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Hierarchy
Division of work or specialization
Unity of command
Authority and responsibility
Centralization and Decentralization
Departmentation
unity of Command
In other words we keenly watch others around us then develop a mental picture of a behaviour
and its result and finally we try the behaviour ourselves.
IV. Cognitive learning: So far in the theories discussed that the learner plays merely a passive
role. Cognitive learning is built around what happens within the individual while learning and it
investigates the motives, feelings, attitudes, memory and cognition of the learner. In cognitive
learning analysis and interpretation of data helps us to learn new patterns of thoughts and
relationships.
V. Programmed learning: Ever since you entered school and then college you have undergone a
very structured learning process in which you played a very active role. This learning also
involves successive steps and immediate feedback.
Self-Esteem refers to the degree to which an individual likes or dislikes himself. The way a
person interacts with others largely depends on how he perceives himself. A person who is
confident and happy about himself will always interact with others happily. People with high
self-esteem are self-assertive, courageous, seek responsibility, and are optimistic and very openminded. Whereas, people having low self-esteem are introverts, lack confidence, and are
submissive and pessimistic in nature.
Machiavellianism Niccolo Machiavelli proposed a brutal strategy in the early 1500 for seizing
and holding political power. Such people are known as high mach people. According to Niccolo
if a person wants something, he can get it at the cost of exploiting and manipulating others.
Introversion and Extroversion these terms are associated with an individuals interpersonal
orientation. Extroverts as discussed are expressive, sociable, out-going, and friendly in nature,
whereas Introverts are shy, submissive, quiet, timid and retiring. The career patterns of both
introverts and extroverts are totally different. Extroverts are suitable for jobs where frequent
interaction with others is required such as in sales, marketing, Human Resource. On the other
hand, introverts can perform the tasks well that are analytical in nature and require less
interaction with others, such as that of a finance officer, research analyst, quality controller etc.
Leader influences others to make every effort for group goals, whereas managing
includes planning, organizing, staffing, directing and controlling. Leadership is one
aspect of it.
The authority of the leader depends upon the followers who give consent to be
influenced. A manager has formal authority from the top management.
Styles of Leadership: Leadership style refers to the behaviour of the leader. It is a pattern which
a leader is reflecting. There are three different types of leadership styles: Autocratic, Participative
and Laissez-faire.
a) Autocratic Style: Autocratic leadership style is also known as authoritarian style. An
autocratic leader believes in strict commands. He passes orders and relies on negative influences.
He gives orders which must be obeyed by his subordinates. He determines policies of the group
without consulting them. He passes orders to the group without revealing their future plans. In
this style, the leader remains aloof from the group. He gives criticism and praise individually.
Autocratic style
b) Participative style: Participative style is also known as democratic style. In this style the
decision making power is dispersed among the group members. Policies are worked out in group
discussions and with the acceptance of the group. Praises or blames are a group factor. Decisions
are not unilateral as they arise out of group consensus.
Participative style
c) Laissez- faire style: This leadership style is also known as free-rein leadership. The leader
acts as a supervisor. Generally self managed teams have this kind of leadership. It is also called
permissive leadership. A free rein leader does not lead but leaves the group entirely to itself. We
can understand it from the following figure.
Laissez-faire style
Free rein leaders avoid power. In this leadership style the group establishes its own goal and
works out its problems on its own. The leader leaves all responsibilities to his subordinates.
There is a high level of interdependence among members of the team and each member is
motivated enough to contribute towards the group goals.
Members of the team are able to examine errors without having personal attacks.
A team produces positive synergy due to the coordinated efforts extended by team
members.
The members of the team share complementary skills. For example, imagine a hospital
where there are only doctors with no nurses, lab technicians, attenders or clerks to assist.
In this case, the doctors cannot manage the hospital.
In a team, the rewards and punishments are given to all the members of the team. If only
the captain is appreciated or rewarded on winning a match, then it will definitely
demoralize the other team members.
The leader of the group holds good people skills and adopts a team approach. Greg Chappell, the
former coach of the Indian cricket team was criticized as very autocratic and dominant and thus,
failed to be a good coach for the team.
Types of Teams
There are four types of teams commonly found in organizations.
(a) Problem solving teams These teams comprise 5-12 employees from the same department.
The team members are informed about the departmental problems such as problems related to
cost, quality, absenteeism of workers, dissatisfaction among employees, delayed delivery of
finished goods, inadequate working conditions, poor supervision, etc.
(b) Self-managing teams- These comprise 5 to 20 multiskilled members. The team works on its
own once the team members receive targets to be achieved. The team members nominate their
own leader, lay down plans, formulate strategies, allocate the resources, hold meetings to control
group proceedings, give and take feedback, check out deviations, take their own decisions,
choose members for their team, etc.
(c) Cross-functional teams These teams consist of employees from the same hierarchical
levels, but from different sections/units/ departments of the organization. These teams are created
for specific purposes, and once the target is achieved, the team is disbanded.
(d) Virtual teams- The members of virtual teams are geographically dispersed across the
organization/nation or world. The team members are linked together through electronic devices
or internet. There is absence of face-to-face interaction between the team members. Virtual teams
are helpful where the group members cannot meet each other, and thus, speed up the pace of
activity.