m);
subplot(2,1,2);
plot(om/pi,an);
OUTPUT OF THE BUTTERWORTH LOW PASS FILTER
Enter the pass band ripple.6
Enter the stop band ripple.9
Gain in db--->
0
-2
-4
-6
0.1
0.2
0.3
0.4
0.5
0.6
0.7
0.8
0.9
0.1
0.2
0.3
0.4
0.5
0.6
0.7
0.8
0.9
Phase in radians-->
0
-0.5
-1
-1.5
% BUTTER WORTH HIGH PASS FILTER

clc;
clear all;
%format long
w1=2*wp/fs;
w2=2*ws/fs;
[n,wn]=buttord(w1,w2,rp,rs,'s');
%[z,p,k] = butter(n,Wn,'s')
%[b,a] = butter(n,Wn)
%[b,a]=butter(n,wn,'s');
[b,a] = butter(9,300/500,'high')
w=0:.01:pi;
m=20*log10(abs(h));
an=angle(h);
subplot(2,1,1);
plot(om/pi,m);
subplot(2,1,2);
plot(om/pi,an);
OUTPUT OF THE BUTTERWORTH HIGH PASS FILTER
Enter the pass band ripple.6
Enter the stop band ripple.9
b=
Columns 1 through 7
0.0011 -0.0096
0.0384 -0.0895
0.1342 -0.1342
0.0895
1.3708
0.1993
Columns 8 through 10
-0.0384
0.0096 -0.0011
a=
Columns 1 through 7
1.0000
1.7916
2.5319
Columns 8 through 10
0.0431
0.0058
0.0004
2.1182
0.6090
Gain in db--->
20
0
-20
-40
-60
0.1
0.2
0.3
0.4
0.5
0.6
0.7
0.8
0.9
0.1
0.2
0.3
0.4
0.5
0.6
0.7
0.8
0.9
Phase in radians-->
4
2
0
-2
-4
% BUTTER WORTH BAND PASS FILTER

clc;
clear all;
%format long
w1=2*wp/fs;
w2=2*ws/fs;
[n]=buttord(w1,w2,rp,rs,'s');
wn=[w1,w2];
%[z,p,k] = butter(n,Wn,'s')
%[b,a] = butter(n,Wn)
%[b,a]=butter(n,wn,'s');
[b,a] = butter(n,wn,'bandpass','s');
w=0:.01:pi;
m=20*log10(abs(h));
an=angle(h);
subplot(2,1,1);
plot(om/pi,m);
subplot(2,1,2);
plot(om/pi,an);
OUTPUT OF THE BUTTERWORTH BAND PASS FLTER
Gain in db--->
0
-5
-10
-15
-20
0.1
0.2
0.3
0.4
0.5
0.6
0.7
0.8
0.9
0.1
0.2
0.3
0.4
0.5
0.6
0.7
0.8
0.9
Phase in radians-->
2
1
0
-1
-2
% BARLETT LOW PASS FLTER

clc;
clear all;
%format long

fp=input('Enter the pass band freq');
fs=input('Enter the stop band freq');
f=input('Enter the Sampling Frequency');
wp=2*fp/f;ws=2*fs/f;
dem=14.6*(fs-fp)/f;
n=ceil(num/dem);
n1=n+1;
if(rem(n,2)~=0)
n1=n;
n=n-1;
end
y=bartlett(n1);
b=fir1(n,wp,y);
[h,o]=freqz(b,1,256);
m=20*log10(abs(h));
subplot(2,2,1);
plot(o/pi,m);
OUTPUT OF THE BARLETT LOW PASS FLTER
Enter the stop band ripple0.02
Gain in db--->
0
-10
-20
-30
-40
0.5
1
% BARLETT HIGH PASS FLTER

clc;
clear all;
%format long
dem=14.6*(fs-fp)/f;
n=ceil(num/dem);
n1=n+1;
if(rem(n,2)~=0)
n1=n;
n=n-1;
end
y=bartlett(n1);
b=fir1(n,wp,high,y);
[h,o]=freqz(b,1,256);
m=20*log10(abs(h));
subplot(2,2,2);
plot(o/pi,m);
xlabel('(b)Normalised Frequency--->');
OUTPUT OF THE BARLETT HIGH PASS FLTER
Gain in db--->
10
0
-10
-20
-30
% BARLETT BAND PASS FLTER

clc;
clear all;
%format long
0.5
1
(b)Normalised Frequency--->
dem=14.6*(fs-fp)/f;
n=ceil(num/dem);
n1=n+1;
if(rem(n,2)~=0)
n1=n;
n=n-1;
end
y=bartlett(n1);
wn=[wp ws];
b=fir1(n,wn,y);
[h,o]=freqz(b,1,256);
m=20*log10(abs(h));
subplot(2,2,3);
plot(o/pi,m);
xlabel('(c)Normalised Frequency--->');
OUTPUT OF THE BARLETT BAND PASS FLTER
Gain in db--->
10
0
-10
-20
-30
-40
0.5
1
(c)Normalised Frequency--->
% BARLETT BAND STOP FLTER

clc;
clear all;
%format long
dem=14.6*(fs-fp)/f;
n=ceil(num/dem);
n1=n+1;
if(rem(n,2)~=0)
n1=n;
n=n-1;
end
y=bartlett(n1);
wn=[wp ws];
b=fir1(n,wn,stop,y);
[h,o]=freqz(b,1,256);
m=20*log10(abs(h));
subplot(2,2,4);
plot(o/pi,m);
xlabel('(d)Normalised Frequency--->');
OUTPUT OF THE BARLETT BAND STOP FLTER
Gain in db--->
2
0
-2
-4
-6
-8
0.5
1
(d)Normalised Frequency--->
%fir1-Window-based finite impulse response filter design

b = fir1(48,[0.35 0.65]);
freqz(b,1,512);
OUTPUT:
Magnitude (dB)
50
0
-50
-100
0.1
0.2
0.3
0.4
0.5
0.6
0.7
0.8
Normalized Frequency ( rad/sample)
0.9
0.1
0.2
0.3
0.4
0.5
0.6
0.7
0.8
0.9
Phase (degrees)
1000
0
-1000
-2000
%fir1-Window-based finite impulse response filter design

load chirp
% Load y and fs.
b = fir1(34,0.48,'high',chebwin(35,30));
freqz(b,1,512)
OUTPUT:
Magnitude (dB)
50
0
-50
-100
-150
0.1
0.2
0.3
0.4
0.5
0.6
0.7
0.8
0.9
0.1
0.2
0.3
0.4
0.5
0.6
0.7
0.8
0.9
Phase (degrees)
1000
0
-1000
-2000
%Filter a signal using a filter with various initial conditions (IC) or no initial conditions.
x = randn(100,1);
% Original signal.
b = fir1(50,.4);
% 50th-order linear-phase FIR filter.
hd = dfilt.dffir(b); % Direct-form FIR implementation.
% Do not set specific initial conditions.
y1 = filter(hd,x);
zf = hd.states;
% 'PersistentMemory' is 'false' (default).

% Final conditions.
%Now use nonzero initial conditions by setting ICs after before you filter.
hd.persistentmemory = true;
hd.states = 1;
% Uses scalar expansion.
y2 = filter(hd,x);
stem([y1 y2])
% Different sequences at the beginning.
OUTPUT:
1.5
0.5
-0.5
-1
-1.5
10
20
30
40
50
60
70
80
90
100
Communication
% Sample the signal 100 times per second, for 2 seconds.
%ammod-Amplitude modulation.
%ssbmod-Single sideband amplitude modulation.
%fft-Discrete Fourier transform.
%abs-Absolute value and complex magnitude.
Fs = 100;
t = [0:2*Fs+1]'/Fs;
Fc = 10; % Carrier frequency
x = sin(2*pi*t); % Sinusoidal signal
% Modulate x using single- and double-sideband AM.
ydouble = ammod(x,Fc,Fs);
ysingle = ssbmod(x,Fc,Fs);
% Compute spectra of both modulated signals.
zdouble = fft(ydouble);
zdouble = abs(zdouble(1:length(zdouble)/2+1));
frqdouble = [0:length(zdouble)-1]*Fs/length(zdouble)/2;
zsingle = fft(ysingle);
zsingle = abs(zsingle(1:length(zsingle)/2+1));
frqsingle = [0:length(zsingle)-1]*Fs/length(zsingle)/2;
% Plot spectra of both modulated signals.
figure;
subplot(2,1,1); plot(frqdouble,zdouble);
title('Spectrum of double-sideband signal');
subplot(2,1,2); plot(frqsingle,zsingle);
title('Spectrum of single-sideband signal');
OUTPUT:
Spectrum of double-sideband signal
60
40
20
0
10
15
20
25
30
35
40
45
50
40
45
50
Spectrum of single-sideband signal
100
50
10
15
20
25
30
35
AM Demodulation
%butter- Design Butterworth IIR digital filter using the specifications in filter
specification object.
%ammod- Amplitude modulation
%amdemod- Amplitude demodulation
t = .01;
Fc = 10000; Fs = 80000;
t = [0:1/Fs:0.01]';
s = sin(2*pi*300*t)+2*sin(2*pi*600*t); % Original signal
figure(1) ;plot(s) ;
title(Modulating signal) ;
[num,den] = butter(10,Fc*2/Fs); % Lowpass filter
figure(2) ;plot([num,den]) ;
title(Carrier signal) ;
y1 = ammod(s,Fc,Fs); % Modulate.
figure(3) ;plot(y1) ;
title(Modulated signal) ;
s1 = amdemod(y1,Fc,Fs,0,0,num,den); % Demodulate.
figure(4) ;plot(s1) ;
title(DeModulated signal) ;
OUTPUT:
Modulating signal
-1
-2
-3
100
200
300
400
500
600
700
800
900
Carrier signal
20
15
10
5
0
-5
-10
-15
-20
10
15
20
25
Modulated signal
-1
-2
-3
100
200
300
400
500
600
700
800
900
600
700
800
900
DeModulated signal
-1
-2
-3
100
200
300
400
500
%Freequency Modulation
%fmmod- Freequency Modulation
t = .01;
Fc = 10000; Fs = 80000;
t = [0:1/Fs:0.01]';
s = sin(2*pi*300*t)+2*sin(2*pi*600*t); % Original signal
figure(1) ;plot(s) ;
title(Modulating signal) ;
[num,den] = butter(10,Fc*2/Fs); % Lowpass filter
figure(2) ;plot([num,den]) ;
title(Carrier signal) ;
dev=50;
y1 = ammod(s,Fc,Fs,dev); % Modulate.
figure(3) ;plot(y1) ;
title(Modulated signal) ;
.
OUTPUT:
Modulating signal
-1
-2
-3
100
200
300
400
500
600
700
800
900
Carrier signal
20
15
10
5
0
-5
-10
-15
-20
10
15
20
25
Modulated signal
1
0.8
0.6
0.4
0.2
0
-0.2
-0.4
-0.6
-0.8
-1
100
200
300
400
500
600
700
800
900
%Phase Modulation
% Prepare to sample a signal for two seconds,
% at a rate of 100 samples per second.
Fs = 100; % Sampling rate
t = [0:2*Fs+1]'/Fs; % Time points for sampling
% Create the signal, a sum of sinusoids.
x = sin(2*pi*t) + sin(4*pi*t);
figure(1) ;plot(x) ;
Fc = 10; % Carrier frequency in modulation
phasedev = pi/2; % Phase deviation for phase modulation
y = pmmod(x,Fc,Fs,phasedev); % Modulate.
figure(2) ;plot(y) ;
title(Modulated signal);
z = pmdemod(y,Fc,Fs,phasedev); % Demodulate.
figure(3) ;plot(z) ;
title(Demodulated signal);
OUTPUT:
2
1.5
1
0.5
0
-0.5
-1
-1.5
-2
50
100
150
200
250
200
250
Modulated signal
1
0.8
0.6
0.4
0.2
0
-0.2
-0.4
-0.6
-0.8
-1
50
100
150
Unmodulated signal
2
1.5
1
0.5
0
-0.5
-1
-1.5
-2
50
100
%PSK Modulation and Demodulation.

len = 10000; % Number of symbols
M = 16; % Size of alphabet
msg = randint(len,1,M); % Original signal
figure(1);plot(msg);
% Modulate using both PSK
txpsk = pskmod(msg,M);
figure(2);
plot(rxpsk); title('PSK Modulation Plot')
% Demodulate the received signals.
recovpsk = pskdemod(rxpsk,M);
figure(3);
plot(recovpsk); title('PSK DeModulation Plot');
OUTPUT:
150
200
250
15
10
1000
2000
3000
4000
5000
6000
7000
8000
0.4
0.6
9000 10000
PSK Modulation Plot
1
0.8
0.6
0.4
0.2
0
-0.2
-0.4
-0.6
-0.8
-1
-1
-0.8
-0.6
-0.4
-0.2
0.2
0.8
PSK DeModulation Plot
15
10
1000
2000
3000
4000
5000
6000
7000
8000
9000 10000
%Quantization
%partition- To specify a partition in MATLAB
%codebook- codebook tells the quantizer which common value to assign
%quantiz-Produce quantization index and quantized output value
%legend-Graph legend for lines and patches
t = [0:.1:2*pi]; % Times at which to sample the sine function
sig = sin(t); % Original signal, a sine wave
partition = [-1:.2:1]; % Length 11, to represent 12 intervals
codebook = [-1.2:.2:1]; % Length 12, one entry for each interval
[index,quants] = quantiz(sig,partition,codebook); % Quantize.
plot(t,sig,'x',t,quants,'.')
legend('Original signal','Quantized signal');
axis([-.2 7 -1.2 1.2]
OUTPUT:
Original signal
Quantized signal
1
0.8
0.6
0.4
0.2
0
-0.2
-0.4
-0.6
-0.8
-1
0

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SIGNAL PROCESSING

%program to find inverse of matrix

enter the elements one by one7

UNIT STEP SEQUENCE

%Addition of two sinusoidal sequences

Aiddition of two sin sequences

% Con volution OF two sequences

Convolution of Two sequences

COS WAVE FORM

COS WAVE FORM

SIN WAVE FORM

tan WAVE FORM

cot WAVE FORM

% TRiangular Pulse Wave Form

%swept Frequency Cosine Waveform

SWept Frequency cosine

% To Plot the Frequency Response of the First order System

frquency response of first order systemh(n)=0. nu(n)

%To plot the frequency response of the system

% TRIANGULAR PULSE WAVE FORM

% RECTANGULAR PULSE WAVEFORM

3) % PERIODIC SINC WAVE FORM

%SWEPT FREQUENCY COSINE WAVEFORM

SWept Frequency cosine

%SQUARE WAVE FORM

Square wave form

PROGRAM TO GENERATE A SAW TOOTH WAVEFORM

%UNIT STEP SEQUENCE

Unit step sequence

%DESCREATE TIME SIGNAL

Enter the Sampling Rate8

%FINDING REAL AND IMAGINARY PARTS OF COMPLEX NUMBER

real part of signal

FUNCTION TO CALCULATE CONVOLUTION OF TWO SEQUENCES.

% length of first input sequence.

first Input signal

Second Input signal

% FUNCTION TO CALUCLATE THE OUTPUT A SEQUENCE USING

OUTPUT OF THE HAMMING WINDOW

High pass Filter

%FUNCTION TO CALCULATE THE IMPULSE RESPONSE OF BLACKMAN

OUTPUT OF THE HANNING WINDOW

%CALCULATION OF POWER SPECTRAL DENSITY (PSD)

%length of the input sequence

%CALUCLATE THE AUTO CORRELATION OF A SEQUENCE

%original input signal

%Magnitude spectrum of psd

%phase spectrum of psd

OUT PUT OF POWER SPECTRAL DENSITY

% IMPULSE RESPONSE OF THE SYSTEM

impulse response of system

%FUNCTION TO CALCULATE THE DFT OF A GIVEN SEQUENCE

MAGNITUDE RESPONSE OF PSD

low pass filter

high pass filter

RESPONSE OF A DIGITAL FILTER(FIR FILTER)

OUTPUT OF THE FIR FILTER RESPONSE

RESPONSE OF A DIGITAL FILTER(IIR FILTER)

b=[.0013 .0064 .0128 .0128 .0064 .0013];

% ksdensity -Compute density estimate using kernel-smoothing method

%CHEBYCHEV TYPE-1 LOW PASS FILTER

%CHEBYCHEV TYPE-1 HIGH PASS FILTER

magnitude of the system

%CHEBYCHEV TYPE-1 BAND PASS FILTER