KSCE Journal of Civil Engineering (2014) 18(7):1996-2006

Copyright 2014 Korean Society of Civil Engineers

DOI 10.1007/s12205-014-0258-z

Geotechnical Engineering

pISSN 1226-7988, eISSN 1976-3808

www.springer.com/12205

TECHNICAL NOTE

Elastic Shear Modulus of Compressible Chicago Clay

Taesik Kim* and Richard J. Finno**
Received May 6, 2013/Revised September 25, 2013/Accepted November 19, 2013/Published Online June 20, 2014

Abstract
This paper summarizes the results and analyses of laboratory and field measurements of the elastic shear modulus of lightly
overconsolidated, compressible Chicago clays. These soils are glacially-derived, freshwater ice margin deposits. The laboratory
experiments were conducted on twelve high quality block samples obtained from three excavation sites in the Chicago area. The
specimens were consolidated to in situ stresses via a recompression technique, and the elastic shear modulus was synchronously
obtained from results of bender element tests during consolidation and subsequent creep. Seismic cone penetration and crosshole
seismic tests were performed in situ. The results show that the elastic shear moduli from the bender element tests after consolidation
and a sufficiently-long creep period are approximately the same as those obtained from the results of the in situ tests. The effects of
time on the elastic shear modulus are smaller than the effects caused by soil variability. Evaluation of the laboratory and field data
indicates that the elastic shear modulus of compressible Chicago clays can be estimated from the natural water content and mean
normal effective stress.
Keywords: elastic shear modulus, bender elements, block sample, experiments, chicago clay, crosshole test, seismic CPT

1. Introduction
The dynamically-measured shear modulus, G0, applicable to
very small strains (< 0.001%), believed to be elastic, has been
used to estimate the deformation of soils under dynamic loading
from earthquakes and machine foundations. The importance of
this parameter has been recognized for static loading conditions
since Burland (1989) reported that working strain levels in soils
around well-designed structures are smaller than previously
thought. The value of G0 is the maximum shear stiffness which
applies to very small strains within a complete stress-strain
relation. To evaluate this parameter in the laboratory, bender
elements (Shirley and Hampton, 1978) have become a common
addition to triaxial instrumentation in research laboratories.
Results of bender element tests provide values of elastic shear
modulus derived from wave propagation theory.
A number of researchers identified the main factors influencing
G0 of a soil. Hardin and Black (1966, 1968) suggested that G0
can be expressed as
0

ni

nj

Gij = Sij f ( e ) ( i' ) ( j' ) ( OCR )

0

(1)

where Gij is elastic shear modulus in the i-j plane, Sij are material
constants, e is the void ratio, f(e) is a void ratio function, i' is
the normal effective stress in the i direction, OCR is the
overconsolidated ratio, and ni, nj and k are the exponents for i' ,

j' and OCR, respectively.

Equation (1) implies that soil is initially anisotropic. Previous
work (Jamiolkowski et al., 1995; Jovicic et al., 1998; Lings et
al., 2000; Pennington et al., 1997) indicates that the initial anisotropy ratio varies from 1.2 to 2.5 for clays, with higher values
reported for more heavily overconsolidated clays.
While numerous experimental results have supported the form
of Eq. (1), simplification and alternative expressions also have
been suggested. These simplifications are of significant practical
importance when one attempts to define G0 for natural clay
deposits with their inherent variability. A number of researchers
(e.g., Ishihara, 1982; Tatsuoka and Shibuya, 1992; Shibuya et al.,
1997; Santagata et al., 2005) ignored the effect of OCR on the
elastic shear modulus. Others proposed many different types of
void ratio functions (e.g., Marcurson and Wahls, 1972; Shibata
and Soelarno, 1978; Kokusho et al., 1982; Shibuya and Tanaka,
1996; Shibuya et al., 1997). Some of the empirical equations that
consider G0 as a function of stress and void ratio also include a
factor that describes the effects of duration of creep on the
magnitude of G0. Richart (1961) reported that the elastic shear
modulus of Vicksburg loess increased from 38 MPa to 46 MPa
when a constant confining stress of 63 kPa was applied for
approximately 20 hours. Based on resonant column test results
of various natural clays, Anderson and Woods (1976) found that
the duration of creep caused the elastic shear modulus of

*Member, Assistant Professor, School of Urban and Civil Engineering, Hongik Univeristy, Seoul 121-791, Korea (Corresponding Author, E-mail:
taesik.kim@hongik.ac.kr)
**Professor, Dept. of Civil and Environmental Engineering, Northwestern Univeristy, IL 60208-3109, USA (E-mail: r-finno@northwestern.edu)
1996

Elastic Shear Modulus of Compressible Chicago Clay

laboratory specimens to increase in an approximately linear

manner with the logarithm of time. They expressed this relation in
terms of a normalized shear modulus increase with time, NG, as:
IG
G
= --------------------------------N G = -------Gref Gref log ( t/tref )

(2)

where IG is elastic shear modulus increase with time at a constant

effective confining stress, tref is a reference time. Gref is the elastic
shear modulus at tref , t is a generic time and G is the change in
elastic shear modulus from tref to t. Values of NG have been
reported to vary between 0.07 and 0.2 for Taranto (Lo Presti et
al., 1996), Detroit, Chevy, Eaton (Anderson and Woods, 1976),
Kaolin (Rammah et al., 2004) and Boston (Santagata and Kang,
2007) clays.
The objective of this paper is to develop an expression for G0
that can be applied to compressible Chicago clays specifically,
and similar geologic materials generally, and which depends on
parameters from routine site investigations. Jung et al. (2007),
Cho and Finno (2010) and Finno and Kim (2012) suggested
relations between G0 and the effective stress and void ratio of
compressible Chicago clays that are applicable to one site. Each
relation reported by these authors was based on bender element
results of specimens cut from block samples from a single
excavation site. To generalize these site-specific relations to
compressible Chicago glacial clays in general, data from four
sites located as much as 20 km apart are considered in the data
base studied herein. Laboratory specimens were carved from
twelve hand-cut block samples obtained from three of these
sites; results of the bender element tests on these specimens have
been reported by Jung et al. (2007), Cho and Finno (2010) and
Finno and Kim (2012). In situ seismic Cone Penetration Test
(sCPT) and/or special crosshole tests were performed at three of
the sites. Both the effects of time on the elastic shear modulus
and the initial anisotropy ratio were evaluated from the results of
the experiments. Initial anisotropy ratios evaluated from both
laboratory and in situ tests indicated the clays are slightly
anisotropic and that laboratory test results conducted on high
quality samples using sets of bender elements are equivalent to
the in situ test results. A relationship for G0 based on water
content and effective stress is shown to predict values of G0 that
compare favorably with the results from in situ tests.

2. Laboratory Experimental Program

2.1 Testing Material
The location of the four sites from which the data were

Fig. 1. Locations of the Test Sites

collected is shown in Fig. 1. The sites were as much as 20 km

apart, and three of the sites are within the downtown section of
Chicago. The number and type of in situ tests and the number of
specimens evaluated in the laboratory are summarized in Table 1.
Where applicable, references are made in the table to publications
in which the results have been presented.
The stratigraphies and profiles of natural water content, Wn,
and undrained shear strength, Su, at the sites are shown in Fig. 2.
Twelve high quality block samples of compressible Chicago
glacial clays were obtained during excavation for the Robert H.
Lurie Center (Lurie) and the Block 37 projects in Chicago and
the Ford Motor Company Engineering Design Center (Ford) in
Evanston, IL. Three hand-cut block samples were obtained from
elevation -6.1 m Chicago City Datum (CCD) at the Lurie site
and -4.6 m Evanston City Datum (ECD) at the Ford site. From
the Block 37 site, three hand-cut block samples were obtained
from both elevations -5.5 m and -12 m CCD. All block samples
were cubes approximately 0.3 m to a side. Each sample was
hand-cut, removed then wrapped with plastic film to minimize
moisture loss while they were transported to the geotechnical
laboratory at Northwestern University in Evanston, IL. There,
cheesecloth was wrapped around each block prior to waxing to
help seal it. After waxing, the block samples were stored in a
cool room kept at 4oC. The details of the block sampling
technique were described by Kim (2011).
Much of the subsoil in the Chicago area is derived from the

Table 1. Summary of Performed in Situ Tests and Number of Laboratory Specimens

Site
Lurie
Ford
Block 37
OMPW

Field tests
none
4 sCPT probes cross-hole seismic
2 sCPT probes
Cross-hole seismic

Vol. 18, No. 7 / November 2014

Laboratory specimens
4
8
7 shallow and 6 deep
No block samples
1997

Reference - bender elements

Jung et al. (2007)
Cho and Finno (2010)
Finno and Kim (2012)
none

Taesik Kim and Richard J. Finno

Fig. 3. Schematic Diagram of Triaxial Device with Bender Elements

Fig. 2. Stratigraphies with wn and Su Profiles at the Test Sites:

(a) Ford, (b) Block 37, (c) Lurie, (d) OMPW

Wadsworth till of the Wedron formation. This till mainly was

deposited in relatively distinct sheets during local advances and
retreats during Wisconsin stage of the Pleistocene epoch. The
repetitive processes of advance and retreat of glaciers were
marked by terminal moraines and left readily identifiable strata.
The shallow block samples from the Block 37 and the Lurie sites
were obtained from the Blodgett layer, a supraglacial till, and the

other block samples were obtained from the Deerfield layer, a

waterlain paratill characterized by its uniform water contents.
These two strata are ice margin deposits that locally are
categorized as compressible clay. The details of the geology of
these lightly overconsolidated clays were described by Chung
and Finno (1992) and Peck and Reed (1954).
Index property and oedometer test results are summarized in
Table 2. Based on index properties, the soil is classified as CL by
the USCS. The mineralogy of the clays consists of approximately 55% illite, 20% dolomite, 8% chlorite, 7% variscite,
5% calcite and 5% kaolinite (Chung and Finno,1992).
2.2 Laboratory Procedures
Triaxial testing was performed using a CKC e/p Cyclic Loader,
an automated, feedback-controlled triaxial testing system (Chan,
1981). As shown in Fig. 3, one radial and two axial on-specimen
LVDTs, an internal load cell, and bender elements were
employed to quantify the soil response. The internal instruments

Table 2. Summary of Index Properties and Consolidation Characteristics

Tests

Lurie
27.4~29.9
Natural water content, %
(28.9, 0.9)
36.1~38.4
Liquid limit, %
(37.5, 0.7)
18.2~19.4
Plasticiy index
(18.9, 0.5)
2.70~2.73
Specific gravity
(2.72, 0.01)
Vertical effective stress, kPa
134
1.3~1.4
OCR
(1.4, 0.04)
0.22~0.29
Compression Index, Cc
(0.26, 0.04)
0.034~0.040
Recompression Index, Cr
(0.036, 0.003)
Note: Numbers in parenthesis (Average value, Standard deviation)

Ford
24.3~25.7
(24.9, 0.3)
29.5~32
(30, 1.1)
14.2~16.4
(15.1, 0.8)
2.71~2.72
(2.72, 0.06)
136
1.65~1.7
(1.7, 0.04)
0.19~0.21
(0.2, 0.01)
0.023~0.030
(0.028, 0.002)

1998

Block 37 Shallow
24.4~27.5
(26.0, 1.4)
33.7~34.5
(34.3, 0.3)
15.5~16.2
(15.8, 0.3)
2.71~2.72
(2.72, 0.01)
143
1.2~1.4
(1.3, 0.08)
0.19~0.22
(0.21, 0.01)
0.032~0.038
(0.034, 0.002)

Block 37 Deep
23.1~25.0
(24.4, 0.4)
33.2~35.1
(34.9, 0.9)
16.2~17.0
(16.7, 0.4)
2.71~2.72
(2.72, 0.01)
204
1.1~1.2
(1.1, 0.06)
0.17~0.19
(0.18, 0.01)
0.032~0.033
(0.034, 0.002)

KSCE Journal of Civil Engineering

Elastic Shear Modulus of Compressible Chicago Clay

can measure accurately shear strains as low as 0.002%, volumetric

strains as low as 0.004% and axial stress as low as 0.3 kPa.
Three pairs of bender elements were used to evaluate elastic
shear moduli. The bender elements and supporting electronics
were manufactured by GDS Instruments. Bender elements in the
top cap and bottom pedestal measure the shear wave velocity,
Vvh, a horizontally-polarized, vertically propagating wave. Two
pairs of horizontal bender elements mounted on the side of a
specimen measure the velocities Vhv and Vhh, horizontally
propagating waves that are polarized vertically and horizontally,
respectively. Details of the bender element system and data
reduction techniques are presented by Kim (2011).
Triaxial specimens were hand-trimmed from the blocks to
nominal diameters of 72 mm and heights of 152 mm. After
mounting the internal measurements on a specimen, the triaxial
cell was assembled and the residual effective stress was measured
by a porewater pressure measurement technique (Ladd and
Lambe 1964). Each specimen was saturated at this stress to
prevent swelling and possible structural degradation of the
specimen (Cho et al., 2007), except the specimens cut from the
Lurie block samples. Note that mean normal effective stress of
10 kPa was applied to all Lurie specimens during saturation, with
cell and back pressures of 200 kPa and 190 kPa, respectively.
These tests were conducted before it was realized that the
effective stress at the saturation phase affects the sample quality
(Cho et al., 2007).
The recompression method (Bjerrum, 1973; Jamiolkowski et
al., 1985) was used to consolidate specimens to the in situ
vertical effective stresses. The consolidation was performed
under stress control while maintaining globally-measured radial
strains equal to zero. The vertical stresses were increased at a rate
of 1.25 kPa per hour to minimize excess pore water pressures,
resulting in axial strain rates that varied from 0.003 to 0.008%
per hour. Thereafter, a drained creep phase was imposed for
typically two days to evaluate the time effects on elastic shear
modulus at a constant effective stress. The average ratios of
vertical to horizontal effective stress after K0 recompression of
Lurie, Ford and Block 37 block samples were 0.51, 0.58 and
0.65, respectively. These ratios are similar to the K0 values
reported by Finno and Chung (1992).
2.3 Sample Quality Assessment
Clayton and Heymann (1999) and Matthews et al. (2000)
reported that laboratory-measured elastic shear moduli of high
quality clay samples agreed well with in situ test results, although
the quality criteria used for that purpose were not provided in
detail. In this paper, sample quality is assessed by induced
volumetric strains (Andresen and Kolstad, 1979) and the normalized
void ratio change, e/e0, during recompression to the in situ
effective vertical stress condition (Lunne et al., 1997). These
criteria are listed in Table 3. As shown in the table, the criteria
proposed by Lunne et al. (1997) are divided into two categories
based upon OCR. This approach better evaluates sample quality
than that proposed by Andresen and Kolstad (1979) because it
Vol. 18, No. 7 / November 2014

Table 3. Sample Quality Criteria Proposed by Andresen and Kolstad (1979) and Lunne et al. (1997)
Andresen and Kolstad (1979)
Sample quality

v (%)

Very good

<1

Good
Fair
Poor
Very poor

1-2
2-4
4-8
>8

Lunne et al. (1997)

e/e0
e/e0
Sample quality
(OCR 1-2) (OCR 2-4)
Very good to
<0.04
<0.03
excellent
Good to fair
0.04-0.07 0.03-0.05
Poor
0.07-0.14 0.05-0.10
Very poor
>0.14
>0.10

Fig. 4. Sample Quality Assessment

accounts explicitly for the compressibility of a soil. For example,

because the recompression index, Cr, for heavily overconsolidated
clays is smaller than that for lightly overconsolidated clays,
strains induced during recompression of heavily overconsolidated
clays are smaller than those induced in lightly overconsolidated
clays for the same disturbance.
In Fig. 4, the normalized void ratio change during recompression are plotted against the ratio of the residual effective
stress to the in situ vertical effective stress, r / vc, another
measure of sample quality (Ladd and Lambe, 1964; Baldi and
Hight, 1988). Data indicate that as the value of r / vc
increased, the normalized void ratio change decreased. With the
exception of the Lurie specimens, at a given value of r / vc ,
the Block 37 deep samples have larger e/e0 values than the
others. This trend is a result of the higher in situ stresses of these
specimens compared to the Block 37 shallow and the Ford
samples. The released stresses of these deeper specimens during
the block sampling activities and the stress change within the
specimen during the recompression were greater than the
shallower specimens. Accordingly, the induced volumetric strains
and void ratio changes during recompression of the Block 37
deep blocks were larger than the others.
As shown in Fig. 4, the specimens cut from the Ford and Block
37 block samples are assessed as Very good to Excellent
following the criteria proposed by Lunne et al. (1997), but four
specimens from the Lurie block samples are assessed as Good
to Fair and one specimen from these block samples is assessed
as Poor. As previously noted, a mean normal effective stress of
10 kPa was applied to all Lurie specimens during saturation,
rather than the measured value of residual effective stress. This

1999

Taesik Kim and Richard J. Finno

seemingly minor detail affected the sample quality. Those

specimens from the Lurie site assessed as Good to Fair and
Poor were excluded from the elastic shear modulus evaluation
presented herein.
2.4 Bender Element Tests
Bender element tests were performed during all phases of the
experiments using a single sinusoidal input signal to obtain
propagation velocities Vvh, Vhh and Vhv. Bender elements were
excited at frequencies of 2 kHz for vertical and 10 kHz for
horizontal wave propagations. Ten signals typically were stacked
to minimize the electrical noise. With these frequencies, a clear
wave arrival was obtained and the number of wavelengths
between the transmitter and receiver was at least 4, thereby
reducing the near field effect (Viggiani and Atkinson, 1995). The
dynamically- measured shear moduli, Gvh, Ghh, and Ghv were
calculated from the measured propagation velocities as:
2

Gvh = Vvh ; Ghh = Vhh ; Ghv = Vhv

(3)

where is the bulk density of the soil.

Because the dynamically-measured shear modulus is a
function of the square of the shear wave velocity, the travel time
is a key parameter that must be determined reliably. Herein,
bender tip-to-bender tip distance was used as the wave travel
distance. Travel times were computed using the cross correlation
(Viggiani and Atkinson, 1995), peak-to-peak and phase difference
approaches (Kaarsberg, 1975). The details of each method are
described by Kim (2011). When applied to the laboratory data
set presented herein, the variation among the methods is smaller
than 3 m/s. In light of the non-uniform and heterogenetic nature
of the compressible clays at the three sites, the variation arising
from the method of travel time determination is insignificant
when comparing these results with in situ test results.
Note that due to the limited experimental resources at the
time, the specimens cut from the Lurie block samples were not
tested with three sets of bender elements. For these specimens,
only values of Gvh were evaluated with a vertical bender
element set.

one meter intervals. The test induces vertically-propagating,

horizontally-polarized waves, Vvh, that correspond to the responses of
the vertical bender elements. A pseudo-interval shear wave velocity
was determined by interval readings (Campanella, 1994).
Special crosshole seismic tests which measure both Vhv and Vhh
were performed at the Ford and OMPW excavation sites.
Typically, crosshole testing is conducted in soil to obtain shear
wave velocity with depth from horizontally-propagating, verticallypolarized wave, Vhv. The typical crosshole test has been well
documented (e.g., Stokoe and Woods, 1972; ASTM Testing
Standard D4428 Standard Test Methods for Crosshole Seismic
Testing).
Hiltunen et al. (2006) described a method to obtain shear wave
velocity profiles with depth from horizontally-propagating and
horizontally-polarized shear waves, Vhh. For this purpose, it is
desirable for the source to be rich in horizontal shear waves
while simultaneously generating little compression wave energy.
To produce identifiable shear waves, the source must transmit
energy to the ground primarily by directionalized distortion. The
horizontal force required to create the Vhh wave is produced by a
series of four coupled solenoids. The source is connected to a
high-pressure air cylinder that provides a supply of air required
to fire the solenoids. Upon triggering, the solenoids fire
horizontally at the same time producing the necessary propulsion
to generate horizontal shear wave energy. Geophone packers are
used as receivers. The test was conducted by using three
boreholes advanced to equal depths 1 m apart. The source was
advanced down one of the boreholes, while receivers were
placed in the remaining boreholes and transferred body wave
arrivals to a time recorder.

4. Empirical Equation for Elastic Shear Modulus

The values of Gvh are employed to develop an empirical
equation for the elastic shear modulus because this is the most
common component measured and only vertical bender element
tests were conducted on the specimens cut from the Lurie block
samples. Furthermore, the initial anisotropy ratios of the clays
are close to 1, as will be discussed later.

3. Field Tests
To evaluate the in situ elastic shear modulus, seismic CPT tests
were conducted at four and two locations at the Ford and the
Block 37 excavation project sites, respectively. These tests were
performed with a CPT probe equipped with a velocity geophone
to acquire shear wave velocity data. The seismic CPT system
consisted of three geophones, a wave source with a timing
trigger, and a signal conditioning and data acquisition system.
After the probe was pushed to a test depth, the data acquisition
system was initialized, and a hammer with a timing trigger was
used to induce a wave at the ground surface. The geophone
recorded the signal at the test depth as a function of time. Several
hammer blows were used for each test and the resulting signals
were stacked to minimize the noise. This procedure was repeated at
2000

Fig. 5. Results of Bender Element Tests during Consolidation

KSCE Journal of Civil Engineering

Elastic Shear Modulus of Compressible Chicago Clay

4.1 Bender Element Test Results during Consolidation

Figure 5 shows bender element results, Gvh, during recompression of the block specimens. Because the in situ void ratios
of the Lurie block samples were greater than the others, bender
element results from these samples were smaller than the Ford
and the Block 37 block samples at a given stress. However, the
bender element results of the block samples from the Ford and
Block 37 excavation sites were essentially the same because they
have similar in situ void ratios.
The elastic shear modulus can be related to void ratio and
effective stress as:
Gcon
p n
--------- = Af ( e ) -----
pa
pa

where Gcon is the elastic shear modulus during consolidation; pa is

atmospheric pressure; p' is mean normal effective stress; f(e) is a
void ratio function; A is a material constant; and n is a parameter.
As shown in Eq. (1), there are other relations that use stress terms
other than mean normal effective stress. However, Finno and
Kim (2012) showed that the shear modulus of Chicago clays
measured in bender element tests for different consolidation
paths was adequately described by p' in the form of Eq. (4).
Based on the results from the bender element tests conducted on
the Lurie, Ford and Block 37 block samples, the parameters of
Eq. (4) were obtained by a least-square regression as:
Gcon
p
---------- = 540 ----- pa
pa

Fig. 6. Determination of the Void Ratio Function, f(e)

(4)

Gcon pa 0.55
--------- ---= Af ( e )
pa p

Figure 6 compares the values of Af(e) based on various reported

void ratio functions with the measured values of Af(e). The value
of A and its Coefficient of Variation (COV) for each void ratio
function are summarized in Table 4. The void ratio function
proposed by Hardin and Black (1968) is selected because its
COV is the smallest of the relations considered. The final form
of this relation is:
2
2
Gcon
( 2.91 2.72wn ) p 0.55
2.91 e ) p 0.55
--------- = 225 (----------------------- ---- ---= 225 ------------------------------------

pa
1+e
pa
1 + 2.72wn pa

0.55

Gcon
p 0.55
---------- = 660 ----- pa
pa

<Lurie specimens>

(7)

(5)

(8)

Note that void ratio is expressed in terms of water content, wn,

<Ford and Block 37 specimens> (6)

Note that Af(e) is taken as a constant. The measured data and

the lines computed based on Eqs. (5) and (6) are compared in
Fig. 5. Although the void ratio changes during consolidation are
not considered explicitly in Eqs. (5) and (6), the computed lines
for each block sample agree well with the measured data because
of the small change of void ratio in the overconsolidated state
during reconsolidation. To describe the elastic shear moduli of
each block sample by a single equation and to take into account
void ratio variation, a void ratio function can be found by
plotting Af(e) of each block sample against void ratio. These
Af(e) values can be computed as:

Fig. 7. Computed Values from Eq.(8)

Table 4. Various Published Expression of Void Ratio Function

Reference

f(e)

Shibuya and Tanaka (1996)

Kokusho et al. (1982)
Shibata and Soelarno (1978)
Shibuya et al. (1997)
Marcuson and Wahls (1972)
Hardin and Richart (1963)
Hardin and Black (1966)

e1.5
(7.32-e)2/(1+e)
0.67-e/(1+e)
(1+e)2.4
(4.4-e)2/(1+e)
(2.17-e)2/(1+e)
(2.91-e)2/(1+e)

Vol. 18, No. 7 / November 2014

Lurie
409.9
23.9
2519.7
2327.5
78.6
551.1
226.3

Average value of A
Ford
Block 37 Shallow
383.5
378.6
25.3
25.6
2531.9
2535.5
2336.5
2336.5
81.1
81.5
515.2
510.6
224.8
227.1
2001

Block 37 Deep
365.9
25.1
2474.2
2277.7
79.8
494.8
221.5

Coefficient of
Variation of A
0.0417
0.0259
0.0097
0.0105
0.0142
0.0398
0.0095

Taesik Kim and Richard J. Finno

assuming that clays are fully saturated and have a specific

gravity of 2.72 (Finno and Chung, 1992). Fig. 7 compares the
lines from Eqs. (5) and (6) with the points computed for each e
and p' pair based on Eq. (8). As shown in the figure, the points
from Eq. (8) agree well with the lines from Eqs. (5) and (6),
which indicates the void ratio function included Eq. (8)
adequately describes the bender element test results from each
block sample.
4.2 Bender Element Test Results during Creep
Since the effect of creep duration on the magnitude of elastic
shear modulus first was reported by Richart (1961), there have
been number of additional studies to evaluate this rate effect in
more detail (e.g., Marcuson and Wahls, 1972; Anderson and
Woods, 1976; Anderson and Stokoe, 1978). Anderson and
Woods (1976) found the elastic shear modulus increased linearly
with the logarithm of time based on results of resonant column
tests conducted on various natural clays. They also stated that if
the in situ shear wave velocities were to be predicted on the basis
of laboratory tests, it would be essential to include an appropriate
increase in velocity due to time effects. Herein, the time effects
on elastic shear modulus are quantified for high quality block
samples of compressible Chicago clays.
Figures 8(a) and (b) show typical elastic shear moduli evaluated
from the bender element test results during consolidation and
creep. As shown in Fig. 8(b), the elastic shear modulus increased
during creep. To quantify the increase, the normalized slope NG
is evaluated and expressed as:
Gcreep
N G = ---------------------------------Gcon log ( t/teop )

where teop is a reference time when primary consolidation has

been completed, Gcon is the elastic shear modulus determined at
the reference time, and corresponds to that based on Eq. (8), and
t is a generic time. Note that while NG generally is assumed linear
with log time, this is not strictly true over the time increments
used in this study.
The plots of Gvh vs. log time in Figs. 8(a) and (b) shows a
tendency for incremental values of NG to decrease at larger
times. Figs. 8(c) and (d) show IG and NG evaluated from each
block sample. Although the values of IG increase with p', the
values of NG are insensitive to the stress levels used herein and
their average is regarded as a constant value of 0.078. As noted
before, NG ranges between 0.07 and 0.2 for a number of clays,
the plasticity indices of which varies between 10 to 20, close to
that of compressible Chicago clay. Thus, the value of 0.078 for
the block samples is close to the lower bound of clays with PI
values similar to compressible Chicago clays.
4.3 Initial Anisotropy
Figure 9 shows the anisotropy ratios evaluated during
recompression of the block samples from the results of bender
element tests. The experiments employed three pairs of bender
elements and were conducted on the specimens from the Ford
and the Block 37 excavation sites. Fig. 10 shows the initial
anisotropy ratio evaluated from the results of the crosshole
seismic tests. The mean anisotropy ratios and standard deviations
are summarized in Table 5. The mean values vary between 1.1
and 1.2, suggesting that the degree of initial anisotropy is small
for these clays. As shown in both Figs. 9 and 10, the values of

(9)

Fig. 8. Effect of Duration of Creep on Elastic Shear Modulus:

(a) Typical Bender Element Results during Consolidation
and Creep, (b) Increment in Elastic Shear Modulus with
Time at a Constant Confining Stress, (c) Coefficient of
Dynamic Elastic Modulus Increase with Time, IG, (d) Normalized IG by Gcon
2002

Fig. 9. Anisotropy Ratio Measured by Bender Element Tests

KSCE Journal of Civil Engineering

Elastic Shear Modulus of Compressible Chicago Clay

combining Eqs. (4) and (9), one finds:

p p
Gfield = Gcon + Gcreep = ( 1 + NG log ( t/teop ) )Af( e) --- pa a
n

Fig. 10. Anisotropy Ratio Profile Measured by Crosshole Tests

Table 5. Anisotropy Ratios based on Bender Element and Crosshole Tests
Laboratory
(Bender Elements)
Site
Ford Block 37 Shallow Block 37 Deep
Average 1.18
1.19
1.10
Std. Dev. 0.12
0.06
0.07

Field Test
(Crosshole)
Ford OMPW
1.21
1.10
0.19
0.08

Ghh are larger than the other two components and the Gvh and Ghv
values are similar, indicating a general pattern of a crossanisotropic soil that experienced one-dimensional deposition
(Pennington et al., 1997; Jovicic and Coop, 1998). For the Ford
excavation site, both laboratory and crosshole tests were
conducted, and the anisotropy ratios based on each are similar.
These results suggest that the test conducted with three sets of
bender elements on specimens from high quality block samples
is a reliable method to evaluate in situ initial anisotropy.
The values of Ghh/Gvh have been reported for a number of clays
including Panigaglia and Pisa (Jamiolkowski et al., 1995), Gault
(Pennington et al., 1997; Lings et al., 2000), London (Jovicic
and Coop, 1998). The values range from 1.2 to 2.5 with higher
values generally reported for more heavily overconsolidated
clays. The ratio from the block samples reported herein is
slightly lower than the lower bound of the reported for normally
to lightly overconsolidated clays in other locations. In contrast to
these data from literature, which were based on tests on marine
and estuarine clays, the Chicago compressible clays are fresh
water glacial deposits. Presumably, the fresh water environment
during deposition and the clays mineralogy resulted in a more
isotropic structure than the marine and estuarine clays for which
initial anisotropy ratios have been reported.
4.4 Comparison of Empirical Equation with Field Results
To compare the computed values of G0 with the in situ test
results, Anderson and Woods (1976) and Anderson and Stokoe
(1978) suggested that elastic shear moduli evaluated from both
consolidation and creep phases must be considered together. By
Vol. 18, No. 7 / November 2014

(10)

To compute the increment of in situ elastic shear modulus

attributable to creep, the time since the start of most recent
significant change in stress history, t, and the time to end-ofprimary consolidation as a result of that stress change at the site,
teop, must be evaluated. Prior to construction activities and
excavation at the Lurie, OMPW and Ford project sites, the last
major loading of the soils was a compression loading. At the sites
in Chicago, this was caused by the placement of approximately 4 m
of urban fill approximately 140 years ago after the great Chicago
fire. The stresses in the soils of the Block 37 site also were
affected by filling, but the soils experienced unloading caused by
emptying the block for redevelopment in the 1990s. The last
loading at the Block 37 site prior to sampling was filling the
empty basement space of the demolished buildings 17 years
before construction began. At the Ford Center, 3 m of fill was
placed 65 years ago.
The time to end-of-primary consolidation under one-dimensional conditions can be computed as:
2

Tv H
teop = ---------cv

(11)

where Tv is the time factor, cv is the coefficient of consolidation

and H is a length of drainage path. The compressible Chicago
clay layers, Blodgett and Deerfield are part of a sequence of
clays that are found between urban fill and fractured dolomite or
granular tills above the rock. The drainage condition was
assumed to be two-way drainage. Typically urban fill begins at 0
CCD, so the drainage path is half the thickness of the clay layers
(Fig. 2). Herein, 95% consolidation is regarded as completion of
primary consolidation. Wallace and Otto (1964) and Terzaghi
and Peck (1967) reported that the typical values of coefficient of
consolidation for compressible Chicago clays is 2.7 m2/yr, so this
value is used for the estimation. With these relations and
parameters, Eq. (10) can be expressed as:
cv t ( 2.91 2.72wn ) p 0.55
Gfield = 225pa 1 + NG log ---------- -------------------------------------- ---
T H2 1 + 2.72wn pa
v
2

(12)

Figure 11 shows the comparison between the in situ tests

conducted at the Ford and Block 37 projects and the trends based
on the computed shear moduli by Eqs. (8) and (12). These
computed trends in Fig. 11 are based on water content and p'
from each site. Due to the variation in in situ water content, the
trends are plotted with an average value and an error bar of one
standard deviation. The size of error bar in the Blodgett stratum
is greater than that in the Deerfield, because water content in the
Deerfield stratum is more uniform than that in the Blodgett. The
p' depends on K0, which is about the same in the lightly
overconsolidated Blodgett and Deerfield strata (Finno and
Chung, 1992).
Whereas Eq. (8) does not take into account the creep effects on

2003

Taesik Kim and Richard J. Finno

Fig. 11. Elastic Shear Modulus Profile Comparison between the

Computed Values and in Situ Test Results: (a) Ford; (b)
Block 37

Fig. 12. Elastic Shear Modulus Profile Comparison between the

Computed Values and in Situ Test Results at the OMPW

the elastic shear modulus, Eq. (12) does explicitly consider this
effect. As shown in the figure, the difference between the
computed profiles by Eq. (8) and (12) is negligible because the
creep duration in compressible clay strata in Chicago area is
short, arising from the relatively recent stress history change.
Figure 12 shows the comparison between G0 based on the
empirical relation in Eq. 8 and the Ghv from the results of the in
situ tests. Recall that there were no block samples obtained from
the OMPW excavation site. Although Eq. (8) was derived from
the results of laboratory samples from the Lurie, Ford and Block
37 sites, it is able to replicate the elastic shear modulus profile
evaluated from the crosshole test when the in situ water content
and p' at the OMPW are used in Eq. (8). Note that the crosshole
test results from the OMPW excavation site are Ghv, unlike the
Gvh values from sCPT results. However, as shown in Figs. 9 and

10, compressible Chicago clays are cross-anisotropic with a

small degree of initial anisotropy, so the difference should be
negligible, especially in light of the natural variations in these
glacial deposits.
There are a number of assumptions made when computing the
elastic shear modulus increment during creep in Eq. (12),
including the time factor, coefficient of consolidation and length
of drainage path. These assumptions may introduce errors in
computed values of G0 as a result of attendant inaccuracies.
However, at the excavation sites where urban fill has been
recently placed or any deposits have been affected by recent
construction, the creep effects on elastic shear modulus would be
insignificant as shown in Figs. 11 and 12. Therefore, from a
practical point of view, Eq. (8) may be equally applicable,
because the difference between the two equations arising from
time effects is smaller than the scatter based on soil variability.

5. Discussions
The empirical equation, Eq. (8), is derived based on Gvh
results. Practically speaking, this equation can be used to predict
in situ values of Gvh, such as those measured by a sCPT.
Considering the cross-anisotropic nature of compressible
Chicago clay, the values computed with the empirical equation
are similar to those found in a crosshole test, Ghv. This type of
relationship can be of practical importance when one is
characterizing a site for seismicity, when the average shear wave
velocity is the input to its characterization, as suggested in the
International Building Code (2009). For the Chicago area, Eq. (8)
may be used for this purpose. It also may be applicable to similar
clays in the Great Lakes area, or other clays of similar geologic
origin, subject to verification.
The theoretical framework used herein to evaluate the time
effect on the elastic shear modulus is the one proposed by
Anderson and Woods (1976) in which the elastic shear modulus
is assumed to increase linearly with the logarithm of time. For
areas in Chicago where the urban fill was not placed, if we
consider 8000 years as the geologic time since deposition and the
value of NG reported herein, the estimated elastic shear modulus
from results of tests on high quality block specimens would be
30% greater than the values from the in situ tests. This is not
likely to be the case. As shown in Fig. 8(b), the measured bender
element test results during creep do not linearly increase with
logarithm of time, but the changes become smaller at larger
times, implying the value of NG is not constant over larger
periods of time. This is consistent with the observation made by
Santagata and Kang (2007).

6. Conclusions
Based on the results of triaxial tests on specimens cut from
block samples and in situ tests described herein, the following
conclusions can be drawn concerning the elastic shear modulus
of compressible Chicago clays.

2004

KSCE Journal of Civil Engineering

Elastic Shear Modulus of Compressible Chicago Clay

After consolidation and a sufficient period of creep, the elastic

shear moduli, Gvh, from the bender element tests conducted on
Very good to Excellent specimens are approximately same as
the values based on both sCPT and cross-hole seismic results.
Given the natural water content and mean normal effective
stress, the elastic shear modulus can be estimated from Eq. (8)
presented herein.
The anisotropy ratios, Ghh/Ghv from bender element tests
performed after reconsolidation to the in situ effective stress
conditions and subsequent creep are approximately the same as
those measured with crosshole seismic tests. Freshwater,
compressible Chicago glacial clays exhibit a slight degree of
initial anisotropy, near the lower end of the range reported for
estuarine and marine clays.

Acknowledgements
Professor Dennis Hiltunen of the University of Florida and
Professor Paul Mayne and his colleagues from Georgia Institute
of Technology conducted the crosshole and sCPT tests, respectively.
Their efforts are greatly appreciated. Financial support for this
work was provided by National Science Foundation grant
CMMI-0928184 and the Infrastructure Technology Institute of
Northwestern University. The support of Dr. Richard Fragaszy,
program director at NSF, is greatly appreciated.

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