Lecture #11

OUTLINE

The pn Junction Diode

-- Uses: Rectification, parts of transistors, light-emitting diodes
and lasers, solar cells, electrically variable capacitor (varactor
diode),
voltage reference (zener diode)
 Depletion region & junction capacitance
 I-V characteristic
 Circuit applications and analysis

Reference Reading

Hambley, Chapter 10.1 to 10.4

Howe and Sodini, Chapter 3.3-3.6
EE40 Summer 2006: Lecture 11

Instructor: Octavian Florescu

The pn Junction Diode

Schematic diagram
p-type
net acceptor
concentration NA

Circuit symbol
ID

n-type
net donor
concentration ND
cross-sectional area AD

Physical structure:
(an example)

+ VD

ID

metal
SiO2

SiO2

For simplicity, assume that

the doping profile changes
abruptly at the junction.

EE40 Summer 2006: Lecture 11

VD

p-type Si
n-type Si

metal
Instructor: Octavian Florescu

Depletion Region

When the junction is first formed, mobile carriers diffuse

across the junction (due to the concentration gradients)
 Holes diffuse from the p side to the n side,
leaving behind negatively charged immobile acceptor
ions
 Electrons diffuse from the n side to the p side,
leaving behind positively charged immobile donor ions
acceptor ions
p

donor ions

+
+
+
+
+

A region depleted of mobile carriers is formed at the junction.

The space charge due to immobile ions in the depletion region
establishes an electric field that opposes carrier diffusion.
EE40 Summer 2006: Lecture 11

Instructor: Octavian Florescu

Charge Density Distribution

Charge is stored in the depletion region.
acceptor ions
p

quasi-neutral p region

donor ions

+
+
+
+
+

depletion region

quasi-neutral n region

charge density (C/cm3)

distance

EE40 Summer 2006: Lecture 11

Instructor: Octavian Florescu

Doping

Typical doping densities:

1016~1019 cm-3
Atomic density for Si: 5 x
1022 atoms/cm3
1018 cm-3 is 1 in 50,000
 two

persons in entire
Berkeley wearing a green
hat

P-n junction effect is like

EE40 Summer 2006: Lecture 11

Instructor: Octavian Florescu

Electric Field and Built-In Potential 0

p

+
+
+
+
+

electric field (V/cm)

distance

No net current flows

across the junction
when the externally
applied voltage is 0 V.

0 =
potential (V)

kT N A N D

ln
2
q ni

kT
ln(10) = 60 mV for T = 300K
q

distance
built-in potential 0
EE40 Summer 2006: Lecture 11

Instructor: Octavian Florescu

Effect of Applied Voltage

p

VD

+
+
+
+
+

The quasi-neutral p and n regions have low resistivity,

whereas the depletion region has high resistivity. Thus,
when an external voltage VD is applied across the diode,
almost all of this voltage is dropped across the depletion
region. (Think of a voltage divider circuit.)
If VD > 0 (forward bias), the potential barrier to carrier
diffusion is reduced by the applied voltage.
If VD < 0 (reverse bias), the potential barrier to carrier
diffusion is increased by the applied voltage.

EE40 Summer 2006: Lecture 11

Instructor: Octavian Florescu

Forward Bias

As VD increases, the potential barrier to carrier

diffusion across the junction decreases*, and
current increases exponentially.

VD > 0

+
+
+
+
+

The carriers that diffuse across the

junction become minority carriers in
the quasi-neutral regions; they then
recombine with majority carriers,
dying out with distance.
ID (Amperes)

VD (Volts)

* Hence, the width of the depletion region decreases.

EE40 Summer 2006: Lecture 11

Instructor: Octavian Florescu

Reverse Bias

As |VD| increases, the potential barrier to carrier

diffusion across the junction increases*; thus, no
carriers diffuse across the junction.

VD < 0

+
+
+
+
+

A very small amount of reverse

current (ID < 0) does flow, due to
minority carriers diffusing from the
quasi-neutral regions into the depletion
region and drifting across the junction.
ID (Amperes)

VD (Volts)

* Hence, the width of the depletion region increases.

EE40 Summer 2006: Lecture 11

Instructor: Octavian Florescu

I-V Characteristic
Exponential diode equation:

I D = I S (e qVD / kT 1)
ID (A)

kT
= 0.026 Volts for T = 300K
q
VD (V)

IS is the diode saturation current

function of ni2, AD, NA, ND, length of quasi-neutral regions
typical range of values: 10-14 to 10-17 A/m2
Note that e0.6/0.026 = 1010 and e0.72/0.026 = 1012
 ID is in the mA range for VD in the range 0.6 to 0.7 V, typically.
EE40 Summer 2006: Lecture 11

Instructor: Octavian Florescu

10

Depletion Region Width Wj

The width of the depletion region is a function of the bias

voltage, and is dependent on NA and ND:

Wj =

NA + ND

N AND

2 Si
q

(0 VD )

If one side is much more heavily doped than the other

(which is commonly the case), then this can be simplified:

Wj

2 Si
(0 VD )
qN

Si = 10 12 F/cm

where N is the doping concentration on the more lightly doped side

EE40 Summer 2006: Lecture 11

Instructor: Octavian Florescu

11

Junction Capacitance
VD

+
+
+
+
+

charge density (C/cm3)

distance

The charge stored in the depletion region changes with

applied voltage. This is modeled as junction capacitance

Cj =
EE40 Summer 2006: Lecture 11

AD Si
Wj

Instructor: Octavian Florescu

12

Summary: pn-Junction Diode Electrostatics

A depletion region (in which n and p are each much

smaller than the net dopant concentration) is formed at
the junction between p- and n-type regions


A built-in potential barrier (voltage drop) exists across the

depletion region, opposing carrier diffusion (due to a
kT N A N D

concentration gradient) across the junction:

0 =
ln
q n2

At equilibrium (VD=0), no net current flows across the junction

Width of depletion region W

j

2 Si
(0 VD )
qN

decreases with increasing forward bias (p-type region biased at

higher potential than n-type region)
increases with increasing reverse bias (n-type region biased at
higher potential than p-type region)

Charge stored in depletion region  capacitance C j =

EE40 Summer 2006: Lecture 11

AD Si
Wj

Instructor: Octavian Florescu

13

Summary: pn-Junction Diode I-V

Under forward bias, the potential barrier is reduced, so

that carriers flow (by diffusion) across the junction



Current increases exponentially with increasing forward bias

The carriers become minority carriers once they cross the
junction; as they diffuse in the quasi-neutral regions, they
recombine with majority carriers (supplied by the metal contacts)
injection of minority carriers

Under reverse bias, the potential barrier is increased, so

that negligible carriers flow across the junction


If a minority carrier enters the depletion region (by thermal

generation or diffusion from the quasi-neutral regions), it will be
swept across the junction by the built-in electric field
ID (A)
collection of minority carriers  reverse current

VD (V)
EE40 Summer 2006: Lecture 11

Instructor: Octavian Florescu

14

pn-Junction Reverse Breakdown

As the reverse bias voltage increases, the peak electric

field in the depletion region increases. When the electric
field exceeds a critical value (Ecrit 2x105 V/cm), the
reverse current shows a dramatic increase:
reverse (leakage) current

ID (A)
forward current

breakdown voltage

VBD

EE40 Summer 2006: Lecture 11

VD (V)

Instructor: Octavian Florescu

15

Zener Diode
A Zener diode is designed to operate in the breakdown mode.
reverse (leakage) current

breakdown voltage

VBD

ID (A)
forward
current

VD (V)

Example:
t

R
+
vs(t)
VBD = 15V
EE40 Summer 2006: Lecture 11

+
integrated
vo(t) circuit

Instructor: Octavian Florescu

16

Circuit Analysis with a Nonlinear

Element
Since the pn junction is a nonlinear circuit element,
its presence complicates circuit analysis.
(Node and loop equations become transcendental.)
I
RTh
+
VTh

EE40 Summer 2006: Lecture 11

Instructor: Octavian Florescu

17

Load Line Analysis Method

1.
2.

Graph the I-V relationships for the non-linear

element and for the rest of the circuit
The operating point of the circuit is found from
the intersection of these two curves.
I

RTh I
+
VTh

VTh/RTh

operating point

V
V

VTh
The I-V characteristic of all of the circuit except
the non-linear element is called the load line
EE40 Summer 2006: Lecture 11

Instructor: Octavian Florescu

18

Ideal Diode Model of pn Diode

Circuit symbol
ID
+

I-V characteristic
ID (A)

VD

Switch model
ID
+
VD

forward bias
reverse bias

VD (V)

An ideal diode passes current only in one direction.

An ideal diode has the following properties:
when ID > 0, VD = 0

Diode behaves like a switch:

closed in forward bias mode
open in reverse bias mode

when VD < 0, ID = 0

EE40 Summer 2006: Lecture 11

Instructor: Octavian Florescu

19

Large-Signal Diode Model

Circuit symbol
ID
+

I-V characteristic

Switch model
ID
+

ID (A)

VD

forward bias
reverse bias

VD (V)

VDon

VD

VDon
For a Si pn diode, VDon 0.7 V

RULE 1: When ID > 0, VD = VDon

RULE 2: When VD < VDon, ID = 0

EE40 Summer 2006: Lecture 11

Diode behaves like a voltage

source in series with a switch:
closed in forward bias mode
open in reverse bias mode

Instructor: Octavian Florescu

20

How to Analyze Circuits with Diodes

A diode has only two states:
forward biased: ID > 0, VD = 0 V (or 0.7 V)
reverse biased: ID = 0, VD < 0 V (or 0.7 V)
Procedure:
1. Guess the state(s) of the diode(s)
2. Check to see if KCL and KVL are obeyed.
3. If KCL and KVL are not obeyed, refine your guess
4. Repeat steps 1-3 until KCL and KVL are obeyed.
Example:
vs(t)

+
vR(t)

EE40 Summer 2006: Lecture 11

If vs(t) > 0 V, diode is forward biased

(else KVL is disobeyed try it)
If vs(t) < 0 V, diode is reverse biased
(else KVL is disobeyed try it)
Instructor: Octavian Florescu

21

Application Example #1 (ideal diode model)

vs(t)
vs(t)

+
vR(t)

vs(t)

rectified version of
input waveform:

t
EE40 Summer 2006: Lecture 11

Instructor: Octavian Florescu

22

Application Example #2 (ideal diode model)

vs(t)

+
vR(t)

vs(t)

vR(t)

EE40 Summer 2006: Lecture 11

Instructor: Octavian Florescu

23