Lecture 30

Analysis of Sinusoidal Oscillators

Objectives:

Present two ways of finding the characteristic equation (CEQ) of an amplifier

Give examples of determining the CEQs
Explain how to get the frequency and condition of oscillation from the CEQ
Discuss amplitude stabilization of sinusoidal oscillators

Characteristic Equation:
We have seen in the previous lecture that the poles of a given feedback amplifier decide
its stability. As you know, the poles of the feedback amplifier are the zeros of 1+A(s)(s).
Thus they can be obtained by solving: 1+A(s)(s) = 0.
This relationship is called the characteristic equation (CEQ).
There are basically two ways of finding CEQ:
(1) By finding the loop gain A(s)(s) using the method described in the previous lecture.
(2) By setting the input to zero. Then, the CEQ is found directly by eliminating all nodes
voltages or branch currents of the amplifier. Hence, nodal analysis or mesh analysis will
reduces to one equation which is the CEQ as it will later be clarified by examples.
The second method will lead to the CEQ irrespective of the type (negative or positive) of
feedback. However, you need to be careful with definitions when using the first
approach. Remember:
For negative feedback L(s) = -A(s)(s) = Vr/Vt, and for positive feedback L(s) = A(s)(s)
= Vr/Vt. Therefore, for all case the CEQ becomes 1-L(s) = 0
Example 1: The circuit shown in Fig. 1 uses and ideal amplifier with gain K. Find the
CEQ of the circuit by two methods. Then, study the stability of the circuit.

Fig. 1: Circuit of example 1.

Solution: First method: finding CEQ from the loop gain

(a) Set the input to zero.
(b) Break the loop at the input of the amplifier and apply the test voltage to the right of
the cut as shown in Fig. 2. This is the most suitable place for break since Zt is
infinity.

Fig. 2: Using the loop gain to find CEQ (change Vi to Vo add Vx over R)
Vr
since the closed loop amplifier employs positive feedback.
Vt
Then, KCL at Vx gives:

Remember that L( s ) =

Vx
V Vr
+ (Vx kVt ) sC + x
=0
R
R

Vx [ 2 + sCR ] ksCRVt Vr = 0""(1)

(1)

Next, you may write KCL at Vr or simply use voltage division rule (VDR)
1
1
Vr = sC Vx =
Vx
1
1
+
sCR
+R
sC
Vx = (1 + sCR ) Vr ""(2)
(2)
Now, substituting (2) in (1) yields:

( 2 + sCR )(1 + sCR )Vr Vr = ksCRVt

( 2 + 3sCR + s 2C 2 R 2 1)Vr = ksCRVt

 L( s ) =

Vr
ksCR
= 2 2 2
Vt s C R + 3sCR + 1

Finally, the CEQ is given by: 1 L ( s ) = 0

1

ksCR
=0
s C R 2 + 3sCR + 1
2

s 2C 2 R 2 + sCR [3 k ] + 1 = 0
Second method: finding CEQ directly:
First, set the input to zero as shown in Figure 3.

Fig. 3: Same circuit of Fig. 1 but with Vs=0. add v1 and v2

Second, write KCL equations at all possible nodes (i.e. in this example V2 and V1)
KCL at V2

(V V )
V2
+ (V2 kV1 ) sC + 2 1 = 0
R
R

V2 [ 2 + sCR ] + V1 [ ksCR 1] = 0""(1)

KCL at V1
V1sC +

V1 V2
=0
R

(1 + sCR ) V1 V2 = 0 V2 = (1 + sCR ) V1 ""(2)

 (1 + sCR )( 2 + sCR ) V1 + [ ksCR 1]V1 = 0

Oscillation V1 0

(1 + sCR )( 2 + sCR ) ksCR 1 = 0

2 + 3sCR + s 2C 2 R 2 ksCR 1 = 0

s 2C 2 R 2 + sCR [3 k ] + 1 = 0
which is same CEQ as that found by the first method.
The CEQ is a second order complex equation. To find the frequency and condition of
oscillations substitute s by j for physical frequencies as follows:
Real=0: 2C 2 R 2 + 1 = 0 .
This leads to frequency of oscillation given by n =
Imaginary=0: jCR ( 3 k ) = 0 3 k = 0 .

1
.
CR

This means that if k=3 (condition of oscillation), the circuit will generate sinusoidal
oscillation as the poles will be on the j axis.
However, for oscillation to start and sustain in practice, we need to compensate for nonidealities ignored in the analysis. Hence, one usually selects 3 k 0 (i.e. k is slightly
larger than 3.
Amplitude Stabilization
Amplitude stabilization or gain control is used to automatically control loop gain and
place poles exactly on j axis.
It is required because of:
1. If loop gain is too small, desired oscillation decays and if it is too large, waveform is
distorted.
2. Loop gain of oscillator changes due to power supply voltage, component value or
temperature changes.
3. As power is turn on, loop gain is larger than that required for oscillation. As oscillation
builds up, gain is reduced to minimum required to sustain oscillations.
A limiter circuit it is used widely for amplitude control of op amp oscillators is shown in
Fig. 4 (a). Its transfer characteristic (TC) is drawn in Fig. 4(b).

Fig. 4: A typical amplitude control circuit: (a) A popular limiter circuit. (b) Transfer
characteristic of the limiter circuit. (c) When Rf is removed, the limiter turns into a
comparator with the characteristic shown.

The operation of this circuit can be explained as follows:

1. If the input vI is small and positive and the output vO is also small. Then vA is positive
and vB is negative. Hence, both diodes are off and the output voltage will be simply:
vO = ( Rf / R1)vI . This equation represents the linear region of the TC. Then, vA and vB
can be found using superposition in terms of supply V and vO as
B

vA = V

R3
R2
+ vo
R 2 + R3
R 2 + R3

vB = V

R4
R5
+ vo
R 4 + R5
R 4 + R5

(1)

(2)

2. As vI increases, vO becomes more negative and vB goes more negative. This means that
D2 is more reversed biased (off). However, vA becomes less positive and D1 will
conduct when vA becomes -0.7V. The value of vO at which D1 conducts can be found
from equation (1).
B

R3
R2
+ vo
R2 + R3
R2 + R3
R3
R2 + R3
vO = V
0.7(
) = L
R2
R2
0.7 = V

This is the negative limiting level (L-) and the corresponding value of vI can be found
by dividing by the amplifier gain Rf/R1.
3. If vI increases, more current will flow into D1 but the voltage across the diode will
remain 0.7V and v A 0.7V . This keeps the current through R2 almost constant.
4. The additional diode current flows into R3. Thus, assuming the diode has conducting
resistance of rD (typical few tens of ohms), vO will be given by:
vO =

( R3 + rD ) & R f

vI
R1
To make the slop of TC small in this limiting region, small value of R3 must be
selected.
5. For negative vI, the TC can be found in similar way. In fact, D2 will have identical role
as that of D1 for positive input. Following identical procedure as above, the positive
limiting level is determined as follows:
L+ = V

R4
R 4 + R5
+ 0.7(
)
R5
R5

6. Note that increasing Rf result in higher gain in the linear region with out varying L+
and L-. Thus, a sharp limiter (known as a comparator) with TC shown in Fig. 4(c) is
obtained by removing Rf. Therefore, for positive and negative vI, vO L and vO L+ ,
respectively.
In the following lecture you will see how this limiter is incorporated in practical op amp
based oscillators.